polymers
Article
Effects of Different Mold Materials and Coolant Media on the
Cooling Performance of Epoxy-Based Injection Molds
Chil-Chyuan Kuo 1,2, *, Jing-Yan Xu 1 , Yi-Jun Zhu 1 and Chong-Hao Lee 1






Citation: Kuo, C.-C.; Xu, J.-Y.; Zhu,
Y.-J.; Lee, C.-H. Effects of Different
Mold Materials and Coolant Media
on the Cooling Performance of
Epoxy-Based Injection Molds.
Polymers 2022, 14, 280. https://
doi.org/10.3390/polym14020280
Academic Editor: Célio Bruno Pinto
Fernandes
Received: 25 December 2021
Accepted: 10 January 2022
Published: 11 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Polymers 2022, 14, 280. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020280
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan;
U09217119@mail.mcut.edu.tw (J.-Y.X.); M09118003@mail.mcut.edu.tw (Y.-J.Z.);
U09117014@mail.mcut.edu.tw (C.-H.L.)
2 Research Center for Intelligent Medical Devices, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road,
New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
* Correspondence: jacksonk@mail.mcut.edu.tw
Abstract: Metal additive manufacturing techniques are frequently applied to the manufacturing
of injection molds with a conformal cooling channel (CCC) in order to shorten the cooling time
in the injection molding process. Reducing the cooling time in the cooling stage is essential to
reducing the energy consumption in mass production. However, the distinct disadvantages include
higher manufacturing costs and longer processing time in the fabrication of injection mold with
CCC. Rapid tooling technology (RTT) is a widely utilized technology to shorten mold development
time in the mold industry. In principle, the cooling time of injection molded products is affected
by both injection mold material and coolant medium. However, little work has been carried out to
investigate the effects of different mold materials and coolant media on the cooling performance of
epoxy-based injection molds quantitatively. In this study, the effects of four different coolant media
on the cooling performance of ten sets of injection molds fabricated with different mixtures were
investigated experimentally. It was found that cooling water with ultrafine bubble is the best cooling
medium based on the cooling efficiency of the injection molded parts (since the cooling efficiency
is increased further by about 12.4% compared to the conventional cooling water). Mold material
has a greater influence on the cooling efficiency than the cooling medium, since cooling time range
of different mold materials is 99 s while the cooling time range for different cooling media is 92 s.
Based on the total production cost of injection mold and cooling efficiency, the epoxy resin filled with
41 vol.% aluminum powder is the optimal formula for making an injection mold since saving in the
total production cost about 24% is obtained compared to injection mold made with commercially
available materials.
Keywords: conformal cooling channel; rapid tooling technology; mold material; cooling medium
1. Introduction
Wax injection molding is a frequently applied manufacturing technique for the produc-
tion of investment casting wax patterns due to time efficiency. The cooling time of the wax
patterns constitutes a large portion in cycle time. Nowadays, the conformal cooling channel
(CCC) was incorporated in the wax injection mold to improve the cooling efficiency of the
wax patterns in terms of uniform cooling during the cooling stage [1]. Low-pressure wax
injection molding is one of the most widely used approaches for producing wax patterns,
which can be used for investment casting [2] to manufacture metal components with intri-
cate shapes [3]. Kitayama et al. [4] optimized the process parameters of plastic injection
molding to reduce warpage of the plastics products using CCC. This work confirmed that
the CCC provides the reduction on the warpage of the injection molded part. Rajaguru
et al. [5] employed commercially available aluminum (Al)-filled epoxy resin to make a
cavity insert for low-volume production of plastic parts. The tool life is acceptable under
general process parameters. Lim et al. [6] proposed a method for designing the cooling
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 2 of 24

channel by means of the energy balance principle and arrangement method. It was found
that both the tensile strengths and hardness of the roof side products were improved. Chen
et al. [7] showed segmented finite element models to optimize the geometries of the cooling
system. It was found that the computational time saves up to 92.6% compared with the
entire model of the U-shape component. Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques are
frequently used in various industries to create end-use parts or physical prototypes. Maji
et al. [8] developed patient-specific craniofacial implant through the AM, rapid tooling
(RT), and investment casting technologies. Gill and Kaplas [9] proposed rapid casting
technologies to fabricate a tool. It was found that the proposed rapid casting technologies
are effective for the production of cast technological prototypes in very short times avoiding
any tooling phase and with dimensional tolerances that are completely consistent with
metal casting processes. Nandi et al. [10] developed a new composite material to enhance
the solidification efficiency in the RT process. It was found that the solidification time
was minimized appreciably keeping the same advantages of RT process. Wang et al. [11]
optimized the molds with spherical spiral conformal cooling system and product structure
to reduce service stress of the injection molded parts. This work suggested that injection
molding defects such as warpage and residual stress cannot be ignored, especially for
the assembly edge. Mercado-Colmenero et al. [12] proposed a new method for the auto-
matic design of CCC based on the discrete geometry of the plastic part. The CCC follows
the profile of the mold core or cavity to perform a uniform cooling process for injection
molding process. This work demonstrated that the proposed algorithm is independent
of the computer-aided design (CAD) modeler used to create the part since it performs a
recognition analysis of the part surfaces, being able to be implemented in any CAD system.
Additionally, the design data can be utilized in later applications including the automated
design of the injection mold.
The wax injection mold with highly complex-shaped CCC capable of reduction cooling
times can be fabricated by the metal powder AM, such as laser fusing, direct metal laser
sintering, electron beam melting, selective laser melting, selective laser sintering, diffusion
bonding, or direct metal deposition. However, operating consumables of the metal powder
AM systems are costly. Thus, those approaches are not suitable for developing a new
product since higher initial cost of the capital equipment and maintenance. To overcome
this obstacle, RT technology was developed to meet this requirement since it is a cost-
effective method that builds tools without the need for complex conventional machining
operations. Typically, the RT technology is divided into two categories, namely direct
tooling and indirect tooling. Indirect tooling is widely used to manufacture an injection
mold for batch production of a new product in the research and development stage using
commercial Al-filled epoxy resin. According to practical experience, both mechanical
and physical properties of the wax injection mold fabricated by Al-filled epoxy resin are
limited due to intrinsic material properties. Tomori et al. [13] proposed a silicon carbide
filled epoxy casting system intended for prototype molds in plastic injection molding
applications. Results revealed that the flexural strength of the molded parts increased
with silicon carbide concentration. Kovacs and Bercsey [14] investigated the influence of
mold properties on the quality of injection molded parts. Results demonstrated that the
rapid tool inserts are useful in the injection molding technology, although the warpage
of the molded parts could be more significant. In addition, injection molding simulation
programmers can analyze the cooling time of the molded part or minimize the warpage
of the molded part using CCC. Khushairi et al. [15] proposed metal filled epoxy as an
alternative material used in RT application for injection molding. Results showed that
the compressive strength is increased from 76.8 to 93.2 MPa with 20% of brass fillers. In
addition, metal fillers also enhance the thermal properties and density of Al-filled epoxy
resin. Cost-effectiveness depends on the cooling time of the molded part greatly in the
injection molding process. Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) [16] technology is applied
to speed up manufacturing for the production of injection mold with CCC. However, the
distinct disadvantage is expensive spending [17] and longtime taking [18] in the fabrication
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 3 of 24

of injection mold with CCC. Under certain condition of less expenditure is possible to
manufacture injection molds by RT technology with conformal cooling channel.
In general, the cooling time of injection molded products is affected by both injection
mold material and coolant medium. However, little work has been conducted to investigate
the effects of different mold materials and coolant media on the cooling performance of epoxy-
based injection molds. The goal of this study is to investigate the cooling performance of
epoxy-based injection molds fabricated from different mold materials using different coolant
media. In this study, ten sets of injection molds were fabricated using commercially available
Al-filled epoxy resin and epoxy resin added with three different particle sizes of stainless steel,
Al, and copper (Cu) powders. Four different kinds of cooling media, including cooling water,
compressed gas, cooling water with ultrafine bubble, and cold stream are used to study the
cooling performance using a low-pressure wax injection molding.

