Contribution of shadow education on student academic achievement

ABSTRACT

The shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring has

become quite common in East Asian countries nowadays. Based on the
data of Programme for International Student Assessment 2012 (PISA
2012), the paper analyzes the influence of shadow education on the
mathematical literacy of students of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Japan and
Korea by means of a hierarchical linear model, and estimates the net
effect of shadow education using the method of reweighting on
propensity score matching (RPSM). The following findings are obtained
from the supplementary math tutoring has a significant positive effect on
the math score of students. and such an effect is more obvious on
Japanese and Korean students than on Hong Kong and Shanghai
students; second, supplementary math tutoring and supplementary
science tutoring complement each other; and third, attending
supplementary math tutoring may narrow the gap between students in
learning performance that is caused by the difference in their families‘
economic, social and cultural status (ESCS), thus promoting the equality
of educational outcomes. Therefore, governments and schools are
advised to provide necessary opportunities of supplementary tutoring for
low-capacity students from low-income families and waive their tuition
fees; large-sized extracurricular education groups should be encouraged
to establish afterschool learning funds and/or incentive funds for
students from poor families and grant fee remissions to those from ultra-
low income families, so as to create a situation where the government,
the school and the society jointly promote the equality of educational
outcomes in the stage of compulsory education.

Keywords: Shadow Education, Inequality of educational outcomes,

PISA, RPSM
INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades, —shadow education (or namely private
supplementary tutoring) has developed to a considerable scale in some
countries, where it has become a supplement to or even duplication of
mainstream education. Such private supplementary tutoring refers to
chargeable teaching activities outside the formal school education
system that are conducted corresponding to school courses ii. The forms
of receiving private supplementary tutoring include hiring private tutors,
or going to cram schools, etc (Xue Haiping and Ding Xiaohao,
2009). As Baker and Le Tendre pointed out in 2005, shadow education
is not meant to replace, but rather to supplement or support formal
education. By means of supplementary tutoring after
school. students want to better absorb and master the knowledge taught
in class so that they can be more competitive in their classes or grades
and parents expect their children to improve their examination results at
school. In various parts of the world, due to the impacts of globalization,
social development indicator ranking and international student
achievement assessment, education competition between different
countries is being increasingly intensified, and the shadow education
system of private supplementary tutoring is expanding continuously
(Bray 2005). This phenomenon has been very common in East Asia,
especially in China, Japan and Korea (Stevenson & Baker 1992). In the
mid-1990s shadow education began to rise in Mainland China, and now
it has become quite common in Chinese urban areas. The prevalence of
shadow education in these countries has much to do with their
competitive entrance examination and the deep influence of
Confucianism iv.
Objectives of the study

- Understand that a shadow is seen when a light shines on a surface

and something blocks some of the light. The shadow is the area on
the surface that Jooks darker than the relatively brighter area
around it.

- Recognize an object and its shadow, or a shadow and the object

east

- Identify things that give off light, such as a flashlight, a lamp, oF

the sun.

- Understand that shadows can be made using any source of light.

Some are natural (like the sun) and some are made by people (like
lamps or flashlights).

- % Understand that the object casting the shadow is in between the

light source and the surface where the shadow is seen.

- Predict where a shadow will be seen if an object blocks some of

the light shining on a surface.

- Observe how a shadow is different when cast on multiple surfaces

versus on only one surface.

- Understand that two or more shadows can make a combined

shadow shape.
 - Understand that the size of a shadow changes when the distance
changes between the light source and the object blocking the light.
A shadow becomes bigger when the object and the source of light
are closer together. A shadow becomes smaller when the object
and the source of light are farther apart.

- Predict how the size of a shadow will change if the distance

changes between the light source and the object blocking the light.

- Carry out an experiment to observe how a shadow's size changes if

the light source and the object blocking the light are moved closer
to or farther from each other.

- Record observations about how the size of a shadow changed

when between the light source and the object blocking the light.

- Describe recorded observations about how the size of a shadow

changed distance changed between the light source and the object
blocking the light.

- Construct explanations based on recorded observations about how

the size of a shadow changed when the distance changed between
the light source and the object blocking the light.

