materials
Article
Multi-Stage Cold Forging Process for Manufacturing a
High-Strength One-Body Input Shaft
A Ra Jo 1,2 , Myeong Sik Jeong 1 , Sang Kon Lee 1 , Young Hoon Moon 2






Citation: Jo, AR.; Jeong, M.S.; Lee,
S.K.; Moon, Y.H.; Hwang, S.K.
Multi-Stage Cold Forging Process for
Manufacturing a High-Strength
One-Body Input Shaft. Materials 2021,
14, 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma14030532
Received: 29 December 2020
Accepted: 18 January 2021
Published: 22 January 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14030532
and Sun Kwang Hwang 1, *
1 Mechanical Components and Materials R&D Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology,
Daegu 42994, Korea; ooo7208@kitech.re.kr (A.R.J.); msjeong@kitech.re.kr (M.S.J.); sklee@kitech.re.kr (S.K.L.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea;
yhmoon@pusan.ac.kr
* Correspondence: skhwang@kitech.re.kr; Tel.: +82-053-580-0157
Abstract: A multi-stage cold forging process was developed and complemented with finite element
analysis (FEA) to manufacture a high-strength one-body input shaft with a long length body and no
separate parts. FEA showed that the one-body input shaft was manufactured without any defects
or fractures. Experiments, such as tensile, hardness, torsion, and fatigue tests, and microstructural
characterization, were performed to compare the properties of the input shaft produced by the
proposed method with those produced using the machining process. The ultimate tensile strength
showed a 50% increase and the torque showed a 100 Nm increase, confirming that the input shaft
manufactured using the proposed process is superior to that processed using the machining process.
Thus, this study provides a proof-of-concept for the design and development of a multi-stage cold
forging process to manufacture a one-body input shaft with improved mechanical properties and
material recovery rate.
Keywords: input shaft; multi-stage cold forging process; shrink fit; torsion test; fatigue test
1. Introduction
Various automobile parts are manufactured by several processes. Among them,
products that are manufactured by machining have highly precise dimensional shape
and surface condition. However, this method has several problems, such as low material
efficiency and the chip removal method is inefficient. Hence, the automotive industry is
now focused on replacing the machining process with a metal forming process to obtain
higher mechanical properties, productivity, and material recovery [1].
The input shaft is an important automotive part of the motor-driven power steering
(MDPS) system. Its main function is to transmit the driving force and torque to the
universal joint. Hence, it requires superior mechanical properties and geometric tolerance.
Generally, the input shaft is manufactured by machining because its length exceeds 200 mm
and it has a complicated shape. Another fabrication process of the input shaft includes
separately manufacturing its upper and lower parts by cold forging and then combining
them. However, these processes could not satisfy the required geometric tolerance and
avoid defects, such as dropouts and assembly.
Forging has steadily gained traction as the primary metal forming process as its
processing parameters, such as working temperature and environment, can be adjusted
to produce the required material properties. Particularly, cold forging that is performed
below the recrystallization temperature has excellent dimensional accuracy and produces
excellent mechanical properties. This is due to the dislocations generated by the high flow
stress. However, this high flow stress requires a high load and only a limited variety of
shapes can be produced. Hence, the cold forging process alone, or one combined with
hot forging, has been previously used [2–6]. Fujikawa et al. [7] described a method for
combining warm and cold forging to manufacture constant-velocity joints and spline shafts
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2021, 14, 532 2 of 13

