1

Overview of and Trends in Wind Turbine

Generator Systems
Henk Polinder, Member, IEEE

system (illustrated in Fig. 3) is also known as the Danish

Abstract—This paper gives an overview of wind turbine concept.
generator systems and describes some trends. Around 1998,
many wind turbine manufacturers changed from constant speed
systems to variable speed with doubly-fed induction generators.
Since around 2005, they have come with a number of alternative
generators systems, mainly to comply with grid requirements as
grid-fault ride-through. Most alternatives have brushless
generators and full converters. One of them is the direct-drive
system. If the availability of permanent magnet materials can be
guaranteed, permanent-magnet generators are considered as the
most suitable direct-drive generators. The increasing importance
of offshore wind energy results in an increasing attention for
reliability and availability.
Index Terms—wind energy, wind turbines, generator systems,
direct-drive generators, permanent-magnet generators, doubly-
fed induction generators.

I. INTRODUCTION Fig. 1. Development of power and size of wind turbines. Source:

Bundesverband WindEnergie e.V.

T HE goal of this paper is to give an overview of the

developments in wind turbine generator systems.
Although there are also smaller wind turbines, this paper
focuses on large wind turbines. Fig. 1 illustrates how the wind
turbine size has grown over the past decades. The wind energy
market has grown with roughly 30% per year [1].
This paper starts with describing the four most commonly
used generator systems in wind turbines. Next, it discusses
some of the changing requirements that influence the
development of wind turbines. Subsequently, some of the
most important developments in wind turbine generator
systems are discussed. Finally, some conclusions are drawn.

II. CURRENTLY USED GENERATOR SYSTEMS

The four most commonly used generator systems applied in
wind turbines are depicted in fig. 2 and discussed below [2]-
[5]. Table I lists the top 10 wind turbine manufacturers from
2009 with the power levels of their products [6]-[16] and the
generator systems they use.
A. Constant speed squirrel cage induction generator (CS)
Until around 1998, most wind turbine manufacturers built
constant speed wind turbines with power levels below 1.5
MW. They used a three-stage gearbox and a standard (mostly
1500 rpm) squirrel-cage induction generator directly
connected to the 50 or 60 Hz utility grid. This generator

H. Polinder is with the Electrical Power Processing Group and is part of

DUWIND at Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD Delft, Fig. 2. The four commonly used generator systems.
The Netherlands (e-mail: h.polinder@tudelft.nl)

978-1-4577-1002-5/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE

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TABLE I B. Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)