2. Experimental Details
Figure 1 shows the research process of this study. The three different particle sizes
of stainless steel (SUS) 316 powder, Al powder, and Cu powder were used in this study.
Figure 2 shows the three different kinds of fillers with the purity of the fillers is approxi-
mately 96–99%. Average particle sizes of the three different kinds of fillers were examined
by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) (JEC3000-FC, JEOL Inc., Tokyo,
Japan). The Al powder and Cu powder have three average particle sizes of 45 µm, 75 µm,
and 150 µm, respectively. 316 stainless steel powder has three average particle sizes of
13 µm, 75 µm and 125 µm. The epoxy resin (EP-2N1, Ruixin Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) with the
viscosity about 13,000 mPa-s was used as matrix material. The mixture is composed of
epoxy resin, hardener, and filler. The curing agent and epoxy resin were mixed in a weight
ratio of 1:2 first and then filler particle was added. The mixture was stirred manually about
10 min until the mixture is well blended. The mixture was then degassed by a vacuum
pump (F-600, Feiling Inc., Taipei, Taiwan). Finally, the fabricated wax injection molds were
post-cured in a thermal oven at 60 ◦ C for obtaining desired strength to withstand injection
and hold pressures. Note that the wax injection molds have very limited shrinkage after
post-cured process. The thermal conduction of the wax injection mold fabricated by differ-
ent mixtures was examined using a hot plate (YS-300S, Yong-Xin Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) with
the heating temperature of 40. The chemical composition of the filler was examined using
an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The X-ray phase analysis was carried out
using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD) (D8 ADVANCE, Bruker Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) to study
the structures of the fabricated wax injection molds. To assess the benefits of the optimum
material formulation, commercially available Al powder-filled epoxy
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
resin (TE-375, Jasdi
4 of 24
Chemicals, Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) was also employed to fabricate injection molds.

Figure 1. Research process of this study.

Figure 1. Research process of this study.
Figure 3 shows the 3D CAD model and dimensions of the CCC, core and cavity
inserts. In this study, a pipe cover with the dimensions of 32 mm in outer diameter, 17.5
mm in height, and 2.5 mm in thickness was selected as the master pattern. The circular
CCC was used in this study since it has the smallest pressure loss during the cooling stage
[19]. According to the design guideline of the CCC, the distance between the wall of
cooling channel to the mold surface, and the pitch distance between central lines of
cooling channels are 4 mm, 7.5 mm, and 17 mm, respectively. Generally, there are various
 after low-pressure wax injection molding were recorded in time interval of 1s fo
determining the cooling time of the injection molded wax patterns. The room temperatur
was kept at 27 °C for the entire study. The injection mold was held in horizontal position
and the molten wax at 82 °C was injected into the mold cavity at 27 °C. The ejection
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 temperature of the molded wax patterns was set at 30 °C via a series of test runs.
4 of 24The inle

coolant temperature was kept at room temperature.

Figure2.2.Three
Figure Three different
different kinds
kinds of fillers
of fillers usedused
in thisinstudy.
this study.
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 5 of 24

Figure 3 shows the 3D CAD model and dimensions of the CCC, core and cavity inserts.
In this study, a pipe cover with the dimensions of 32 mm in outer diameter, 17.5 mm in
height, and 2.5 mm in thickness was selected as the master pattern. The circular CCC
was used in this study since it has the smallest pressure loss during the cooling stage [19].
According to the design guideline of the CCC, the distance between the wall of cooling
channel to the mold surface, and the pitch distance between central lines of cooling channels
are 4 mm, 7.5 mm, and 17 mm, respectively. Generally, there are various different types of
CC (i.e., longitudinal, zigzag, spiral, parallel, scaffold, or Voronoi diagram). In this study,
the spiral-shaped CCC was used in the wax injection mold. The core and cavity inserts have
a length of 55 mm, a width of 55 mm, a height of 35 mm. Thanks to the distinct advantage
of AM technique, the AM-based cooling channel was used to fabricate wax injection mold
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24
via fused filament fabrication using polyvinyl butyral (PVB) filament since the industrial
alcohol solution is capable of dissolving the PVB plastic.

Figure 3. 3D CAD model and dimensions of the CCC, core, and cavity inserts.
Figure 3. 3D CAD model and dimensions of the CCC, core, and cavity inserts.

Cooling media is a substance, which is widely applied to regulate or reduce temper-

ature of injection mold during the injection molding process. An ideal cooling medium
involves low cost, low viscosity, high specific heat capacity, non-toxic, and chemically inert
of the cooling system in the injection mold. Air is a common form of a cooling media,
which uses forced circulation to reduce temperature of injection mold during the injection
molding process. Thus, four different kinds of cooling media (i.e., compressed gas, cooling
water, cooling water with ultrafine bubble, and cold stream) were applied to study the
cooling efficiency of injection molds by low-pressure wax injection molding. Cold air comes
from the vortex tube. To evaluate cooling performance of the injection molds, a simple
and effective cooling time measurement system was designed and implemented. Figure 4
shows an in-house cooling time measurement system. This measurement system comprises
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 6 of 24

a low-pressure wax injection molding machine (0660, W&W Inc., Taoyuan, Taiwan), three
k-type thermocouples (C071009-079, Cheng Tay Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) with a measurement
sensitivity of ±1 ◦ C, a mold temperature controller (JCM-33A, Shinko Inc., Taipei, Taiwan),
and a water reservoir with a thermo-electric cooler (TEC12706AJ, Caijia Inc., Taipei, Tai-
wan). The process parameters for low-pressure wax injection molding involve injection
temperature of 95 ◦ C, injection pressure of 0.06 MPa, and an ejection temperature of 30 ◦ C.
The temperature sensors were installed in the mold cavity. The other end of the temperature
sensor was connected to a data acquisition system (MRD-8002L, IDEA System Inc., Taipei,
Taiwan). With the help of the temperature sensors, the temperature histories of the injection
molded wax patterns after low-pressure wax injection molding were recorded in time
interval of 1 s for determining the cooling time of the injection molded wax patterns. The
room temperature was kept at 27 ◦ C for the entire study. The injection mold was held in
horizontal position and the molten wax at 82 ◦ C was injected into the mold cavity at 27 ◦ C.
The ejection temperature of the molded wax patterns was set at 30 ◦ C via a series of test
runs. and
Figure 3. 3D CAD model The inlet coolant temperature
dimensions of the CCC,was kept
core, at room
and temperature.
cavity inserts.

Figure 4. An in-houseFigure
cooling
4. Antime measurement
in-house system. system.
cooling time measurement

3. Results and Discussion

To ensure the molding materials can fill the cavity completely and smoothly, a direct
gate was employed in this study. Figure 5 shows the mesh of the injection molded part and
cooling channels. The evolution of the flow front during the filling stage of wax injection
molding is also illustrated in this figure. It shows that the filling time is approximately 2 s
for the full filing of the molded part, showing the designed filling system is appropriate.
 3. Results and Discussion
To ensure the molding materials can fill the cavity completely and smoothly, a direct
gate was employed in this study. Figure 5 shows the mesh of the injection molded part
and cooling channels. The evolution of the flow front during the filling stage of wax
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 7 of 24
injection molding is also illustrated in this figure. It shows that the filling time is
approximately 2 s for the full filing of the molded part, showing the designed filling
system is appropriate. In addition, no weld lines or air traps of the injection molded part
In addition, no weld lines or air traps of the injection molded part were found at the end
were found at the end of filling.
of filling.