for automobiles. Using this combination, complex and high-load products can be easily
manufactured. However, the addition of heat treatment and pickling treatment in the
process makes it complicated and expensive. Consequently, it is important to investigate
other methods that preserve the simplicity and cost-effectiveness of the process.
Multi-stage cold forging without heat treatment has been employed by researchers.
This process distributes the load and increases the accuracy of the shape. Pang et al. [8]
used multi-stage cold forging for manufacturing hollow power-transmission long shafts.
Ku et al. [9] successfully replaced traditional multi-stage warm forging with multi-stage
cold forging to produce constant-velocity joints. The products manufactured revealed
excellent mechanical properties. Thus, multi-stage cold forging may be a prime candidate
for efficient manufacturing of input shafts. In addition, it is important to predict the
results of the process and die design to increase the die life in the process design. This is
usually performed using finite element analysis (FEA). McCormack and Monaghan [10]
proposed the most suitable die design for manufacturing hexagon head bolts by analyzing
the forming results with respect to the head angle using FEA. Soranansri et al. [11] designed
a die with an appropriate shrink fit, which was used to improve die life, to manufacture
bevel gears using forging.
In process design, the prediction of internal fracture in the product is also an important
factor. For volumetric forming process, internal fracture can be predicted by the ductile
fracture equation. Cockcroft and Latham [12] proposed a ductile fracture equation for
plastic strain as a function of the maximum principal stress. Chen et al. [13] and Oh
et al. [14] predicted ductile fractures in the extrusion and drawing processes by combining
the Cockcroft–Latham ductile fracture equation with FEA. Ductile fracture occurs when the
hydrostatic stress (mean stress) is non-negative or the critical damage value is exceeded at
the center of the material [15,16]. The Cockcroft–Latham equation [12] and the hydrostatic
equations can predict internal fractures, such as chevron cracks appearing in long products.
Lee et al. [17,18] synthetically produced a high-strength bolt that is elongated in the
extrusion direction, and used a multi-stage cold forging process to improve its mechanical
properties with a shrink fit and a ductile fracture equation. Thus, multi-stage cold forging is
the most appropriate process to manufacture high-strength products with high productivity
and material recovery. Hence, it is important to design a die with a suitable shrink fit
to increase die life using the ductile failure equation to predict the internal defects of a
product.
This study provides a proof-of-concept for a multi-stage cold forging process to
manufacture high-strength one-body input shafts of long lengths without separate parts.
The process comprises six stages and was designed using FEA simulations. The value
of the shrink fit was adjusted to improve the die life and predict the die fracture. The
Cockcroft–Latham equation and hydrostatic stress analysis were used to predict the ductile
fracture. Based on the analysis, the dies were produced and forging was carried out. Various
experiments were conducted to compare this shaft with that produced using a conventional
machining process. Tensile and hardness tests were performed to confirm the improvement
of the mechanical properties. Furthermore, torsion and fatigue tests were performed to
compare durability. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was also used to characterize
the microstructural transformation in the material. In addition, FEA was used to compare
these results with those of the process that separately manufactures the upper and lower
parts. The analysis results were compared based on previous experimental results.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Forming
SWRCH45F steel, which is mainly used in various automobile parts, made by POSCO,
was used in the study. Its analyzed chemical composition is listed in Table 1. Multi-stage
forging was designed to work in six stages to produce a one-body product. The size of
the raw material was determined based on the required dimensions of the final product.
The diameter of the raw material was set to 22.5 mm along the diameter of the body of
 2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Forming
2.1. Forming
SWRCH45F steel, which is mainly used in various automobile parts, made by
SWRCH45F steel, which is mainly used in various automobile parts, made by
POSCO, was used in the study. Its analyzed chemical composition is listed in Table 1.
Materials 2021, 14, 532 3 of 13
POSCO, was used in the study. Its analyzed chemical composition is listed in Table 1.
Multi-stage forging was designed to work in six stages to produce a one-body product.
Multi-stage forging was designed to work in six stages to produce a one-body product.
The size of the raw material was determined based on the required dimensions of the final
The size of the raw material was determined based on the required dimensions of the final
product. The diameter of the raw material was set to 22.5 mm along the diameter of the
product. The the
diameter of the raw
final product. Thematerial
length was set to material
22.5 mmwas along the diameter of176.7
the
body of the final product. The length of the ofraw thematerial
raw determined
was determined to be
to be 176.7 mm. mm. In this
body of the final product.
case, barreling The length
candueoccur of the raw material was determined to be 176.7 mm.
In this case, barreling can occur to due to thelength
the long long length of the product.
of the product. To preventTo prevent
barrel-barreling, the
In this case, barreling
lower canofoccur
part the due towas
length the long
first length
extruded of the
in product.
three stepsToandprevent
then barrel-
thepart
upper part was
ing, the lower part of the length was first extruded in three steps and then the upper
ing, the lowerextruded
part of the in length
two was The
steps. first area
extruded in three
reduction ratiosteps
was and then thetoupper
calculated be 47% part
and 45% in the
was extruded in two steps. The area reduction ratio was calculated to be 47% and 45% in
was extrudedupper
in twoand
steps. Thepart,
lower area respectively.
reduction ratio was values
These calculated
are to bethan
less 47%the andreduction
45% in ratio of the
the upper and lower part, respectively. These values are less than the reduction ratio of
the upper andgeneral
lower extrusion
part, respectively.
process, These is
which values are less
75% final
[19]. Thethan
final the reduction
process designratio of
is shown in Figure
the general extrusion process, which is 75% [19]. The process design is shown in
the general extrusion
1. Step 1process,
is a which
pre-process is 75%
step [19].
for theThe final
bottom process design
extrusion. Steps is shown
2 and 3 in
are for the bottom
Figure 1. Step 1 is a pre-process step for the bottom extrusion. Steps 2 and 3 are for the
Figure 1. Stepextrusion,
1 is a pre-process
while step4 and
steps for the
5 bottom
are for theextrusion.
top Steps The
extrusion. 2 and 3 are
final forstep
step, the 6, consists of
bottom extrusion, while steps 4 and 5 are for the top extrusion. The final step, step 6, con-
bottom extrusion,
formingwhile steps 4 and
polygons 5 are for the top extrusion. The final step, step 6,Figure
con-
sists of forming polygons at theatupper
the upper
part part
and and spline
spline shapesshapes at the
at the bottom.
bottom. Figure 2 2 shows the
sists of forming polygons at
experimental the upper
set-up part andformer
of the six-stage spline (HBF-416)
shapes at the ownedbottom. Figure
by SUNG JIN2 FO-MA INC
shows the experimental set-up of the six-stage former (HBF-416) owned by SUNG JIN FO-
shows the experimental
and the dies set-up
usedofinthe
thesix-stage
study. The former (HBF-416)
velocity ownedwas
of the punch by SUNG JIN FO-
140 mm/s.
MA INC and the dies used in the study. The velocity of the punch was 140 mm/s.
MA INC and the dies used in the study. The velocity of the punch was 140 mm/s.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of the raw material.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of the raw material.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of the raw material.
Material Material Chemical Composition
Chemical Composition (%) (%)
Material Chemical Composition (%)
C C Si Si Mn MnP PS S
SWRCH 45F C Si Mn P S
SWRCH 45F 0.42–0.48 0.1–0.35 0.6–0.9 0.030 Max 0.035 Max
SWRCH 45F 0.42–0.48 0.1–0.35 0.6–0.9 0.030 Max 0.035 Max
0.42–0.48 0.1–0.35 0.6–0.9 0.030 Max 0.035 Max

Figure 1. Schematic of the1.multi-stage

Figure Schematic cold
of theforging process.
multi-stage cold forging process.
Figure 1. Schematic of the multi-stage cold forging process.

Figure 2. Experimental set-up for multi-stage cold forging and the dies used.
Figure 2. Figure
Experimental set-up forset-up
2. Experimental multi-stage cold forging
for multi-stage coldand the dies
forging andused.
the dies used.