TOP 10 WIND TURBINE MANUFACTURERS OF 2009, CURRENTLY USED
GENERATOR CONCEPTS AND POWER RANGES [6]- [16]. Between 1996 and 2000, most wind turbine manufacturers
Manufacturer Concept Rotor diameter Power range changed to variable speed wind turbines for power levels from
Vestas (Denmark) DFIG 52 – 90 m 850 kW – 3 MW roughly 1.5 MW, mainly to enable a more flexible match with
GFC PM 112m 3 MW
requirements considering audible noise, mechanical loads,
General Electric (US) DFIG 70.5 – 82.5 m 1.5 MW
GFC PM 100 m 2.5 MW power quality, and energy yield. They used a multi-stage
DD PM 110 m 4.0 MW gearbox, a relatively low-cost standard doubly-fed induction
Sinovel (China) DFIG 60 – 113 m 1.5 – 3 MW generator (DFIG), and a power electronic converter feeding
Enercon (Germany) DD EE 33 – 126 m 300 kW – 7.5 MW
the rotor winding with a power rating of approximately 25%
Goldwind (China) DD PM 70 – 100 m 1.5 MW – 2.5 MW
Gamesa (Spain) DFIG 52 – 97 m 850 kW – 2 MW of the rated power of the turbine. The stator is directly
GFC PM 128 m 4.5 MW connected to the utility grid. A speed range from roughly 60%
Dongfang (China) DFIG 1 – 2.5 MW to 110 % of the rated speed is sufficient for a good energy
Suzlon (India) CS 52 – 88 m 600 kW – 2.1 MW
yield, that is achieved by using the variable speed capability to
Siemens (Germany) GFC IG 82 – 107 m 2.3 – 3.6 MW
DD PM 101 m 3 MW keep the tip speed ratio at the value resulting in optimal
Repower (Germany) DFIG 82 – 126 m 2 – 6 MW energy capture. At wind speeds above the rated wind speed,
CS constant speed with gearbox and induction generator, possibly with the power is reduced by pitching the blades.
extended slip or two speeds
DFIG variable speed with gearbox, doubly-fed induction generator and C. Brushless generator with gear and full converter (GFC)
partly rated converter
DD EE variable speed direct-drive synchronous generator with electrical Since around 2005, several large manufacturers have
excitation and full converter developed variable speed wind turbines with a gearbox, a
DD PM variable speed direct-drive permanent-magnet generator and full brushless generator and a converter for the full rated power
converter
GFC PM variable speed with gearbox, permanent-magnet generator and full
for the grid connection, as can be seen in Table I. Probably,
converter they use this system mainly to obtain better grid-fault ride-
GFC IG variable speed with gearbox, induction generator and full converter through characteristics than the DFIG and to avoid the brushes
of the DFIG. Several manufacturers use permanent-magnet
(PM) generators in this system, but squirrel cage induction
generators are also possible. At wind speeds above the rated
wind speed, the power is again reduced by pitching the blades.
D. Direct-drive generator (DD)
Since 1991, there have also been wind turbine
manufacturers using gearless generator systems with direct-
drive generators as illustrated in Fig. 4, mainly to reduce
failures in gearboxes and to lower maintenance problems. A
power electronic converter for the full rated power is
necessary for the grid connection. The low-speed (10-25 rpm)
high-torque generators and the fully-rated converters for these
wind turbines are rather large, heavy and expensive. At wind
Fig. 3: Sketch of a nacelle with gearbox, in this case of a constant speed NEG
Micon wind turbine. Source: Bundesverband WindEnergie e.V.
speeds above the rated wind speed, the power is again reduced
by pitching the blades.
Above the rated wind speed, the power is mostly limited
using the classic stall principle: if the wind speed increases
above the rated wind speed, the power coefficient inherently
reduces, so that the power produced by the turbine remains
approximately equal to the rated power. Sometimes active
stall is used: negative pitch angles are used to limit the power.
There are a few variants of this system:
1 A pole changing generator has two stator windings with
different numbers of pole pairs so that the turbine can operate
at two constant speeds in order to increase energy yield and
reduce audible noise.
2 The semi-variable speed wind turbine has a wound rotor
induction generator with an electronically variable rotor
resistance. This enables larger speed variations and reduces
mechanical loads and power quality problems. This system is Fig. 4. Sketch of a gearless nacelle, in this case of an Enercon E-66 direct-
drive wind turbine. Source: Bundesverband WindEnergie e.V.
sometimes mentioned as a separate generator systems [2].
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For a long time, Enercon has been the only large successful rating of the converter and the available power from the wind.
wind turbine manufacturer producing direct-drive generators. Systems with a converter also produce time harmonics.
However, as can be seen in Table I, also other large wind For grid faults, there are three issues: fault detection, fault
turbine manufacturers have started producing direct drive ride-through and recovery after a fault.
wind turbines. When the contribution of wind turbines to the electricity
generation was limited, wind turbines could simply be