Figure 5. Mesh of the injection molded part and cooling channels.

Figure 5. Mesh of the injection molded part and cooling channels.
To investigate the upper limit of the volume percentage (vol.%) of the filler particles
thatTo
caninvestigate
be added tothetheupper
matrix limit of the
material volume
of epoxy percentage
resin, the vol.% (vol.%) of thepowders
of these three filler particles
that
wascan be added
varied from 15 toto
the65matrix
vol.%. material
Figure 6of epoxythe
shows resin, the vol.%
formability of these
results of thethree
epoxypowders
was varied
resin fromthree
filled with 15 todifferent
65 vol.%. Figurewith
powders 6 shows
threethe formability
different particleresults of theon
sizes. Based epoxy
the resin
formability
filled with and manufacturability
three different powders of the specimens,
with three thedifferent
vol.% for 316 stainless
particle steel Based
sizes. powderon the
with an average particle size of 13 µm, 75 µm, and 125 µm can be added
formability and manufacturability of the specimens, the vol.% for 316 stainless to the epoxy resin steel
are about 44 vol.%, 41 vol.% and 38 vol.%, respectively. The vol.% for Al powder with an
powder with an average particle size of 13 µm, 75 µm, and 125 µm can be added to the
average particle size of 45 µm, 75 µm, and 125 µm can be added to the epoxy resin are
epoxy resin are about 44 vol.%, 41 vol.% and 38 vol.%, respectively. The vol.% for Al
about 41 vol.%, 35 vol.% and 33 vol.%, respectively. The vol.% for Cu powder with an
powder
average with an size
particle average
of 45 particle
µm, 75 µm,sizeand
of 45
125µm,
µm 75canµm, and 125
be added µmepoxy
to the can be added
resin are to the
epoxy resin are about 41 vol.%, 35 vol.%
about 41 vol.%, 39 vol.% and 36 vol.%, respectively. and 33 vol.%, respectively. The vol.% for Cu
powder with an average particle size of 45 µm, 75 µm, and 125 µm can be added to the
epoxy resin are about 41 vol.%, 39 vol.% and 36 vol.%, respectively.
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 24
24

Figure 6. Cont.
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of24
24

Figure6.6.Formability
Figure Formability results
results of epoxy
of the the epoxy
resin resin filledthree
filled with withdifferent
three different
powderspowders
with threewith three
different
different particle sizes.
particle sizes.

Toinvestigate
To investigatethe theprecipitation
precipitationofoffillers
fillersininthe
theinjection
injectionmold,
mold,EDSEDSwas wascarried
carriedout out
ininthis
thisstudy.
study.Figure
Figure77shows
showsthe theprecipitation
precipitationanalysis
analysisofofthetheinjection
injectionmold
moldfabricated
fabricatedby by
epoxy resin filled with SUS 316 powder. As can be seen, the colors
epoxy resin filled with SUS 316 powder. As can be seen, the colors of the top, middle, andof the top, middle, and
bottomofof
bottom thethe injection
injection moldmold are similar,
are similar, showingshowing
that therethatis nothere is no precipitation.
any powder any powder
This inference is supported by the EDS measurements of the wax injection mold.injection
precipitation. This inference is supported by the EDS measurements of the wax It was
mold.that
found It was foundofthat
elements elements
Cr and of Cr
Ni at the top,and Ni atand
middle thebottom
top, middle and bottom
of the injection mold of are
the
injection
similar. Thismold
meansarethesimilar.
filler ofThis
SUSmeans the filler
316 powder of dispersed
can be SUS 316 powder
uniformly canin be
thedispersed
injection
uniformly
mold. Figurein the injection
8 shows the mold. Figure
ten pairs 8 shows the
of injection ten pairs
molds of injection molds
for low-pressure for low-
wax injection
pressure Figure
molding. wax injection
9 showsmolding.
the resultsFigure 9 shows
of before and the
afterresults
removingof before
CCC.andTheafter removing
weight of the
CCC. The weight of the CCC is 27 g. The weight of the injection
CCC is 27 g. The weight of the injection mold with CCC is 482 g. After removing the CCC,mold with CCC is 482 g.
After
the removing
weight of thethe CCC, the
injection moldweight of the
without CCCinjection
is onlymold
455 g.without CCC revealed
This result is only 455 g. This
that the
CCC inside
result the injection
revealed moldinside
that the CCC was removed completely.
the injection mold was removed completely.
 Polymers 2022, 14, 280 10 of 24
A
result revealed that the CCC inside the injection mold was removed completely.

Figure 7. Precipitation analysis of the injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with SUS 316
Figure 7. Precipitation analysis of the injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with SUS
powder.
316 powder.

Polymers 2022, 14, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2022,
Polymers 14,14,
2022, 280 FOR PEER REVIEW 11ofof
4 24
Polymers 2022, 14, xx FOR PEER REVIEW 11 2of 24

Figure 8. Tenpairs
pairs ofinjection
injection molds for
for low-pressure wax
waxinjection
injectionmolding.
Figure8.8.Ten
Figure Ten pairsof
of injectionmolds
molds for low-pressure
low-pressure wax injection molding.
molding.

Figure 10 shows the results of the heat conduction experiment for core and cavity of
the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with three different particle sizes
of Cu powder. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of the wax injection mold
fabricated by epoxy resin filled with average particle size of 45 µm Cu powder is the
highest, followed by the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with average
particle size 75 µm Cu powder. The wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled
with average particle size 150 µm Cu powder has the lowest thermal conductivity. To
further verify the heat transfer characteristics of the wax injection mold fabricated by
epoxy resin filled with three different particle sizes of Cu powder, a series of experiment
of low-pressure wax injection molding were carried out. Figure 11 shows the temperature
of wax pattern as a function of the cooling time. The ejection temperature of the wax
pattern was set as 30 ℃. Similarly, the cooling time of the wax pattern is affected by the
particle size of Cu powder filled into the epoxy resin. The cooling time of the wax pattern
fabricated by epoxy resin filled with 45 µm Cu powder is the shortest. The cooling times
of the wax pattern duplicated by wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with
average particle size of 45 µm, 75 µm, and 150 µm Cu powder are around 471 s, 511 s, and
608 s, respectively. Thus, the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with Cu
powder with a smaller average particle size has better heat conduction effect. The
schematic illustrations of heat conduction of the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy
resin filled with Cu powder with larger and smaller average particle sizes are shown in
Figure 12. It should be noted that the same phenomena were found when wax injection

Figure 9. Results of before and after removing CCC.