Rationale of the study

However, it strongly impacts the financial and social status of

individuals and school systems, as it reflects the changes initiated in
mainstream education and resonates with people worldwide,
according to Professor Mark Bray, Chair Professor Director of
Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong
Kong. Prof. Bray shared his research findings and personal comments
during a lecture on “Confronting the shadow education system: what
government policies for what private tutoring?” which is also the title of
his most recently published book. The event, held at the Dubai School of
Government, a research and teaching institution focusing on public
policy in the Arab world, was attended by academic professionals and
executives from Dubai and the UAE. Focusing on the shadow education
system of private supplementary tutoring, Prof. Mark Bray examined its
scale, nature and implications in a range of settings and identified the
possible government responses to the phenomenon.

He said: “Supplementary private tutoring can have positive dimensions.

It helps students cover the curriculum, provides a structured occupation
for young people outside school hours, and offers income to the tutors.

“Shadow education may also have negative dimensions, as gauged from

the South Korean experience. If left to market forces, tutoring is likely to
maintain or even increase social inequalities and can create excessive
pressure for young people who have insufficient time for non-academic
activities. Additionally, school teachers providing extra tutoring in
exchange for fees from their own pupils is definitely another serious
problem.”

Prof. Bray also discussed the cost associated with private tutoring. which
has long been vigorous in East Asia, but is also currently emerging in
Africa, Western Europe, North America, and Australia with deeper roots
in Eastern Europe. According to published surveys. Greece's expenditure
in 2007 on private tutoring amounted to EU1.7 billion. In 2009,
Germany spent EU 1.5 billion, whereas in South Korea it reached a total
of US$24 billion in 2006, equalling 2.8 percent of its Gross Domestic
Product (GDP).
As for the UAE, and according to the Abu Dhabi household survey in
the fourth quarter of 2009, nearly 27 percent of Emirati families with
children spent an average of AED1,436 per month for private tutoring,
equivalent to 4.8 percent of a monthly household expenditure.

Education expert and DSG Acting Director of Research Dr. Natasha

Ridge said “Prof. Bray's discussion was enlightening, and we are
delighted to host him at DSG to shed light and initiate a discussion on
shadow education. Understanding and researching can help regulate
tutoring and divert private coaching in a direction that can benefit the
society and the school system.”

Established in 2005 in cooperation with the Harvard Kennedy School,

the Dubai School of Government is committed to the creation of
knowledge and the dissemination of global best Practices in the Arab
world. The institution conducts various programs that seek to enhance
the region’s capacity for effective public policies.

Delimitation and Limitation

While student privacy has been a public issue for half a century, its
contours change in response to social norms, technological capabilities,
and political ideologies. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
(FERPA) seeks to prevent inaccurate or inappropriate information about
students from being incorporated into pedagogical, academic, and
employment decision making. It does so by controlling who can access
education records and, broadly, for what purposes. New education
technologies take advantage of cloud computing and big data analytics
to collect and share an unprecedented amount of information about
students in classrooms. Schools rely on outside, often for-profit, entities
to provide these innovative tools. With the shift from education records
to student data systems, privacy protection through access control does
not account for the possibility that authorized recipients, or even
educators themselves, might use student data for commercial or other
non-educational purposes. Last updated on August 30, 2010 at 01.35 pm
However, it strongly impacts the financial and social status of
individuals and school systems, as it reflects the changes initiated in
mainstream education and resonates with people worldwide, according
to Professor Mark Bray, Chair Professor Director of Comparative
Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong. Prof. Bray
shared his research findings and personal comments during a lecture on
“Confronting the shadow education system: what government policies
for what private tutoring?” which is also the title of his most recently
published book. The event, held at the Dubai School of Government, a
research and teaching institution focusing on public policy in the Arab
world, was attended by academic professionals and executives from
Dubai and the UAE. Focusing on the shadow education system of
private supplementary tutoring, Prof. Mark Bray examined its scale,
nature and implications in a range of settings and identified the possible
government responses to the phenomenon. He said: “Supplementary
private tutoring can have positive dimensions. It helps students cover the
curriculum, provides a structured occupation for young people outside
school hours, and offers income to the tutors.“Shadow education may
also have negative dimensions, as gauged from the South Korean
experience. If left to market forces, tutoring is likely to maintain or even
increase social inequalities and can create excessive pressure for young
people who have insufficient time for non-academic activities.
Additionally, school teachers providing extra tutoring in exchange for
fees from their own pupils is definitely another serious problem.”Prof.
Bray also discussed the cost associated with private tutoring, which has
long been vigorous in East Asia, but is also currently emerging
in Africa, Western Europe. North America, and Australia with deeper
roots in Eastern Europe. According to published surveys, Greece’s
expenditure in 2007 on private tutoring amounted to EU1.7
billion.In2009, Germany spent EU1.5 billion, whereas in South Korea it
reached a total of US$24 billion in 2006, equalling 2.8 percent of its
Gross Domestic Product (GDP).As for the UAE, and according to the
Abu Dhabi household survey in the fourth quarter of 2009, nearly 27
percent of Emirati families with children spent an average of AED1,436
per month for private tutoring, equivalent to 4.8 percent of a monthly
household expenditure. Education expert and DSG Acting Director of
Research Dr. Natasha Ridge said “Prof. Bray’s discussion was
enlightening, and we are delighted to host him at DSG to shed light and
initiate a discussion on shadow education, Understanding and
researching can help regulate tutoring and divert private coaching in a
direction that can benefit the society and the school system.”Established
in 2005 in cooperation with the Harvard Kennedy School, the Dubai
School of Government is committed to the creation of knowledge and
the dissemination of global best practices in the Arab world. The
institution conducts various programs that seek to enhance the region’s
capacity for effective Public policies.