III. CHANGING REQUIREMENTS FOR GENERATOR SYSTEMS disconnected in case of a grid fault and reconnected after the
fault had been cleared. However, nowadays wind turbines
A. Qualitative comparison of generator systems must stay connected in case of a disturbance to enable large-
Table II gives an overview of the strengths and weaknesses scale application of wind energy without compromising power
of the four different generator systems [3], [4]. This section system stability. They must – similar to conventional power
discusses the top part of the list, the next section deals with plants – supply active and reactive power for frequency and
the power quality and grid fault issues of this list. voltage recovery immediately after the fault has been cleared
Until recently, constant speed systems were considered to [17]-[19].
have the lowest cost, size and weight, while direct-drive Therefore, grid operators require voltage-dip ride-through
systems were mostly considered as expensive, large and capability, especially in places where wind turbines provide
heavy. However, Siemens and Enercon show that modern for a significant part of the total power supply. Examples are
optimized direct drive turbines have a weight comparable to Denmark [20] and parts of Northern Germany [21], [22]. The
geared systems. requirements concerning immunity to voltage dips as
Generator systems with a full converter make it possible to prescribed by E.On Netz are shown in Fig. 5. Only when the
use the same wind turbine both in a 50 and a 60 Hz grid, grid voltage drops below the curve (in duration or voltage
which is not possible for wind turbines with generators that level), the turbine is allowed to disconnect. When the voltage
are directly connected to the grid. is in the shaded area the turbine should also supply reactive
The noise of wind turbines is mainly audible at low wind power to the grid in order to support grid restoration.
speeds, and it is determined by the tip speed of the blades. Grid faults are normally detected from large fault currents.
Variable speed systems enable reducing this tip speed. Constant speed generator systems produce large fault currents,
The energy yield of a wind turbine is influenced by but generator systems with a converter cannot produce a
different factors. Variable speed makes it possible to operate current larger than rated. Therefore, detecting faults may
at a maximum power coefficient. A direct-drive system avoids become problematic in power systems with many generator
the losses in a gearbox, which are mainly important in part systems with a converter.
load. A high-speed generator is slightly more efficient than a Constant speed generator systems can stay connected to the
low speed direct-drive generator. A generator system without grid during a grid fault and produce high fault currents
a converter also avoids the losses in a converter, and a partial because the stator currents can be much larger than rated for a
converter has lower losses than a full converter. short time. However, control of reactive power for voltage
Also reliability and maintenance are influenced by many recovery after a fault is not possible because the system is
factors. Doubly-fed induction generators and electrical excited completely passive; actually these systems draw a lot of
direct-drive generators have brushes that need to be replaced reactive power instead of controlling it.
regularly. Gearboxes fail more often than desired, and if they
fail, it is not so easy to repair the turbine. Variable speed and
pitch control enable load reductions, while constant speed stall TABLE II
COMPARISON OF FOUR WIND TURBINE GENERATOR CONCEPTS,
controlled wind turbines may have significant overshoots in
+: STRENGTH, - WEAKNESS.
power and load. Simple systems with few components are CS DFIG GFC DD
generally more reliable than complex systems. Cost, size and weight + +/- +/- -
Suitability for 50 and 60 Hz grid - - + +
B. Changing grid requirements Audible noise from blades - + + +
Wind turbines are mostly connected to a 50 or 60 Hz grid. Energy yield Variable speed - + + +
Gearbox - - - +
This is also true for offshore wind turbines, although there is a Generator + + + -
lot of discussion about DC connection of offshore wind farms. Converter + +/- - -
Power quality requirements include aspects as flicker, Reliability and Brushes + - + - (PM: +)
contribution to voltage and frequency control in the grid and maintenance Gearbox - - - +
Mechanical loads - + + +
harmonics. Constant speed systems have problems with Complexity + - - -
flicker because there is a dip in the power every time a blade Power quality ‘Flicker’ - + + +
passes the tower. This is not the case in variable speed V&f control possible - + + +
Harmonics + - - -
systems because this dip in the aerodynamic power is buffered Grid faults Fault currents + - - -
by the energy stored in the rotating mass of the rotor. Fault ride-through + +/- + +
Generator systems with a full converter can contribute to Restoring voltage - +/- + +
voltage and frequency control within the limits imposed by the