2.2. Mechanical Characterization

Tensile tests were conducted to investigate the mechanical property changes, such as
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation. The specimen was obtained from the spline
part of the input shaft at the bottom and the dimensions of the specimen according to the
ASTM standard (E8/E8M) are shown in Figure 3a [20]. The tensile tests were carried out
in triplicate, using Zwick-Z250N, with a pre-load of 5 MPa, a constant cross-head speed
of 10 MPa/s in E-modulus, and a yield point at room temperature. The properties of the
shafts produced using the conventional process were used for comparison. The hardness
 Tensile tests were conducted to investigate the mechanical property changes, such as
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation. The specimen was obtained from the
spline part of the input shaft at the bottom and the dimensions of the specimen according
to the ASTM standard (E8/E8M) are shown in Figure 3a [20]. The tensile tests were carried
out in triplicate, using Zwick-Z250N, with a pre-load of 5 MPa, a constant cross-head
Materials 2021, 14, 532 4 of 13
speed of 10 MPa/s in E-modulus, and a yield point at room temperature. The properties
of the shafts produced using the conventional process were used for comparison. The
hardness of the input shaft was measured using a Vickers micro-hardness tester (Matsu-
of theJapan)
zawa, Akita Pref, input shaft was measured
(AMT-X7FS Type B,using
load: a29.4
Vickers micro-hardness
N (300 tester shown
gf)) at the location (Matsuzawa, Akita
in Figure 3b. Pref, Japan) (AMT-X7FS Type B, load: 29.4 N (300 gf)) at the location shown in Figure 3b.

Figure 3. (a) Dimension of tensile test specimen, (b) data acquisition points for the Vickers micro-
Figure 3. (a) Dimension of tensile test specimen, (b) data acquisition points for the Vickers micro-hardness test, and (c)
hardness test, and (c) dimensions of the specimen for the fatigue test.
dimensions of the specimen for the fatigue test.
Torsion and Torsion
fatigue and testsfatigue
were performed to examine
tests were performed tothe improvement
examine in the tor-
the improvement in the torsional
sional and fatigue
and fatigue strengths, respectively. The torsion test was conducteddifferent
strengths, respectively. The torsion test was conducted in two in two different con-
conditions using a torsion
ditions using atesting
torsionmachine (MET-100H)
testing machine (Cowon, (Cowon,
(MET-100H) Seoul, Korea)
Seoul,atKorea)
a con-at a constant
stant speed of 100°/min
speed of 100at roomattemperature.
◦ /min In one In
room temperature. condition, the specimen
one condition, was tested
the specimen was tested until a
until a fracture occurred, while in the other condition, the specimen
fracture occurred, while in the other condition, the specimen was tested was tested up toup200
to 200 Nm. The
Nm. The set torsion of 200
set torsion of Nm
200 Nmconsiders a safety
considers factor
a safety of 100
factor ofNm, which
100 Nm, is theismaximum
which the maximum torque
torque received by thebyMDPS
received the MDPS [21]. [21].
To compare
To compare the deformation,
the deformation, a 3D laser
a 3D scanner
laser scanner(DS-(DS-3040, error
3040, error range: 6 μm) was used. Axial load fatigue tests were performed
range: 6 µm) was used. Axial load fatigue tests were performed using a fatigue testing using a fatigue
testing machine (ACEONE,
machine (ACEONE, Inchon, Korea)
Inchon, at room
Korea) temperature
at room temperatureto measure the fatigue
to measure the fatigue limit of
limit of the machined
the machined and forged
and forged products. Figure
products. 3c shows
Figure 3c showsthe the
dimensions
dimensions of the speci-
of the specimens used
mens used inin the fatigue test that was machined from the processed shaft
the fatigue test that was machined from the processed shaft according to the ASTM according to the
ASTM Standard (D7791-17)
Standard [22]. The
(D7791-17) conditions
[22]. of the test
The conditions aretest
of the listed
areinlisted
Tablein2.Table
The fatigue
2. The fatigue limit
limit was measured based on 1,000,000 cycles, which is the fatigue
was measured based on 1,000,000 cycles, which is the fatigue limit of general limit of general steel steel [23,24].
[23,24]. In addition, the fatigue
In addition, test analysis
the fatigue was performed
test analysis was performed usingusing
ANSYS ANSYS(Ansys, Can-Canonsburg,
(Ansys,
onsburg, PA,PA,USA)USA) using thethe
using results of the
results tensile
of the andand
tensile fatigue tests.
fatigue tests.

Table 2. Experimental conditions forconditions

Table 2. Experimental the fatiguefor
test.
the fatigue test.
Process Conditions
Process Conditions Value Value
Fatigue limit 1,000,000 cycles
Fatigue limit 1,000,000 cycles
Frequency 10 Hz
Frequency 10 Hz
Stress ratio (σmin
Stress (σ)min /σmax )
/σmax
ratio −1 −1
Stress Amplitude of Machined product product
Stress Amplitude of Machined 200–300 MPa
200–300 MPa
Stress Amplitude of Forged product product
Stress Amplitude of Forged 300–500 MPa
300–500 MPa

2.3. Microstructural Characterization

The product was cut in the normal direction (ND) plane to check for internal defects
and damage, and to compare analyses and experimental results. To observe the metal flow
characteristics, the specimen was hot-mounted and mechanically polished up to 1 µm using
SiC papers and diamond suspensions. Macro-etching (nital 10%) was performed. The
observation locations were set to four points in the final product using a stereo microscope
(Carl Zeiss, Obercohen, Germany) (SteREO Discovery. V20) at 4.7× magnification.
The microstructure evolution was observed by an EBSD, an Oxford symmetry with
JEOL (JSM-7900F) (JEOL Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) [25,26]. The specimens were hot-mounted,
Materials 2021, 14, 532 5 of 13

mechanically polished by SiC paper, and mirror-finished using diamond suspensions (up to
0.25 µm) and colloidal silica. The measurement conditions of the EBSD were: an accelerated
voltage of 15 kV, a probe current of 15 nA, a specimen tilt of 70◦ , a scan step size of 0.08 µm,
and a measurement area of 79.4 × 56.9 µm2 . A map of the kernel average misorientation
(KAM) and grain boundary (GB) was obtained from the post-process program (Aztec,
CHANNEL 5) (2.0, Oxford Instruments, Abingdon-on-Thames, England).

3. Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

A simulation using an FEA program is required to ensure a suitable design of the new
process. Commercial FEA programs DEFORM-2D (10.0, Scientific Forming Technologies
Corporation, OH, USA) and -3D (rigid plastic FEA software) (10.0, Scientific Forming
Technologies Corporation, OH, USA) were used to predict the defects and damages in
the products and dies. DEFORM-2D was applied to simulate steps 1 to 5 because the
part produced in these steps has an axisymmetric structure. DEFORM-3D was applied to
step 6 because the non-axisymmetric structure and complex shape of the part produced
involved a polygon and spline. It was constructed as a one-quarter model considering its
symmetrical shape. The analysis conditions are listed in Table 3. The friction coefficient
between the material and the die was applied to the coulomb friction [15]. A compression
test was performed to obtain the mechanical properties for the FEA and the critical damage
value for the ductile fracture prediction [27]. The test was performed using a universal
testing machine (Zwick-Z205N) (Zwick Roell Group, Ulm, Germany) with a constant
velocity of 0.05 mm/s at room temperature. Grease was applied to the surface of the
specimen to reduce friction. A stress–strain curve obtained from the compression test
was applied for the ductile fracture simulation. The critical damage value of 519 MPa
was obtained from the ductile fracture equation, i.e., the Cockcroft–Latham equation, as
shown in Figure 4. The ductile fracture prediction and the hydrostatic stress distribution
are shown in Figure 5. The ductile fracture analysis showed that the critical damage value
was evenly distributed under 519 MPa for all processes. In addition, a negative hydrostatic
stress was distributed in the product, which is expected to have no defects during all the
processes.

Table 3. Process conditions for the FEA.

Process Conditions Value

Symmetric model of DEFORM-2D axis symmetry
Symmetric model of DEFORM-3D quarter (90◦ )
Initial specimen Diameter 22.5 mm
Initial specimen Length 176.7 mm
Friction µ = 0.055
Punch velocity 140 mm/s
Temperature of Specimen 20 ◦ C
Temperature of Die 20 ◦ C
Temperature of Environment 20 ◦ C
Materials 2021, 14, 532 6 of 13
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Fitted flow stress–strain curve obtained from the compression test, (b) upsetting test results for various height
Figure
Figure 4. (a)Fitted
4. (a) Fittedflow
flowstress–strain
stress–strain curve
curve obtained
obtained from
from the the compression
compression test,test, (b) upsetting
(b) upsetting test results
test results for various
for various height
reductions.
height reductions.
reductions.

Figure 5. Numerical results of (a) ductile fracture prediction and (b) hydrostatic stress (mean stress).
Figure 5. Numerical results of (a) ductile fracture prediction and (b) hydrostatic stress (mean stress).
Figure 5. Numerical results of (a) ductile fracture prediction and (b) hydrostatic stress (mean stress).
The prediction of die fracture is important in the design of the die and processes.
The prediction
Generally,
The prediction
a die withof of die fracture
fracture
a suitable
die shrink is fit
is important in the
can increase
important in the design
die lifeof
thedesign and
of theprevent
the die and
die anddie processes.
fracture.
processes.
Generally,
Generally, a
It is important die
a dieto with
check
with a suitable shrink
the maximum
a suitable shrink fitfit can increase
principal the
stressthe
can increase die
since life and
die fracture prevent
is mainly
life and prevent die
die fracture.
caused by
fracture.
It
It is important
repeated
is important to check
tensiletostresses
check thethe maximum
[28,29].
maximum The die principal
primarily
principal stress
used
stress since
since fracture
in fracture is
the industries mainly caused
consists
is mainly caused by
of by
an
repeated
repeated tensile
tensile
insert, stress stresses
ring,stresses
and case [28,29].
[28,29]. The
The die
for efficient die
use.primarily
primarily
The insert, used
used
whichin the
in the industries
industries
is located consists
consists
inside the die,of an
ofhas
an
insert,
insert,
the stressload
stress
highest ring,distribution.
ring, and case
and case for
forThe
efficient
efficient use.
stressuse. The
ringThe insert, which
insert,
is installed which
in theisiscenter
located
located inside
of inside the
the diethe die, has
to die, has
prevent
the highest
the highest load
load distribution.
distribution. The
The stress
stress ring
ring is
is installed
installed in
in the
the center
center
fracture of the insert due to compressive stresses. The case is located outside the die of
of the
the die
die to
to prevent
prevent
thesupplement
the
to fracture of
fracture of the
the insert
insert due
overall due toIn
to
load. compressive
compressive stresses.
this study, stresses.
the The case
The
materials case is
used is located
located
for outside
outside
the insert, thering,
the
stress die
die
to
to
and supplement
supplement the overall
the overall
case were tungsten load. In
load. (WC),
carbide this study,
In thisAISI
study, the materials
theand
H13, materials used for the
usedrespectively.
AISI 4140, insert,
for the insert,The stress
stress ring,
ring,
detailed
and case
and case were
mechanical were tungstenofcarbide
tungsten
properties carbide
each die (WC),
(WC), AISI H13,
AISI
component H13, and
areand AISI
AISI
listed 4140,
in 4140, respectively.
Tablerespectively.
4. The detailed
The detailed
properties of
mechanical properties of each
each die
die component
component are are listed
listed in
in Table
Table4.4.
Table 4. Material properties of the forging dies.
Table4.
Table 4. Material
Material properties
propertiesof
ofthe
theforging
forgingdies.
dies.
Die Material Elastic Modulus Yield Stress
Die
Die
Material
Insert (WC)
Material
Elastic Modulus
468Modulus
Elastic GPa Yield Stress
2683Stress
Yield MPa
Insert (WC)
Stress ring (AISI H13) 468 GPa
215 GPa 2683 MPa
1380 MPa
Insert
Stress ring (WC) H13)
(AISI 468
215 GPa
GPa 2683
1380 MPa
MPa
Case
Stress (AISI
ring 4140)
(AISI H13) 205 GPa
215 GPa 1110 MPa
1380 MPa
Case (AISI 4140) 205 GPa 1110 MPa
Case (AISI 4140) 205 GPa 1110 MPa
Materials 2021, 14, 532 7 of 13