Literature Review

The booming popularity of Shadow Education has drawn the attention of

many researchers over the past few years. Various studies have been
conducted as to whether this phenomenon is beneficial or not. This
review, however, will focus on the primary reasons secondary students
resort to Shadow Education in the context of Hong Kong, as well as in
other regions. The definition of Shadow Education will be interpreted as
fee-paying education received beyond the traditional day schools.
including individual tutoring. small group tutoring. and lecture-type
tutoring delivered by means of videos or live instruction.
Methods of the study

Shadow education has become much more visible worldwide during the
last decade. This increased visibility seems to reflect two forces. First,
the shadow appears to have expanded and become denser; and second,
the shadow has been better documented (Lee et al. 2009). Some of
this documentation has been undertaken by researchers in universities
and comparable bodies. while other documentation has been provided by
governments, international agencies. journalists, and others. However,
the basis of evidence about shadow education has many shortcomings.
Data from some parts of the world are more robust than from others, and
fundamental difficulties may arise in attempts to make cross-national
and cross-cultural comparisons. ‘This paper to some extent reflects the
author's personal experience in collecting empirical data and assembling
profiles on the basis of other people’s data. These efforts have involved
both quantitative and qualitative work. During the 1990s, the author
prepared a book on shadow education for UNESCO's International
Institute for Educational Planning (ITEP). This book (Bray ray 19994)
sketched a global picture with the goal of identifying patterns, trends,
and implications for educational planners, The experience of preparing
the book was intellectually exciting since it ventured into new
conceptual ground. However, because the evidence base was very
sketchy, the task was somewhat like assembly of a jigsaw puzzle with
most of the pieces missing. A decade later, more pieces in the puzzle are
available. However, many gaps remain, not only in certain parts of the
world but also in specific subthemes. A major question, therefore, is
how the evidence base can be improved.
Conclusion

Private supplementary tutoring has been a shadow but an important part

of education in Hong Kong and has expanded since the 1997 resumption
of Chinese sovereignty. Much of the impetus may be unrelated to the
political transition, but some factors are related. The expansion
has had a significant impact on the lives of young people and on their
families, and also has wider implications. While private supplementary
tutoring may to some extent compensate for shortcomings in mainstream
schooling, it can undermine educational reforms and exacerbate
social inequalities. Despite its existing scale, it seems likely that the
shadow will expand further and will intensify because of the
increasingly fierce academic competition among students due to the
growing emphasis on achievements in standardised assessments. As
such, stakeholders in the education system need to address the issues it
raises and to seek to ameliorate the challenges. Nevertheless, one lesson
from countries such as Mauritius and South Korea is that once shadow
education has entered the culture, it is very difficult to remove ( Bray,
2009 ). Policy-makers Would be wise to recognise the existence and
implications of shadow education more fully. Even if they insist on a
relatively loose regulatory framework, they may do more to help
families to become better informed consumers and may encourage the
industry to engage in more extensive self-regulation ( Bray & Kwo,
2014 ). In addition, policy-makers and school managers may encourage
teachers to discuss the phenomenon more extensively in order to identify
appropriate ways for regular schooling to respond to its shadow.
References

Baker. D. P.. Akiba, M.. LeTendre. G. K.. & Wiseman, A. W. (2001).

Worldwide shadow education: Outside-school learning, institutional
quality of schooling. and cross-national mathematics achievement.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1). 1-17.

Cross Ref Google Scholar

Baker. D. P.. & LeTendre. G. K. (2005). National differences, global
similarities: World culture and the future of schooling. Stanford:
Stanford University Press.

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