Generator systems with a full converter can stay connected
to the grid during a fault because the converter has full control
over the currents. However, they cannot produce fault currents
that are larger than the rated current of the converter. They can
supply active and reactive power for frequency and voltage
recovery immediately after the fault has been cleared.
A standard DFIG with a partly rated power electronic
converter feeding the rotor windings cannot meet the grid
fault-ride through requirements. During grid faults, the fault
currents in would be so large that the power electronics would
fail. Additional equipment is necessary to make DFIG suitable
to meet the grid fault ride through requirements. Solutions
include advanced control [23] and crowbar short-circuiting the
rotor windings [24]-[27] sometimes via additional resistances
[22]. The contribution of the DFIG to fault currents and to
voltage recovery after the fault depends on the exact solution.
Fig. 5. Voltage dip that wind turbines should be able to handle without
disconnection (E.ON Netz).
C. Requirements for offshore wind farms
Fig. 6 depicts an offshore wind farm. There are two
important reasons for building offshore wind farms. Firstly, in
densely populated regions, there is hardly space for wind
energy onshore, while these countries want to keep their
environmental obligations (Kyoto). Secondly, offshore wind
speeds are much higher than on shore, so that higher energy
yields can be expected.
The cost of offshore wind farms is much higher than the
cost of on shore because
- installation is much more expensive,
- an offshore electrical infrastructure has to be built to
connect the wind turbines to the grid,
- the turbines must be protected against the more
aggressive offshore environment, and
- the cost of maintenance is much higher because of the
more difficult access to the wind turbines.
Generator systems of an offshore wind turbines have to be
reliable, robust and nearly maintenance free. The humid and
salty environment is rather aggressive both for insulation
materials that deteriorate and for steel and (if applicable)
permanent magnets that corrode. Therefore, special corrosion
protection and the use of totally closed nacelles with
conditioned air should be considered.
4
Fig. 6. Wind farm Horns Rev. Copyright: DONG Energy A/S.
IV. DEVELOPMENTS IN GENERATOR SYSTEMS
A. Increasing power levels at variable speed.
Fig. 1 illustrates how wind turbines have grown over the
past decades. Apparently, the cost of energy decreases when
the size of the wind turbine increases. However, it can be
expected that this growth will stop at a certain moment. The
power and the energy yield increase proportional to the square
of the rotor diameter. However, the forces and the torques
increase more, and therefore also the cost of the required
materials increases more. It can be expected that the optimal
size of offshore wind turbines is different from the optimal
size for onshore because of the large differences in installation
cost.
Until around 1998, most wind turbines were of the constant
speed type. However, table I shows that currently most large
wind turbine manufacturers have changed to variable speed.
As can be seen in Table II, variable speed wind turbines have
a number of advantages, but the most important reason for this
change is the changing grid requirements, which cannot be
met with constant speed systems.
Another general observation is that four manufacturers
from table I are from Asia. Until around 2005, wind energy
was mainly European business, but that has changed.
B. Large variety of alternatives
Table I shows that wind turbine manufacturers use a
variety of generator systems. This is remarkable, because it
used to be different: until 12 years ago, wind turbine
manufacturers mainly produced constant speed wind turbines,
and 5 years ago wind turbine manufacturers mainly used
DFIG systems. Nowadays, manufacturers are looking for
alternatives for the DFIG mainly to get rid of the brushes and
to improve the grid-fault ride-through capabilities.
It is possible to change to brushless doubly-fed induction
generators [28][29]. However, the manufacturers mentioned in
Table I come with other generator systems with a full
converter. An important difference between the situation now
and the situation 10 years ago is that the cost of power
electronics has decreased significantly. This may be a reason
why this solution is feasible now, while 10 years ago, the
DFIG was more suitable.