Figure 9. Results of before and after removing CCC.
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

Polymers 2022, 14, 280 12 of 24

Figure 10 shows the results of the heat conduction experiment for core and cavity of
the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with three different particle sizes
of Cu powder. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of the wax injection mold
Figure 10
fabricated by shows
epoxythe results
resin filledof with
the heat conduction
average particle experiment
size of 45forµm coreCuand cavity is the
powder
of the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with three different particle
highest, followed by the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with average
sizes of Cu powder. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of the wax injection
particle size 75 µm Cu powder. The wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled
mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with average particle size of 45 µm Cu powder is the
with average
highest, followed particle
by the size 150 µm mold
wax injection Cu powder hasbythe
fabricated lowest
epoxy resinthermal conductivity.
filled with average To
further verify the heat transfer characteristics of the wax injection
particle size 75 µm Cu powder. The wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with mold fabricated by
epoxy resin
average filled
particle sizewith three
150 µm Cudifferent
powder has particle sizes of
the lowest Cu powder,
thermal a series
conductivity. Tooffurther
experiment
of low-pressure wax injection molding were carried out. Figure
verify the heat transfer characteristics of the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin11 shows the temperature
of wax
filled withpattern as a function
three different of the
particle sizes cooling
of Cu time.
powder, The ofejection
a series experimenttemperature of the wax
of low-pressure
wax injection
pattern was molding
set as 30were℃. Similarly,
carried out. theFigure 11 shows
cooling time of the
thetemperature
wax pattern of wax patternby the
is affected
as a function
particle size ofof the
Cu cooling
powdertime.filledThe
intoejection temperature
the epoxy resin. The of the wax time
cooling patternof was
the waxset aspattern
30 °C. Similarly, the cooling time of the wax pattern is affected
fabricated by epoxy resin filled with 45 µm Cu powder is the shortest. The cooling by the particle size of Cu times
powder filled into the epoxy resin. The cooling time of the wax pattern
of the wax pattern duplicated by wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with fabricated by epoxy
resin filled with 45 µm Cu powder is the shortest. The cooling times of the wax pattern
average particle size of 45 µm, 75 µm, and 150 µm Cu powder are around 471 s, 511 s, and
duplicated by wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with average particle size
608 s, respectively. Thus, the wax injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin filled with Cu
of 45 µm, 75 µm, and 150 µm Cu powder are around 471 s, 511 s, and 608 s, respectively.
powder
Thus, withinjection
the wax a smaller
mold average
fabricatedparticle
by epoxysizeresinhas
filledbetter
with Cu heat conduction
powder effect. The
with a smaller
schematic illustrations of heat conduction of the wax injection
average particle size has better heat conduction effect. The schematic illustrations of heatmold fabricated by epoxy
resin filledofwith
conduction Cu injection
the wax powder moldwith fabricated
larger andbysmaller
epoxy resinaverage
filledparticle
with Cusizes
powderarewithshown in
Figureand
larger 12.smaller
It should be noted
average particlethat the
sizes aresame
shownphenomena
in Figure 12.were found
It should bewhen
noted wax
that theinjection
moldphenomena
same fabricated were by epoxy
foundresin
whenfilled with SUS
wax injection moldor fabricated
Al powderbywith epoxy a resin
smaller average
filled
with SUSsize.
particle or Al powder with a smaller average particle size.

Figure 10. Cont.

Polymers 2022,
Polymers 2022, 14, 280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
1324of 24
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Figure
Figure 10.Results
10.
Figure 10. Resultsof
Results ofthe
of theheat
the heatconduction
heat conduction
conduction
experiment
experiment
experiment
forfor
(a) core
for (a)(a)
andand
core
core
(b) cavity
and (b)(b)
of the
cavity
cavity of wax
of the the injection
waxwax injection
injection
mold
moldfabricated
fabricatedbybyepoxy
epoxy resin filled
resin with
filled three
with different
three particle
different sizes
particle of
sizesCu
of powder.
Cu
fabricated by epoxy resin filled with three different particle sizes of Cu powder. powder.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Temperature
Temperatureofofwax
waxpattern
patternasasaafunction
functionofofthe
thecooling
coolingtime.
time.
Figure 11. Temperature of wax pattern as a function of the cooling time.
Polymers
Polymers2022,
2022,14,14,
280x FOR PEER REVIEW 14
14 ofof2424

Figure12.
Figure 12.Schematic
Schematicillustrations
illustrationsofofheat
heatconduction
conductionofofthe
thewax
waxinjection
injectionmold
moldfabricated
fabricatedby
byepoxy
epoxy
resinfilled
resin filledwith
withCu
Cupowder
powderwithwithlarger
largerand
andsmaller
smaller average
average particle
particle sizes.
sizes.

Figure1313shows
Figure showstypical
typicaltemperature
temperaturehistory
historyofofthetheinjection
injectionmolded
moldedpartpartafter
afterlow-
low-
pressurewax
pressure waxinjection
injectionmolding.
molding. Temperature
Temperaturehistory historyinvolves
involvesfour
fourstages,
stages,including
including
filling,early
filling, earlycooling,
cooling,middle
middlecooling,
cooling,andandlate
latecooling
coolingstages.
stages.TheThecooling
coolingtime
timeofofthe
thewax
wax
patternswas
patterns wasdefined
definedthetheduration
durationform formthethefilling
fillingstage
stagetotothe
thetemperature
temperatureofofwax
waxpattern
pattern
reachingthe
reaching theejection
ejection temperature
temperature of 30 °C.℃.
of 30 TheThe heatheat of the
of the moltenmolten
waxwax
was was removed
removed by theby
the coolant
coolant in thein the mold,
mold, which which is recommended
is recommended based onbased on the solidification
the solidification of the waxofpatterns.
the wax
The coolingThe
patterns. time (tc ) oftime
cooling the injection
(tc) of themolded
injection parts can be
molded calculated
parts can be by the following
calculated by the
equation
following [20–22]:
equation [20–22]:
s2 4 Tm − Tw
  
tc = 2 ln2 (1)
π α s π  4Te − TmT−w Tw  
t = ln    
π 2α  π  Te − Tw 
c
(1)
α is the thermal diffusivity;
Tw is the mold cavity surface temperature;
sαis theis part thickness;
the thermal diffusivity;
TTmwisisthe
themelt
moldtemperature;
cavity surface temperature;
Tse is the part
average ejection temperature.
thickness;
Tm is the melt temperature;
Te is the average ejection temperature.
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of
of2424

Figure13.
Figure 13.Typical
Typicaltemperature
temperaturehistory
historyofofthe
theinjection
injectionmolded
moldedpart.
part.

Figure
Figure14 14shows
showscooling
coolingtimetimeofofinjection
injectionmolded
moldedparts partsfabricated
fabricated bybyten
tensets
setsofof
injection molds cooled with different cooling water temperatures. Based
injection molds cooled with different cooling water temperatures. Based on these results, on these results,
four
fourphenomena
phenomena werewerefound:
found:(a) cooling timetime
(a) cooling of theofwaxthepattern is shorter
wax pattern when thewhen
is shorter coolingthe
system
coolinguses a low
system temperature
uses coolant; (b)
a low temperature cooling(b)
coolant; time of thetime
cooling waxofpattern
the wax is not sensitive
pattern is not
tosensitive
injectiontomold with different
injection mold with thermal conductivity
different when the cooling
thermal conductivity whensystem uses a higher
the cooling system
temperature coolant; (c) cooling time of the wax pattern is sensitive
uses a higher temperature coolant; (c) cooling time of the wax pattern is sensitive to injection mold withto
different thermal conductivity when the cooling system uses a lower
injection mold with different thermal conductivity when the cooling system uses a lowertemperature coolant;
and (d) cooling
temperature time ofand
coolant; the(d)wax pattern
cooling fabricated
time of the waxby injection mold made
pattern fabricated bywith Cu-filled
injection mold
epoxy resin is not shorter than that fabricated by injection mold made with
made with Cu-filled epoxy resin is not shorter than that fabricated by injection mold made commercially
available Al-filled epoxy
with commercially resin.
available Figure epoxy
Al-filled 15 shows
resin.theFigure
SEM micrograph
15 shows theofSEM injection mold
micrograph
made with Cu-filled
of injection mold made epoxy resin.
with The underlying
Cu-filled epoxy resin. reason
Theisunderlying
that the mixture
reasonisiseasier to
that the
generate porosity [23] when the Cu powder was added in the epoxy
mixture is easier to generate porosity [23] when the Cu powder was added in the epoxyresin, which will affect
the heatwhich
resin, transfer
willeffect
affectofthe
theheat
fabricated
transferinjection
effect ofmold.
the fabricated injection mold.
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
16 24
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