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW  8  of  15 
 
It is important to find the appropriate shrink fit because the die can be reinforced
depending on the shrink fit of the stress ring. An insert die analysis was performed, as
It is important to find the appropriate shrink fit because the die can be reinforced
shown in
dependingFigure 6a. shrink
on the The yield
fit of strength
the stress of theAn
ring. insert
insertdie
diewas less was
analysis thanperformed,
It is important to find the appropriate shrink fit because the die can be reinforced  2683 MPa,asbut it had
adepending on the shrink fit of the stress ring. An insert die analysis was performed, as 
relatively high value in steps 5 and 6. Step 6, which has a high absolute
shown in Figure 6a. The yield strength of the insert die was less than 2683 MPa, but stress,
it had was used
toshown in Figure 6a. The yield strength of the insert die was less than 2683 MPa, but it had 
find the appropriate
a relatively high value inshrink
steps 5fit.
andAs6. shown in Figure
Step 6, which 6b, the
has a high principal
absolute stress,stress
was usedof the insert
and to find the appropriate shrink fit. As shown in Figure 6b, the principal stress
stress ring is evenly distributed when the shrink fit is in the range of 0.3–0.7%. It is
a relatively high value in steps 5 and 6. Step 6, which has a high absolute stress, was used  of the insert
shown and that
stressan
ring is evenly distributed
appropriate shrink fitwhen the shrinkdie
can prevent fit is in the range
fracture of 0.3–0.7%.
and improve
to find the appropriate shrink fit. As shown in Figure 6b, the principal stress of the insert  dieIt is
life. In this
shown that an appropriate shrink fit can prevent die fracture and improve die life. In this
and stress ring is evenly distributed when the shrink fit is in the range of 0.3–0.7%. It is 
study, a 0.5% shrink fit was applied.
study, a 0.5% shrink fit was applied.
shown that an appropriate shrink fit can prevent die fracture and improve die life. In this 
study, a 0.5% shrink fit was applied. 

Numerical
Figure 6.Figure results
6. Numerical of of
results (a)(a)maximum principal
maximum principal stress
stress distributions
distributions obtainedobtained fromanalysis
from die stress die stress analysis
and (b) com- and (b)
parison
comparison of the
of the diedie stressamong
stress among various
variousshrink fits.fits.
shrink  
Figure  6.  Numerical  results  of 
4.(a)  maximum 
Results principal  stress  distributions  obtained  from  die  stress  analysis  and  (b) 
and Discussion
comparison of the die stress among various shrink fits. 
4. Results Based
and onDiscussion
the FEA, a die with a 0.5% shrink fit was manufactured and installed on the
former, as previously shown in Figure 2. The product was cross-sectioned along the ND
Based on the FEA, a die with a 0.5% shrink fit was manufactured and installed on
4. Results and Discussion 
plane to observe the surface and interior. We confirmed that there was no damage on the
the surface
former, as within
and previously shown
the product, asin Figure
shown 2. The7.product
in Figure Metal flow was
wascross-sectioned
observed withoutalong the
Based on the FEA, a die with a 0.5% shrink fit was manufactured and installed on the 
ND plane to observe the surface and interior. We confirmed that
former, as previously shown in Figure 2. The product was cross‐sectioned along the ND 
any defects owing to its symmetry and density, and without kinks and breaks, thereaswasshownno damage
plane to observe the surface and interior. We confirmed that there was no damage on the 
on the surface and within the product, as shown in Figure 7. Metal flow was observed
in Figure 7c. Table 5 shows the material recovery rate of the processes. The recovery rates
surface and within the product, as shown in Figure 7. Metal flow was observed without 
of theany
without machined
defectsand forgedto
owing products are 31.3%
its symmetry anddensity,
and 80.3%, respectively.
and without Thekinks
materialandre-breaks, as
covery rate of the forged product is approximately 2.56 times higher than
any defects owing to its symmetry and density, and without kinks and breaks, as shown 
shown in Figure 7c. Table 5 shows the material recovery rate of the processes. The recovery that of the con-
ventional machining process. The experimental and numerical results confirmed that the
in Figure 7c. Table 5 shows the material recovery rate of the processes. The recovery rates 
rates of the machined and forged products are 31.3% and 80.3%, respectively. The material
proposed
of  the  machined process
and successfully manufactured
forged  products  a one-body
are  31.3%  inputrespectively. 
and  80.3%,  shaft with anThe improved
material 
recovery
material rate of the
recovery forged
rate and noproduct
defects. is approximately 2.56 times higher than that of the
recovery rate of the forged product is approximately 2.56 times higher than that of the 
conventional machining process. The experimental and numerical results confirmed that
conventional machining process. The experimental and numerical results confirmed that 
the proposed process successfully manufactured a one-body input shaft with an improved
the  proposed  process  successfully  manufactured  a  one‐body  input  shaft  with  an 
material recovery rate and no defects.
improved material recovery rate and no defects.   