Compared to the DFIG, the brushless generator system
with gearbox and full converter has the following advantages:
- the grid-fault ride through capability is less complex,
- the control can be simpler,
- the generator system can be brushless,
- the system can be used both in 50 Hz and 60 Hz grids,
and the following disadvantages
- a larger, more expensive converter (100% of rated
power instead of 25%) is required, and
- the losses in the converter are higher because all power
is processed by the converter.
When we look at manufacturers who are not in the top 10
of 2009, the variety is even larger.
The Multibrid system illustrated in Fig. 6 is a kind of
compromise between geared systems and direct drive systems
[5], [30]. This turbine has a single-stage planetary gearbox
that increases the speed by a factor of roughly 10 and a
permanent-magnet generator. The single-stage gearbox
increases the speed so much that the generator is much smaller
and cheaper than a direct-drive generator. Furthermore, the
single-stage gearbox runs at a low speed, which is sometimes
claimed to be more reliable than the high speed stages. A
variant of this system is a system with a two-stage gearbox
and a medium speed generator, as used by Gamesa [12].
Clipper introduced a system with a gearbox and four
permanent magnet generators and four converters, which
gives a form of redundancy.
Dewind developed a system with a gearbox, a hydraulic
torque converter and a synchronous machine directly
connected to the grid. In this case, the torque converter
converts the variable speed into constant speed, so that no
power electronics is necessary for the grid connection. If such
a torque converter is reliable and efficient, this seems to be a
nice solution.
Fig. 7. Sketch of the Multibrid® system. Source: Winwind.
5
C. Direct drive
Direct-drive generators are not standard off-the-shelf
machines. Therefore, it is worthwhile to study the use of
alternative generator topologies which offer the possibilities
of further weight and cost reduction.
Most of the current direct-drive generators are electrically-
excited synchronous generators, as illustrated in fig. 8
(Enercon). Some manufacturers work on permanent-magnet
synchronous generators, as illustrated in fig. 9 (Goldwind,
General Electric, Siemens). Enercon started producing direct-
drive generators in the early nineties, when permanent
magnets were far too expensive and the availability of
magnets was limited. While the magnet prices dropped by
roughly a factor of 10 between 1995 and 2005, Enercon stuck
to the successful, well-known and proven solution. Currently,
there is a lot of uncertainty about magnet availability and
magnet prices and this attitude appears to make sense.
An advantage of electrical excitation over permanent-
magnet excitation is that the excitation can be reduced. This
makes it possible to reduce iron losses at low wind speeds to
decrease the cut-in wind speed and to keep the voltage at the
rated value at high wind speeds, so that it is not necessary to
overrate the converter to enable higher speeds than rated.
However, as early as in 1996, it was stated in that permanent-
magnet generators were more attractive than electrically-
excited synchronous generators [31], [32]. Since then, the
permanent-magnet generator has become more attractive due
to the decreasing prices of permanent magnets and power
electronic converters. According to [5], the advantages of
permanent-magnet excitation over electrical excitation are
lower losses, lower weight and lower cost.
Axial flux generators as used by Jeumont may be smaller,
but also heavier and more expensive than radial flux machines
[33], [33]. This is because in axial flux machines the force
density is not optimal for all radii, and because the radius
where the force works is not maximum everywhere.
Permanent-magnet generators with an outer rotor may be
smaller than permanent-magnet generators with an inner rotor
because the air-gap diameter can be larger for the same outer
diameter. Nevertheless, manufacturers sometimes choose for
an inner rotor when they use air cooling, because this
improves the possibilities for natural cooling of the stator.
When liquid cooling systems are used, this argument is no
longer valid.
A further cost reduction of permanent magnet generators
may be possible by using fractional pitch windings as
illustrated in fig. 10 [35]. It can be expected that this generator
type is cheaper because it has a lower number of simpler coils
around one tooth instead of a higher number of distributed
coils with complicated end windings. The disadvantage is that
this type of machine has more eddy-current losses in the
magnets and the back iron due to sub harmonics.
One of the issues related to cost of direct-drive turbines is
transportation, especially for on shore turbines. Several
manufacturers limit the outer diameter of the generator to
roughly 4 m, so that it can be transported by regular means.