300
300 16 °C 18 °C 21°C 23 °C
16 °C 18 °C 21°C 23 °C
250 25 °C 27 °C 29 °C
250 25 °C 27 °C 29 °C

(s)(s)
200
200
time
time

150
Cooling

150
Cooling

100
100

50
50

0
0 Commercially Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin
available Al- with 41 vol.% with 39 vol.% with 36 vol.% with 41 vol.% with 35 vol.% with 33 vol.% with 44 vol.% with 40 vol.% with 37 vol.%
Commercially Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin
filled epoxy Cu powder Cu powder Cu powder Al powder Al powder Al powder SUS powder SUS powder SUS powder
available Al- with 41 vol.% with 39 vol.% with 36 vol.% with 41 vol.% with 35 vol.% with 33 vol.% with 44 vol.% with 40 vol.% with 37 vol.%
filled epoxy Cu powder Cu powder Cu powder Al powder Al powder Al powder SUS powder SUS powder SUS powder
Figure14.
Figure 14. Cooling
Cooling time
time of
of injection
injection molded
molded parts
parts fabricated
fabricated by
by ten
ten sets
sets of
ofinjection
injection molds
moldscooled
cooled
Figure
with 14. Cooling
different time
cooling of injection
water molded parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds cooled
temperatures.
with different cooling water temperatures.
with different cooling water temperatures.

Figure 15. SEM micrograph of injection mold made with Cu-filled epoxy resin.
Figure15.
Figure 15.SEM
SEMmicrograph
micrographof
ofinjection
injectionmold
moldmade
madewith
withCu-filled
Cu-filledepoxy
epoxyresin.
resin.
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Polymers 2022, 14, 280 17 of 24

Generally, the cooling water flow rate is an important issue in the cooling
performance of injection mold with CCC. The turbulent flow [24] having a Reynolds
number greaterthe
Generally, than 4000 water
cooling provides
flowthree
rate istoan
five times asissue
important much in heat transfer
the cooling as laminar
performance
of injection mold with CCC. The turbulent flow [24] having a Reynolds number time
flow having a Reynolds number less than 2100 [25]. Figure 16 shows cooling of
greater
injection
than 4000molded
provides parts fabricated
three by ten
to five times sets ofheat
as much injection molds
transfer cooled flow
as laminar with having
differenta
cooling water
Reynolds numberflowless
rates.
thanThe
2100Reynolds number
[25]. Figure for four
16 shows different
cooling timecoolant flowmolded
of injection rates is
aboutfabricated
parts 4927, 5913,by6897, andof7883,
ten sets respectively.
injection molds cooledAs can be different
with seen, thecooling
coolingwater
time of therates.
flow wax
patterns
The was not
Reynolds affected
number for by
fourthedifferent
differentcoolant
coolantflow
flowrates
ratesis while
aboutcooling water
4927, 5913, reaches
6897, and
7883, respectively. As can be seen, the cooling time of the wax patterns was not affected (2)
turbulence fully. The Reynolds number can be calculated by the following Equation by
[26].different coolant flow rates while cooling water reaches turbulence fully. The Reynolds
the
number can be calculated by the following Equation (2) [26].
4Q ρ
R e =4Qρ (2)
Re = π Dη (2)
πDη

Q denotes
Q denotes the
the flow
flow rate
rate of
of the
the coolant;
coolant;
D denotes
D denotes the
the diameter
diameter ofof the
the cooling
cooling channel;
channel;
ρ denotes the density of the
ρ denotes the density of the coolant; coolant;
ηη denotes
denotesthe
theviscosity
viscosityofofthethecoolant.
coolant.

16. Cooling time of injection

Figure 16. injection molded
molded parts fabricated by ten sets
sets of
of injection
injection molds
molds cooled
cooled
with different cooling water flow rates.
with different cooling water flow rates.

Figure 17 shows
shows cooling time of injection
injection molded parts fabricated by ten sets of
injection molds cooled with different compressed
compressed gas pressure.
pressure. The results showed
showed that
that
the cooling time of injection molded parts become shorter when compressed gas pressure
is higher.
higher. The main reason is that better cooling effect derived from faster faster gas
gas flowing
flowing
caused
caused byby high
high pressure
pressure in
in the
the mold.
mold. Figure
Figure 18
18 shows
shows cooling
cooling time
time of
of injection
injection molded
molded
parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds cooled with different cold air temperatures.
parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds cooled with different cold air temperatures. It
is interesting that two results were found. One is that the cooling time of injection
It is interesting that two results were found. One is that the cooling time of injection molded
parts
molded become
parts shorter
becomewhenshortercold
whenair temperature is lower.isThe
cold air temperature other
lower. Theis that
otherthe cooling
is that the
performance for cooling water is better than cold air under the same temperature.
cooling performance for cooling water is better than cold air under the same temperature.
Polymers
Polymers2022,
Polymers 2022,14,
2022, 14,x280
14, xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1818ofof24
18 24
24

Figure
Figure17.
Figure 17.Cooling
17. Coolingtime
Cooling timeof
time ofinjection
of injectionmolded
injection moldedparts
molded partsfabricated
parts fabricatedby
fabricated byten
by tensets
ten setsof
sets ofinjection
of injectionmolds
injection moldscooled
molds cooled
cooled
with
withdifferent
with differentcompressed
different compressedgas
compressed gaspressure.
gas pressure.
pressure.

Figure 18. Cooling time of injection molded parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds cooled
Figure
Figure18.
18.Cooling
Coolingtime
timeofofinjection
injectionmolded
moldedparts
partsfabricated
fabricatedby
byten
tensets
setsofofinjection
injectionmolds
moldscooled
cooled
with different cold air temperatures.
with
withdifferent
differentcold
coldair
airtemperatures.
temperatures.
The viscosity of water and air is about 0.8 m Pa-s and 18 µ Pa-s, respectively. The
The
Theviscosity
viscosity viscosity
of water isofofabout
water
water and
and
44.5 air
airisis
times about
about
that 0.8 mmPa-s
Pa-sand
0.8Therefore,
of air. andthe18
18 µµPa-s,
gas Pa-s,
is respectively.
respectively.
mixed The
into the waterThe
viscosity
viscosity of
of water
water is
isabout
about 44.5
44.5 times
times that
that of
ofair.
air. Therefore,
Therefore, the
thegas
gas
to form cooling water with ultrafine bubbles is efficient to improve cooling efficiency andisismixed
mixed into
into the
thewater
water
to
toform
formcooling
shorten cooling water
water
the cooling with
withof
time ultrafine
ultrafine
injectionbubbles
bubbles
molded isisefficient totoimprove
efficientFigure
parts. improve
19 showscoolingtheefficiency
cooling efficiency and
cooling timeand
shorten
shorten
of the cooling
the molded
injection time
cooling parts of
time of injection
injectionby
fabricated molded
molded
ten setsparts.
parts. Figure
Figure 19
of injection 19 shows
shows
molds the cooling
the cooling
cooled time
timeofof
with different
injection
injection molded
temperaturesmolded parts
partsfabricated
of cooling fabricated
water with by
by ten
ten sets
ultrafine ofofinjection
setsbubbles.injection
As can molds
molds cooledthewith
cooled
be seen, with
coolingdifferent
different
water
temperatures
temperatures of
ofcooling
cooling water
water with
with ultrafine
ultrafine bubbles.
bubbles. As
As can
can be
be seen,
seen,
with ultrafine bubbles is the best candidate of cooling medium. Cooling time of the injection the
the cooling
cooling water
water
with
with ultrafine
ultrafine bubbles
bubbles is
is the
the best
best candidate
candidate of
of cooling
cooling medium.
medium.
molded parts fabricated by commercially available Al-filled epoxy resin cooled with cooling Cooling
Cooling time
time of
of the
the
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Polymers 2022, 14, 280 19 of 24