 
Figure 7. View of the (a) surface of the product, (b) interior of the product, and (c) metal flow of the
produced product.
 
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Materials 2021, 14, 532 8 of 13

Figure 7. View of the (a) surface of the product, (b) interior of the product, and (c) metal flow of
Figure 7. View of the (a) surface of the product, (b) interior of the product, and (c) metal flow of
the produced product.
the produced product.
Table 5. Comparison of material recovery rate between the processes.
Table 5. Comparison of material recovery rate between the processes.
Table 5. Comparison of material recovery rate between the processes.
Machined
Machined InputInput
ShaftShaft ForgedForged Input Shaft
Input Shaft
3
Machined Input Shaft Forged Input Shaft
Raw material volume
Raw material (mm )(mm ) 3
volume 3 180,248
180,248 70,257 70,257
Raw material volume (mm ) 180,248 70,257
Final product
Final product volume (mm3)(mm3 ) 3
volume 56,43056,430
Final product volume (mm ) 56,430
Material
Material recovery
recovery rate (%)
rate (%) 31.3 31.3 80.3 80.3
Material recovery rate (%) 31.3 80.3

As shown
As in the stress–strain curves in Figure 8, the UTS of the of
machined product
Asshown
shownininthe thestress–strain
stress–straincurves
curvesininFigure
Figure8,8,the
theUTS
UTS ofthe themachined
machinedproduct
product
was 500 MPa; conversely,
was that of the forging product was 750 MPa. Thus, the multi-stage
was500
500MPa;
MPa;conversely,
conversely,thatthatofofthe
theforging
forgingproduct
productwas was750750MPa.
MPa.Thus,
Thus,the
themulti-stage
multi-stage
cold forging
cold process can produce an input shaft with higher strength than that with the the
coldforging
forgingprocess
processcan canproduce
producean aninput
inputshaft
shaftwith
withhigher
higherstrength
strengththan
thanthat
thatwith
with the
machining process,
machining as confirmed by the approximately 50% improvement in the UTS. As
machiningprocess,
process,as asconfirmed
confirmedby bythe
theapproximately
approximately50% 50%improvement
improvementininthe theUTS.
UTS.AsAs
shownshown
in Figure
in 9, the hardness
Figure 9, the of the forged
hardness of the product
forged improved
product by approximately
improved by 45% 45%
approximately
shown in Figure 9, the hardness of the forged product improved by approximately 45%
compared with the machined
compared products. The polygonal (#1) and spline (#5) regions with
comparedwithwiththethemachined
machinedproducts.
products.The Thepolygonal
polygonal(#1) (#1)and
andspline
spline(#5)
(#5)regions
regionswith
with
high forming
high effects show the relatively high hardness values. From theseFrom
results, theresults,
pro- the
highforming
forming effects show
effects show therelatively
the relatively highhardness
high hardness values.
values. From these these
results, the pro-
posed proposed
multi-stage cold forging
multi-stage coldprocess
forging can manufacture
process one-body input shafts withshafts
im- with
posed multi-stage cold forging process cancan manufacture
manufacture one-body
one-body input
input shafts with im-
provedimproved
mechanical properties.
mechanical properties.
proved mechanical properties.
1000
1000 Forged product _1
Forged
Forged product _2 product _1
Forged
_3 product _2
Engineering Stress (MPa)

800 Forged product

Engineering Stress (MPa)

800 Forged_1
Machined product product _3
Machined
Machined product _2 product _1
Machined
Machined product _3 product _2
600 Machined product _3
600

400
400

200
200

0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Figure 8. Comparison of the tensile test results for the forged and machined products.
Figure8.8.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofofthe
thetensile
tensiletest
testresults
resultsfor
forthe
theforged
forgedand
andmachined
machinedproducts.
products.

Figure 9. (a) Contour plots and (b) comparison graph of the Vickers hardness test results for the machined and forged
Figure9.9.(a)
Figure (a)Contour
Contour plots
plots and
and (b)(b) comparison
comparison graph
graph of Vickers
of the the Vickers hardness
hardness test results
test results for thefor the machined
machined and products.
and forged forged
products.
products.
als 2021, 14, x FOR PEER
Materials 2021, REVIEW
14, 532 9 of 14 9 of 13