The 7.5 MW Enercon generator with a diameter in the order
of 12 m is made in segments that can be transported
separately.
Transverse flux permanent magnet machines (TFPM) are
known as machines with a very high torque density and an
extremely simple winding [36]. Therefore, they are an
interesting generator type for direct-drive wind turbines [33],
[37] and groups at different universities have investigated the
application of this type of machine [33], [41]-[44]. However,
TFPM machines have a number of significant disadvantages,
such as a three-dimensional flux path, a low power factor and
a decreasing power density for increasing air gaps. They
probably are the reason that commercial application in large
wind turbines has not yet happened.
Fig. 8. Sketch of a cross-section of two poles of an electrically excited
synchronous machine.
Fig. 9. Sketch of a cross-section of four poles of a permanent magnet
synchronous machine with full pitch winding.
Fig. 10. Sketch of a cross-section of eight poles of a permanent-magnet
synchronous machine with a cheap fractional pitch winding.
D. Permanent magnet machines and availability
During the past five years, an increasing number of
manufacturers starting using permanent-magnet generators,
both in direct drive and in geared systems. Compared to
machines with electrical excitation, permanent magnet
machines can be more compact and more efficient.
Furthermore, magnet prices dropped by roughly a factor of 10
between 1995 and 2005, so that permanent magnet machines
may also become cheaper than electrical excited machines [5].
However, in 2010, the availability of permanent magnet
materials has become an issue [45]. About 95% of the rare
earth materials are mined in China, and China seems to take
protective measures. The demand is increasing very rapidly,
6
mainly because these permanent magnets are also used in
electric and hybrid vehicles. As a result, magnet prices are
increasing.
On the long term, the availability does not seem to be an
issue because there are more places on earth where rare earth
materials are found [45]. However, for the moment, there is a
lot of uncertainty. Therefore, it is good to know that the wind
industry does not depend on permanent-magnet machines, as
can be seen from the large variation in available generator
systems for wind turbines (Table I).
E. Reliability
As indicated earlier, wind turbines and wind farms are more
often installed offshore and at other remote locations where
access for maintenance is difficult and time consuming. If an
offshore wind turbine stops because of a failure, it may take
weeks before it can be repaired. As a consequence, the
availability of wind turbines is significantly lower than
desired. Therefore, manufacturers pay a lot of attention to
increasing the availability and to reducing the maintenance
cost of offshore wind farms.
A useful first step towards improving the availability of
wind turbines is by obtaining insight into the probability of
failures. Tavner, Van Bussel, Hahn and others [46]-[53].
published failure rates of wind turbines and their
subassemblies and obtained results as shown in fig. 11. The
databases they used mainly contain information about onshore
wind turbines. There are some difficulties with this statistical
information. For some subassemblies, it is not so clear what is
meant. However, some conclusions can be drawn.
The reported average failure rate of wind turbines varies
from about 1 to 4 failures per year. The added failure rates of
the electrical subassemblies (electrical system, electrical
control and generator) vary from about 0.25 to 1 failures per
year. This is far too high for wind farms at remote locations
that should get not more than one regular maintenance visit
per year. The failure rate of gearboxes is rather low and lower
than the failure rate of gearboxes in industrial applications.
However, the MTTR (hours lost per failure) for gearbox
failures is high. Apparently, it is difficult to repair gearboxes.
A detailed comparison of the reliability of direct-drive and
geared wind turbines [50] did not prove one to be more
reliable than the other.
Fig. 11. Failure rates and down times of wind turbine subassemblies for
different wind turbine populations [53].