injection molded parts fabricated by commercially available Al-filled epoxy resin cooled
with cooling water with ultrafine bubbles of 16 °C, 18 °C, 21 °C, 23 °C and 25 °C are 66 s,
water
72 s, 84with
s, 93ultrafine
s, and 114 bubbles of 16 ◦ C, However,
s, respectively. 18 ◦ C, 21 ◦cooling
C, 23 ◦ Ctime
andof ◦ C are 66 s, 72 s, 84 s, 93 s,
25the injection molded parts
and 114 s, respectively.
fabricated by commercially However, cooling
available time of epoxy
Al-filled the injection
resin molded parts conventional
cooled with fabricated by
commercially
cooling water available
of 16 °C, Al-filled
18 °C, 21epoxy
°C, 23resin cooled
°C and 25 with
°C are conventional
79 s, 85 s, 92cooling
s, 110water
s, 24 of
s,
16 ◦ C, 18 ◦ C, 21
respectively. ◦ C, 23 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C are 79 s, 85 s, 92 s, 110 s, 24 s, respectively. Cooling
Cooling efficiency of the injection molded parts can be increased by
efficiency of the15.6%,
approximately injection molded
14.6%, 8.4%,parts canand
15.4% be increased by approximately
8%, respectively. 15.6%,cooling
Thus, average 14.6%,
8.4%, 15.4% and 8%, respectively. Thus, average cooling efficiency
efficiency about 12.4% can be further increased compared with commonly used cooling about 12.4% can be
further increased compared with commonly used cooling water.
water.

Figure
Figure 19. Cooling
Cooling time
time of
of injection
injection molded
molded parts
parts fabricated
fabricated by
by ten
ten sets
sets of
of injection
injection molds
molds cooled
cooled
with different temperature of cooling water with ultrafine bubbles.

To investigate
To investigatecooling
coolingefficiency
efficiency of cooling
of coolingwater with with
water ultrafine bubbles
ultrafine at a temper-
bubbles at a
ature of 25 ◦ C,
temperature of four different
25 °C, coolant coolant
four different flow ratesflowof rates
cooling water with
of cooling waterultrafine bubbles
with ultrafine
are carried
bubbles areout. Figure
carried 20 Figure
out. shows the coolingthe
20 shows timecooling
of injection
time molded partsmolded
of injection fabricated by
parts
ten sets of injection molds cooled with different flow rates of cooling
fabricated by ten sets of injection molds cooled with different flow rates of cooling waterwater with ultrafine
bubbles.
with The Reynolds
ultrafine bubbles. number for four
The Reynolds different
number forcoolant flow rates
four different is about
coolant flow4927,
rates5913, 6897,
is about
and 7883, respectively. It should be noted that the cooling time of the
4927, 5913, 6897, and 7883, respectively. It should be noted that the cooling time of theinjection molded parts
was not affected
injection moldedby the was
parts different coolant flow
not affected by therates while cooling
different coolant water reaches
flow rates turbulence
while cooling
water reaches turbulence completely. Figure 21 shows the shortest coolingfabricated
completely. Figure 21 shows the shortest cooling time of injection molded parts time of
by ten sets
injection of injection
molded parts molds cooled
fabricated by with different
ten sets four different
of injection cooling
molds cooled media.
with As can
different be
four
seen, the cooling water with ultrafine bubbles is the best candidate of
different cooling media. As can be seen, the cooling water with ultrafine bubbles is the the cooling medium.
It should
best be noted
candidate that
of the the cooling
cooling medium.performance
It should will decrease
be noted thatsignificantly when the di-
the cooling performance
ameter of the cooling channel is less than 1.5 mm. According to practical
will decrease significantly when the diameter of the cooling channel is less than 1.5 mm. experience, the
time to cool the air is significantly lower than that of the water. Thus, the cooling medium
According to practical experience, the time to cool the air is significantly lower than that
can be replaced with cold air when the diameter of the cooling channel is less than 1.5 mm,
of the water. Thus, the cooling medium can be replaced with cold air when the diameter
since the cooling performance of cold air is acceptable. In addition, the mold material has a
of the cooling channel is less than 1.5 mm, since the cooling performance of cold air is
significant effect on the cooling time of the injection molded part since cooling time range
acceptable. In addition, the mold material has a significant effect on the cooling time of
of different mold materials is 99 s since the maximum and minimum cooling time is 279 s
the injection molded part since cooling time range of different mold materials is 99 s since
and 180 s, respectively. However, the cooling time range for different cooling media is
the maximum and minimum cooling time is 279 s and 180 s, respectively. However, the
only 92 s since the maximum and minimum cooling time is 279 s and 187 s, respectively.
cooling time range for different cooling media is only 92 s since the maximum and
Figure 22 shows the longest and shortest cooling time of injection molded parts fabricated
minimum cooling time is 279 s and 187 s, respectively. Figure 22 shows the longest and
by ten sets of injection molds cooled with different four different cooling media. The total
shortest cooling time of injection molded parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds
production cost of an injection mold fabricated with commercially available Al-filled epoxy
resin is new Taiwan dollar (NTD) 3,046, while the total production cost of a injection mold
fabricated by epoxy resin filled with 41 vol.% Al powder is only NTD 3999. Based on total
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

cooled with different four different cooling media. The total production cost of an injection
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 cooled with different
mold fabricated withfour different cooling
commercially media.
available The total
Al-filled production
epoxy resin is newcost Taiwan
of an injection
20 of 24
dollar
mold fabricated with commercially available Al-filled epoxy resin is new
(NTD) 3,046, while the total production cost of a injection mold fabricated by epoxy resin Taiwan dollar
(NTD) 3,046,41while
filled with theAltotal
vol.% production
powder is onlycost
NTDof a3999.
injection mold
Based on fabricated by epoxy
total production resin
cost of
filled with
injection 41
mold vol.%
and Al powder
cooling is
efficiency, only NTD
epoxy 3999.
resin Based
filled withon41 total
vol.%production
Al
production cost of injection mold and cooling efficiency, epoxy resin filled with 41 vol.% powder cost
is of
the
injection
optimal
Al powder mold
formula and
is the forcooling
making
optimal efficiency,
an injection
formula epoxy
for making resin
mold filled
ansince with
saving
injection in41the
mold vol.%
total
since Alproduction
savingpowder
in the is the
cost
total
optimal formula
about 24%cost
production for making
is obtained
about 24% an
compared injection
is obtained mold
to compared since
injection mold saving
mademold
to injection in the
withmade total production
commercially cost
available
with commercially
about 24%
materials.
available is obtained compared to injection mold made with commercially available
materials.
materials.