The torsion test

The was conducted
torsion test wasuntil a fractureuntil
conducted occurred in theoccurred
a fracture product, inas the
shown in
product, as shown
Figure 10a. The torque of the machined product was 125, 215, and 230 Nm
in Figure 10a. The torque of the machined product was 125, 215, and 230 Nm at theat the twisted
angles of 10°, twisted
20°, and angles
30°, respectively,
of 10◦ , 20◦while
, and that
30◦ , of the forged product
respectively, while thatwasof225,
the320, and product was
forged
330 Nm, respectively.
225, 320,The
andtorque
330 Nm, of the forged product
respectively. was approximately
The torque of the forged 100 Nm higher
product was approximately
than that of the
100machined
Nm higher product
than thatat of
thethesame twistedproduct
machined angle. A at torque
the sameof twisted
200 Nmangle.
was A torque of
applied to check the dimensional change
200 Nm was applied to check of the input shaft and the results were numeri-
dimensional change of the input shaft and the results
cally confirmedwerebynumerically
a 3D laser scanner
confirmed (Laser
by a Design
3D laserInc., Minneapolis,
scanner MN, Inc.,
(Laser Design USA). As
Minneapolis, MN,
shown in Figure 10b,As
USA). the maximum
shown deformation
in Figure of the machined
10b, the maximum product
deformation under
of the twistingproduct under
machined
was 0.6096 mm, whilewas
twisting that0.6096
of themm,forged product
while that ofwas 0.2470 product
the forged mm. Under was identical
0.2470 mm. load,
Under identical
the deformation of the
load, the deformation
machined product was approximately
of the machined product was 2.47approximately
times higher than that higher than
2.47 times
of the forged that
product.
of theSimilar to the results
forged product. Similarof to
thethetensile
resultsand hardness
of the tensile tests, the input
and hardness tests, the input
shaft manufactured by the forgingby
shaft manufactured process has higher
the forging process torsion properties
has higher and
torsion deformation
properties and deformation
resistance
resistance against torsion against torsion
than the shaftthan the shaft
produced usingproduced using the
the machining machining process.
process.

Figure 10. (a)Figure 10. (a) Torque–angle

Torque–angle curves forofcomparison
curves for comparison of and
the machined the machined and forged
forged products products
from the torsionfrom the (b) results
test and
of the 3D scantorsion test before
obtained and (b)and
results
afterof thetorsion
the 3D scan obtained before and after the torsion test.
test.

The fatigue test Theresults

fatiguearetest results
shown in are shown
Figure 11a.inThe
Figure 11a.limit
fatigue The of
fatigue limit of the machined
the machined
product was 200product
MPa,was 200that
while MPa, of while that of
the forged the forged
product product
was 300 MPa,was 300isMPa,
which which is approxi-
approxi-
matelyThe
mately 50% higher. 50%fatigue
higher.test
Theresults
fatigue test applied
were results were applied for
for additional FEAadditional
to analyzeFEA to analyze
fatigue
fatigue life with lifeNm
the 100 with the 100
torque, Nm istorque,
which mainlywhich
received is mainly
from the received
MDPS and fromisthe
dis-MDPS and is
tributed in thedistributed in the extrusion
extrusion direction direction area.
of the polygonal of theAs polygonal
shown inarea. As11b,
Figure shown in Figure 11b, we
we con-
firmed that a fracture occurs at a measurement less than 1000 cycles in the A-positioninofthe A-position
confirmed that a fracture occurs at a measurement less than 1000 cycles
the machinedofproduct,
the machined
whereas product, whereas
a fracture a fracture
did not occur on didthe
notforged
occur on the forged
product underproduct under
1,000,000 cycles. To increase the fatigue life of the machined input shaft, an additionalan additional
1,000,000 cycles. To increase the fatigue life of the machined input shaft,
high-frequency high-frequency
heat treatmentheat treatment
should should
be applied onbe
theapplied on theThese
A-position. A-position.
results These
showed results showed
that
that the fatigue theof
limit fatigue limit input
the forged of the shaft
forged input shaft
increased increased
by 100 by 100 MPa
MPa compared compared
to the ma- to the ma-
chined input shaft, thereby significantly improving the fatigue
chined input shaft, thereby significantly improving the fatigue life without an additional life without an additional
heat treatmentheat treatment process.
process.
Figure 12 shows the band contrast map, KAM map, and GB map of the raw material
and forged products. The raw material was produced by hot rolling and the specimen
exhibits typical medium carbon steel characteristics, such as ferrite and pearlite microstruc-
tures (Figure 12a). For the specimen that deformed by the multi-stage cold forging process,
the grains were elongated in the extrusion direction (Figure 12d). KAM is the average of
the local orientation differences between individual measuring points and adjacent mea-
suring points. The KAM value increases as the dislocation density or internal-strain energy
accumulated in the specimen increases. The average KAM values of the raw material and
forged products were 0.28 (Figure 12b) and 0.91 (Figure 12e), respectively. For the forged
products, the average value increases by 225%, indicating the accumulation of internal
strain energy and dislocation density. If the misorientation angle of GB is higher than 15◦ ,
it is termed as a high-angle grain boundary (HAGBs, blue line), and if it is less than 15◦ , it
is termed as a low-angle grain boundary (LAGBs, red (2–5◦ ) and green line (5–15◦ ). Almost
all the grains of the raw material were equiaxed ferrite grains surrounded by a HAGB
 mately 50% higher. The fatigue test results were applied for additional FEA to analyze
fatigue life with the 100 Nm torque, which is mainly received from the MDPS and is dis-
tributed in the extrusion direction of the polygonal area. As shown in Figure 11b, we con-
firmed that a fracture occurs at a measurement less than 1000 cycles in the A-position of
Materials 2021, 14, x
532
FOR PEER REVIEWthe machined product, whereas a fracture did not occur on the forged product under
1010of
of 14
13
1,000,000 cycles. To increase the fatigue life of the machined input shaft, an additional
high-frequency heat treatment should be applied on the A-position. These results showed
that the fatigue limit of the forged input shaft increased by 100 MPa compared to the ma-
Figure 11. (a) Comparison of(Figure
the machined andgrain
forgedofproducts based on their Stress amplitude–Number of cycles curve and
chined12c).
inputThe the forged
shaft, thereby product
significantly was divided
improving by the formation
the fatigue of an
life without LAGBs
additional
obtained via the fatigue testHAGBs
and (b) results of
due to thethe fatigue analysis.
large plastic deformation (Figure 12f).
heat treatment process.
Figure 12 shows the band contrast map, KAM map, and GB map of the raw material
and forged products. The raw material was produced by hot rolling and the specimen
exhibits typical medium carbon steel characteristics, such as ferrite and pearlite micro-
structures (Figure 12a). For the specimen that deformed by the multi-stage cold forging
process, the grains were elongated in the extrusion direction (Figure 12d). KAM is the
average of the local orientation differences between individual measuring points and ad-
jacent measuring points. The KAM value increases as the dislocation density or internal-
strain energy accumulated in the specimen increases. The average KAM values of the raw
material and forged products were 0.28 (Figure 12b) and 0.91 (Figure 12e), respectively.
For the forged products, the average value increases by 225%, indicating the accumulation
of internal strain energy and dislocation density. If the misorientation angle of GB is
higher than 15°, it is termed as a high-angle grain boundary (HAGBs, blue line), and if it
is less than 15°, it is termed as a low-angle grain boundary (LAGBs, red (2–5°) and green
line (5–15°) . Almost all the grains of the raw material were equiaxed ferrite grains sur-
Figure 11. (a) Comparison of the machined and forged products based on their Stress amplitude–Number of cycles curve
rounded by a HAGB (Figure 12c). The grain of the forged product was divided by the
obtained via the fatigue test and (b) results of the fatigue analysis.
formation of LAGBs and HAGBs due to the large plastic deformation (Figure 12f).