After investigating the failures, measures have to be taken
to improve the availability of wind turbines. These methods
include [54]:
1. Fault prevention or avoidance. Systems should be
designed to provide a high reliability. Components or
technologies with a low reliability should be avoided.
2. Fault removal. A system that needs to have a high
availability should be tested after it has bee built, so that
possible manufacturing faults (infant mortality) can be
detected and removed before the system is taken into
normal operation.
3. Fault forecasting and fault evasion. During operation of a
system with a high availability, diagnostics can be used to
forecast faults. If components deteriorate and the
diagnostic system detects this, these components can be
replaced during normal maintenance before the system
fails (condition based maintenance). It might even be
possible to change the system operation in such a way
that the deteriorating component is less heavily loaded so
that it takes longer before the deteriorating component
fails (condition based control). This is particularly
important for faults for which the function deteriorates
slowly, such as in the case of bearing faults.
4. Fault tolerance. The system can be designed in such a
way that it is fault tolerant, so that if a component fails,
the system can continue operation. This is particularly
important for faults that occur very fast or
instantaneously, such as in the case of many power
electronics faults.
5. Fault repair, reparability and maintainability. The
system has to be designed in such a way that it can easily
be repaired when a component fails. However, a good
design is not enough; to do this in a successful way, a
good service organisation is also indispensable.
V. SUMMARY
This paper gives an overview of electrical conversion
systems for wind turbines and describes some trends. Around
1998, many wind turbine manufacturers changed from
constant speed to variable speed with doubly-fed induction
generators. Since around 2005, they have come with a number
of alternative generators systems, mainly to comply with grid
requirements as grid-fault ride-through. Most alternatives
have brushless generators and full converters. One of them is
the direct-drive system. If the availability of permanent
magnet materials can be guaranteed, permanent-magnet
generators are considered as the most suitable direct-drive
generators. The increasing importance of offshore wind
energy results in an increasing attention for reliability and
availability.
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a fault-ride-through grid-code-compliant DFIG wind turbine”, IEEE
Trans. on Energy Conversion, 2010 (vol. 25), pp. 750-759.
[27] L.G. Meegahapola, T. Littler, D. Flynn, “Decoupled-DFIG fault ride-
through strategy for enhanced stability performance during grid faults”,
IEEE Trans. on sustainable energy, 2010 (vol. 1), pp. 152-162.
[28] E. de Vries, “Excited about power quality - Generator innovations at
Ingeteam”, Renewable Energy World, March-April 2008, pp. 85-90.
[29] P.C. Robert, R.A. McMahon, P.J. Tavner, J.M. Maciejowski, T.J. Flack,
“Equivalent circuit for the brushless doubly fed machine (BDFM)
including parameter estimation and experimental verification”, IEEE
Proceedings – Electric Power Applications, 2005, pp. 933-942.
[30] H. Li, Z. Chen, H. Polinder, “Optimization of Multibrid Permanent
Magnet Wind Generator Systems”, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion,
2009 (vol. 24), pp. 82-92.
[31] S. Jöckel, “Gearless wind energy converters with permanent magnet
generators – and option for the future?” Proc. European Union Wind
Energy Conference, 1996, pp. 414-417.
[32] A. Grauers, “Design of direct-driven permanent-magnet generators for
wind turbines”, PhD-thesis, Göteburg, Sweden, 1996.
[33] M. R. Dubois, H. Polinder, and J. A. Ferreira, “Comparison between
Axial and Radial-Flux Permanent Magnet Generators for Direct-Drive
Wind Turbines”, Proc. European Wind Energy Conference and
Exhibition, Copenhagen, July 2-6, 2001, pp. 1112-1115.