Figure20.
Figure 20. Cooling
Cooling time
time of
of injection
injection molded
molded parts
parts fabricated
fabricated by
by ten
ten sets
setsof
ofinjection
injectionmolds
moldscooled
cooled
Figure 20. Cooling
with different time of injection
flow rates molded
cooling water parts
with fabricated
ultrafine by ten sets of injection molds cooled
bubbles.
with different flow rates of cooling water with ultrafine bubbles.
with different flow rates of cooling water with ultrafine bubbles.

Figure 21. Shortest cooling time of injection molded parts fabricated by ten sets of injection molds
Figure
Figure 21. Shortest
cooled21.
withShortest cooling
cooling
different time of
time of injection
four different injection molded parts
molded
cooling media. parts fabricated
fabricated by
by ten
ten sets
sets of
ofinjection
injection molds
molds
cooled with different four different cooling media.
cooled with different four different cooling media.
 Polymers2022,
Polymers 2022,14,
14,280
x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 24
21 of 24

Figure 22.The
Figure22. Thelongest
longestand
andshortest
shortestcooling
coolingtime
timeof
ofinjection
injectionmolded
moldedparts
partsfabricated
fabricated by
byten
tensets
setsof
of
injectionmolds
injection moldscooled
cooledwith
withdifferent
differentfour
fourdifferent
differentcooling
coolingmedia.
media.

According
Accordingto tothe
theresults
resultsdescribed
describedabove,
above,the
thefindings
findingsof ofthis
thisstudy
studyarearevery
verypractical
practical
and
andprovide
providethethegreatest
greatestapplication
applicationpotential
potentialinin
the precision
the precisionmoldmold industry,
industry,especially in
especially
the mold
in the design
mold stage.stage.
design In this
Instudy, the internal
this study, surface surface
the internal of the CCC fabricated
of the by additive
CCC fabricated by
manufacturing technologytechnology
additive manufacturing possesses high surfacehigh
possesses roughness
surfacecompared
roughness with conventional
compared with
cooling channel made by computer-numerical control machining
conventional cooling channel made by computer-numerical control machining [27]. [27]. The service lifeThe
of
the mold will be affected significantly due to stress concentration. The main
service life of the mold will be affected significantly due to stress concentration. The main reason is that
the moldisisthat
reason repeatedly
the mold heated [28] and cooled
is repeatedly heatedduring
[28] andthecooled
wax injection
during process.
the waxOngoing
injection
research
process. is focusedresearch
Ongoing on improving the surface
is focused roughness
on improving of the CCC
the surface by abrasive
roughness of theblasting,
CCC by
abrasive flow machining [29], electrochemical polishing, chemical polishing,
abrasive blasting, abrasive flow machining [29], electrochemical polishing, chemical laser polishing,
or ultrasoniclaser
polishing, cavitation abrasiveorfinishing.
polishing, In various
ultrasonic industries,
cavitation abrasivehydrogen [30,31]
finishing. Inis various
widely
applied as a high-performance gaseous cooling medium since its
industries, hydrogen [30,31] is widely applied as a high-performance gaseous coolingthermal conductivity
ismedium
higher than
since all
its other
thermalgases. In addition,
conductivity helium
is higher gasall
than [32] or hydrogen
other [33] can also
gases. In addition, heliumbe
applied as cooling media in gas-cooled nuclear reactors since its low
gas [32] or hydrogen [33] can also be applied as cooling media in gas-cooled nuclear tendency to absorb
neutrons. Sulfur hexafluoride [34,35] is also widely applied to cool some high-voltage
reactors since its low tendency to absorb neutrons. Sulfur hexafluoride [34,35] is also
power systems, such as circuit breakers, transformer, or switches. These issues are currently
widely applied to cool some high-voltage power systems, such as circuit breakers,
being investigated and the results will be presented in a later study.
transformer, or switches. These issues are currently being investigated and the results will
beConclusions
4. presented in a later study.
Generally, the cost-effectiveness depends on the cycle time of the injection molded
4. Conclusions
products significantly in the mass production process of new products. The MAM method
Generally,
is frequently the cost-effectiveness
applied depends on the
to speed up manufacturing for cycle time of theofinjection
the production injectionmolded
mold
products significantly in the mass production process of new products.
with CCC. However, the major issue is expensive spending and longtime taking in the The MAM method
is frequently
mold makingapplied
process.toThe
speed up manufacturing
objective of this studyforis the production
to study of injection
the cooling mold with
performance of
epoxy-based injection molds fabricated by different mold materials using differentthe
CCC. However, the major issue is expensive spending and longtime taking in mold
coolant
makingBased
media. process. Theexperimental
on the objective of this study
results is to study
obtained fromthe cooling
this work,performance of epoxy-
the contributions and
based injection molds fabricated by different
findings of this study can be summarized as follows: mold materials using different coolant
media. Based on the experimental results obtained from this work, the contributions and
1. A low-cost recipe that can produce cooling efficiency better than that made of com-
findings of this study can be summarized as follows:
mercial materials was demonstrated. The epoxy resin with 41 vol.% Al powder seems
1. to A be
low-cost recipe recipe
the optimum that can produceinjection
for making coolingmoldefficiency better
with high than efficiency.
cooling that made of
2. commercial
The materials
cooling time of thewas demonstrated.
injection molded partsThe isepoxy resin sensitive
extremely with 41 vol.%
to bothAlinjection
powder
mold material and the cooling medium. Cooling water with ultrafine bubblescooling
seems to be the optimum recipe for making injection mold with high is the
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 22 of 24

best candidate of the cooling medium. Average cooling efficiency approximately

12.4% can be further increased compared with commonly used cooling water.
3. Mold material has a significant effect on the cooling time of the injection molded part,
which has a greater influence on the cooling efficiency than the cooling medium since
cooling time range of different mold materials is 99 s while the cooling time range for
different cooling media is only 92 s. In addition, The cooling medium can be replaced
with cold air while the diameter of the cooling channel is less than 1.5 mm and the
coolant medium is water.

Author Contributions: C.-C.K. wrote the paper/conceived and designed the analysis/performed
the analysis/conceptualization; Y.-J.Z., J.-Y.X., C.-H.L. collected the data/contributed data or analysis
tools. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study received financial support by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan
under contract nos. MOST 110-2221-E-131-023 and MOST 109-2637-E-131-004.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Acronyms
CCC Conformal cooling channel
Al Aluminum
AM Additive manufacturing
RT Rapid tooling
CAD Computer-aided design
MAM Metal additive manufacturing
Cu Copper
FE-SEM Field-emission scanning electron microscopy
EDS Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
XRD X-ray diffractometer
SUS Stainless steel
PVB Polyvinyl butyral
NTD New Taiwan dollar
List of symbols
Tw Mold cavity surface temperature
s Part thickness
Tm Melt temperature
Te Average ejection temperature
Q Flow rate of the coolant
D Diameter of the cooling channel
Greek symbols
α Thermal diffusivity
ρ Density of the coolant
η Viscosity of the coolant

References
1. Torres-Alba, A.; Mercado-Colmenero, J.M.; Caballero-Garcia, J.D.D.; Martin-Doñate, C. A Hybrid Cooling Model Based on the
Use of Newly Designed Fluted Conformal Cooling Channels and Fastcool Inserts for Green Molds. Polymers 2021, 13, 3115.
[CrossRef]
2. Mukhtarkhanov, M.; Perveen, A.; Talamona, D. Application of Stereolithography Based 3D Printing Technology in Investment
Casting. Micromachines 2020, 11, 946. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Dong, Y.W.; Li, X.L.; Zhao, Q.; Yang, J.; Dao, M. Modeling of shrinkage during investment casting of thin-walled hollow turbine
blades. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 244, 190–203. [CrossRef]
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 23 of 24