[34] M. Dubois, “Optimized permanent magnet generator topologies for
direct drive wind turbines”, PhD-thesis Delft University of Technology,
Delft, The Netherlands, 2004.
[35] H. Polinder, M.J. Hoeijmakers, M. Scuotto, ‘Eddy-current losses in the
solid back-iron of permanent-magnet machines with different
concentrated fractional pitch windings’. In Proc. IEEE International
Electrical Machines and Drives Conference (IEMDC07), Antalya, 3-5
May 2007, pp. 652-657.
[36] H. Weh, H. May, “Achievable force densities for permanent magnet
machines in new configurations”, Proc. International Conference on
Electrical Machines, Munich, 1986, pp. 1107-1111.
[37] M.R. Dubois, H. Polinder, J.A. Ferreira, “Comparison of generator
topologies for direct-drive wind turbines”, Proc. Nordic Countries
Power and Industrial Electronics Conference (NORPIE), Aalborg, 2000,
pp. 22-26.
[38] M.R. Dubois, H. Polinder, J.A. Ferreira, “Transverse-flux permanent
magnet (TFPM) machine with toothed rotor”, Proc. IEE International
Conference on Power Electronics, Machines and Drives, Bath, 2002, pp.
309-314.
[39] G. Bywaters, V. John, J. Lynch, P. Mattila, G. Norton, J. Stowell, M.
Salata, O. Labath, A. Chertok, D. Hablanian, Northern Power Systems
WindPACT drive train alternative design study report, report NREL/SR-
500-35524, 2004.
[40] E. Muljadi, C.P. Butterfield, Yih-Huei Wan, “Axial flux, modular,
permanent-magnet generator with a toroidal winding for wind turbine
applications”, Proc. of the 33rd Industry Applications Conference, St.
Louis, MO 12-15 October 1998, pp. 174-178, vol.1.
[41] D. Bang, “Design of transverse flux permanent magnet machines for
large direct-drive wind turbines”, PhD-thesis Delft University of
Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, 2010.
[42] J. Schüttler, H. Groke, M. Siatkowski, J. Adler, B. Orlik, “Power-
optimized symmetrizing current control with a 8.7 kNm-Transverse Flux
Generator”, Proc. 12th International Conference on Optimization of
Electrical and Electronic Equipment, pp. 352-357.
[43] D. Svechkarenko, A. Cosic, J. Soulard, C. Sadarangani, “Transverse
Flux Machines for Sustainable Development - Road Transportation and
Power Generation”, Proc. 7th International Conference on Power
Electronics and Drive Systems, 2007, pp. 1108-1114.
[44] J. Hystad, “Transverse flux generators in direct-driven wind energy
converters,” PhD-thesis Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Trondheim, Norway, 2000
[45] E. de Vries, “Permanent solution?”, Renewable Energy World, March-
April 2010, pp. 37-42.
[46] P.J. Tavner, J. Xiang, F. Spinato, “Reliability Analysis for Wind
Turbines,” in Wind Energy, 2007 (vol. 10), pp. 1-18.
8
[47] F. Spinato, The reliability of wind turbines, PhD thesis Durham
University, 2008.
[48] P.J. Tavner, F. Spinato, G.J.W. van Bussel, E. Koutoulakos, “Reliability
of different wind turbine concepts with relevance to offshore
application,” in Proc. European Wind Energy Conference, Brussels,
2008.
[49] P.J. Tavner, F. Spinato, G.J.W. van Bussel, E. Koutoulakos, “Reliability
of wind turbine subassemblies,” IET Proceedings – Renewable Power
Generation, 2009, vol. 3, pp. 387–401.
[50] H. Arabian-Hoseynabadi, P. J. Tavner, H. Oraee, “Reliability
comparison of direct-drive and geared drive wind turbine concepts”
Wind Energy, 2010 (vol 13), pp. 62–73.
[51] P.J. Tavner, G.J.W. van Bussel, F. Spinato, “Machine and converter
reliabilities in wind turbines”, in Proc. 3rd IET International Conference
on Power Electronics Machines and Drives (PEMD), Dublin, 2006.
[52] E. Echavarria, B. Hahn, G. J. W. van Bussel, T. Tomiyama, “Reliability
of Wind Turbine Technology Through Time”, Journal of Solar Energy
Engineering, 2008 (vol. 130), pp. 031005-1-8.
[53] P.J. Tavner, S. Faulstich, B. Hahn, G.J.W. van Bussel, “Reliability and
availability of wind turbine electrical and electronic components”,
accepted for EPE Journal, 2011 (vol. 20).
[54] H. Polinder, H. Lendenmann, R. Chin, W.M. Arshad, “Fault tolerant
generator systems for wind turbines”, Proc. IEEE International Electric
Machines and Drives Conference, Miami, 3-6 May 2009, pp. 675-681.
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Henk Polinder (M’97) received the MSc degree in
electrical engineering and PhD degree from Delft
University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, in
1992 and 1998, respectively.
From 1996 to 2003, he was an assistant professor and
since 2003, he has been an associate professor in the
Electrical Power Processing Group of Delft
University of Technology. He worked part-time at
Lagerwey in Barneveld in 1998/1999, at Philips
Applied Technologies in Eindhoven in 2002 and at
ABB Corporate Research in Vasteras in 2008. He was a visiting professor at
the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 2002, at Laval University, Quebec
in 2004 and at the University of Edinburgh in 2006. He is author or coauthor
of over 100 papers. His research interests include design aspects of electrical
machines for various applications.