4. Kitayama, S.; Miyakawa, H.; Takano, M.; Aiba, S. Multi-objective optimization of injection molding process parameters for short
cycle time and warpage reduction using conformal cooling channel. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2014, 88, 1735–1744. [CrossRef]
5. Rajaguru, J.; Duke, M.; Au, C. Development of rapid tooling by rapid prototyping technology and electroless nickel plating for
low-volume production of plastic parts. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2015, 78, 31–40. [CrossRef]
6. Lim, W.S.; Choi, H.S.; Ahn, S.Y.; Kim, B.M. Cooling channel design of hot stamping tools for uniform high-strength components
in hot stamping process. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2014, 70, 1189–1203. [CrossRef]
7. Chen, J.; Gong, P.; Liu, Y.; Zheng, X.; Ren, F. Optimization of hot stamping cooling system using segmented model. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 2017, 93, 1357–1365. [CrossRef]
8. Maji, P.K.; Banerjee, P.S.; Sinha, A. Application of rapid prototyping and rapid tooling for development of patient-specific
craniofacial implant: An investigative study. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2008, 36, 510–515. [CrossRef]
9. Gill, S.S.; Kaplas, M. Comparative Study of 3D Printing Technologies for Rapid Casting of Aluminium Alloy. Mater. Manuf.
Process. 2009, 24, 1405–1411. [CrossRef]
10. Nandi, A.K.; Deb, K.; Datta, S. Genetic Algorithm–Based Design and Development of Particle-Reinforced Silicone Rubber for Soft
Tooling Process. Mater. Manuf. Process. 2013, 28, 753–760. [CrossRef]
11. Wang, X.; Li, Z.; Gu, J.; Ruan, S.; Shen, C.; Wang, X. Reducing service stress of the injection-molded polycarbonate window by
optimizing mold construction and product structure. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2016, 86, 1691–1704. [CrossRef]
12. Mercado-Colmenero, J.M.; Rubio-Paramio, M.A.; Marquez-Sevillano, J.d.J.; Martin-Doñate, C. A new method for the automated
design of cooling systems in injection molds. Comput.-Aided Des. 2018, 104, 60–86. [CrossRef]
13. Tomori, T.; Melkote, S.; Kotnis, M. Injection mold performance of machined ceramic filled epoxy tooling boards. J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 2004, 145, 126–133. [CrossRef]
14. Kovacs, J.G.; Bercsey, T. Influence of mold properties on the quality of injection molded parts. Period. Polytech. Mech. Eng. 2005,
49, 115–122.
15. Khushairi, M.T.M.; Sharif, S.; Jamaludin, K.R.; Mohrun, A.S. Effects of Metal Fillers on Properties of Epoxy for Rapid Tooling
Inserts. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol. 2017, 7, 1155–1161. [CrossRef]
16. Waalkes, L.; Längerich, J.; Imgrund, P.; Emmelmann, C. Piston-Based Material Extrusion of Ti-6Al-4V Feedstock for Complemen-
tary Use in Metal Injection Molding. Materials 2022, 15, 351. [CrossRef]
17. Armen, J.; Bruck, H.A. Improving contact resistance in metal–ceramic heat exchangers running liquid metal by additive
manufacturing and ceramic tubes with electroplated films. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 113, 2101–2119. [CrossRef]
18. Hossain, M.S.; Taheri, H. In-situ process monitoring for metal additive manufacturing through acoustic techniques using wavelet
and convolutional neural network (CNN). Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 116, 3473–3488. [CrossRef]
19. Kuo, C.-C.; Qiu, S.-X. A Simple Method of Reducing Coolant Leakage for Direct Metal Printed Injection Mold with Conformal
Cooling Channels Using General Process Parameters and Heat Treatment. Materials 2021, 14, 7258. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Çalışkan, C.İ.; Coşkun, M.; Özer, G.; Koç, E.; Vurkır, T.A.; Yöndem, G. Investigation of manufacturability and efficiency of micro
channels with different geometries produced by direct metal laser sintering. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 117, 3805–3817.
[CrossRef]
21. Muvunzi, R.; Dimitrov, D.M.; Matope, S.; Harms, T. A case study on the design of a hot stamping tool with conformal cooling
channels. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 114, 1833–1846. [CrossRef]
22. Yamaguchi, M.; Furumoto, T.; Inagaki, S.; Tsuji, M.; Ochiai, Y.; Hashimoto, Y.; Koyano, T.; Hosokawa, A. Internal face finishing for
a cooling channel using a fluid containing free abrasive grains. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 114, 497–507. [CrossRef]
23. Hailan, S.M.; Ponnamma, D.; Krupa, I. The Separation of Oil/Water Mixtures by Modified Melamine and Polyurethane Foams:
A Review. Polymers 2021, 13, 4142. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Franzelli, B.; Scouflaire, P.; Darabiha, N. Using In Situ Measurements to Experimentally Characterize TiO2 Nanoparticle Synthesis
in a Turbulent Isopropyl Alcohol Flame. Materials 2021, 14, 7083. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Kim, Y.; Moon, C.; Nematollahi, O.; Kim, H.D.; Kim, K.C. Time-Resolved PIV Measurements and Turbulence Characteristics of
Flow Inside an Open-Cell Metal Foam. Materials 2021, 14, 3566. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Abbasnezhad, N.; Kebdani, M.; Shirinbayan, M.; Champmartin, S.; Tcharkhtchi, A.; Kouidri, S.; Bakir, F. Development of a Model
Based on Physical Mechanisms for the Explanation of Drug Release: Application to Diclofenac Release from Polyurethane Films.
Polymers 2021, 13, 1230. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Kuo, C.-C.; Chen, W.-H. Improving Cooling Performance of Injection Molding Tool with Conformal Cooling Channel by Adding
Hybrid Fillers. Polymers 2021, 13, 1224. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Asif, A.; Manzoore, E.M.S.; Ali, B.; Mohammed, K. Thermal Performance of Compression Ignition Engine Using High Content
Biodiesels: A Comparative Study with Diesel Fuel. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7688.
29. Dong, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Lei, H. Cutting factors and testing of highly viscoelastic fluid abrasive flow machining. Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Technol. 2021, 112, 3459–3470. [CrossRef]
30. Chai, M.; Li, Z.; Yan, H.; Huang, Z. Flow field characteristics analysis of interelectrode gap in electrochemical machining of film
cooling holes. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 112, 525–536. [CrossRef]
31. da Silva, L.J.; Souza, D.M.; de Araújo, D.B.; Reis, R.P.; Scotti, A. Concept and validation of an active cooling technique to mitigate
heat accumulation in WAAM. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2020, 107, 2513–2523. [CrossRef]
Polymers 2022, 14, 280 24 of 24

32. Abdelrazek, A.H.; Choudhury, I.A.; Nukman, Y.; Kazi, S.N. Metal cutting lubricants and cutting tools: A review on the
performance improvement and sustainability assessment. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2020, 106, 4221–4245. [CrossRef]
33. Fan, J.; Peng, B.; Zhao, W. Study on hydrogen behaviors around micropores within heavy forging during heating process. Int. J.
Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 113, 523–533. [CrossRef]
34. Ricciardi, M.R.; Papa, I.; Coppola, G.; Lopresto, V.; Sansone, L.; Antonucci, V. Effect of Plasma Treatment on the Impact Behavior
of Epoxy/Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Preliminary Study. Polymers 2021, 13, 1293. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Khettabi, I.; Benyoucef, L.; Boutiche, M.A. Sustainable reconfigurable manufacturing system design using adapted multi-objective
evolutionary-based approaches. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 115, 3741–3759. [CrossRef]