Figure 12. Comparison of band contrast map

map (a,d),
(a,d), KAM
KAM mapmap (b,e),
(b,e),and
andGB
GBmap
map(c,f)
(c,f)of
ofLAGBs ◦ ≤
LAGBs(2(2° 5◦ , red
≤ θ < 5°, red lines and
5°
5 ≤≤ θ<<15°,
◦ 15 green
◦ , greenlines)
lines)and
andHAGBs
HAGBs(15°
(15 ≤ ≤, θ,
◦ blue lines):
blue (a–c)
lines): raw
(a–c) rawmaterial and
material (d–f)
and (d–f)forged product.
forged product.

Figure
Figure 1313 shows
shows the
the areal
areal fraction (length of the misorientation angle divided by the
measured area,
measured μm/μm22), the change
area, µm/µm changein inthe
theLAGBs
LAGBsand andHAGBs
HAGBs during thethe
during deformation
deformation for
a quantitative
for comparison
a quantitative comparison [30,31]. The LAGBs
[30,31]. (2–15◦(2–15°)
The LAGBs ) and HAGBs
and HAGBs ◦ ) fraction values
(15–180(15–180°) fraction
of the raw material were 0.09 and0.09
0.16and −1 , respectively, while those ofthose
the forged
values of the raw material were µm0.16 μm−1, respectively, while of theproduct
forged
were 2.89were
and 2.89
0.64 µm − 1 , respectively. This confirmed that the fraction
product and 0.64 μm−1, respectively. This confirmed that thevalue of the
fraction forged
value of
product was higher than that of the raw material. According to several
the forged product was higher than that of the raw material. According to several re- researchers [32,33],
the grain refinement
searchers [32,33], the sequence is followed
grain refinement by a dislocation
sequence is followed accumulation,
by a dislocation a formation
accumula- of
LAGBs,
tion, an increase
a formation of in misorientation
LAGBs, an increaseangles, an absorptionangles,
in misorientation of dislocations at HAGBs,
an absorption and
of dislo-
an establishment
cations at HAGBs,ofanda steady state. Therefore,
an establishment of afrom these
steady EBSD
state. results, afrom
Therefore, multi-stage cold
these EBSD
forging aprocess
results, could cold
multi-stage be effective
forginginprocess
the grain refinement
could of input
be effective shafts
in the andrefinement
grain in efficiently
of
producing high-strength products with more LAGBs and HAGBs.
input shafts and in efficiently producing high-strength products with more LAGBs and
HAGBs.
Materials 2021, 14, 532 11 of 13

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

)
Total length / Total area (μm/μm^2)
2.00
Raw material
1.75 Forged product

/
1.50

(
1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
2°~5° 5°~15° 15°~180°
Misorientation angle
Figure 13. Comparison of areal fraction of misorientation angles for raw material and forged prod-
Figure
uct. 13. Comparison of areal fraction of misorientation angles for raw material and forged product.

AnAn additional
additionalnumerical study wasstudy
numerical carried was
out ascarried
shown in out
Figure
as14shown
to compare the
in Figure 14 to compare the
separately manufactured input shaft consisting of upper and lower parts, and the one-
separately manufactured input shaft consisting of upper and
body input shaft. The multi-stage cold forging process was designed and the same mate-
lower parts, and the one-body
input shaft. The multi-stage cold forging process was designed
rial flow-stress (Figure 4a) was applied. From the results, the separate input shaft process and the same material
flow-stress
could manufacture (Figure 4a) was
the product applied.
without From
defect. the results,
For separate the separate
manufacturing, input shaft process could
the upper
and lower parts were machined for assembly and then joined with a pin (AISI D2) after
manufacture the product without defect. For separate manufacturing, the upper and lower
the forging process. We used the numerical torsion test to investigate and compare the
parts werecurves
torque–angle machined for assembly
of the processes. andtothen
According joined
the results with from
obtained a pinthe(AISI
ma- D2) after the forging
process.
chined product,We used the numerical
a difference torsion and
between the numerical testexperimental
to investigateresultsand compare
for the be- the torque–angle
ginning ofof
curves thethe
testprocesses.
was observed,According
as shown in Figure
to the14.results
The general trend of the
obtained fromsimula-
the machined product, a
tion was fairly consistent with the experimental result. Thus, the simulation condition is
difference
assumed to be between
reasonablethe
for numerical and
the torsion test. Weexperimental
observed that the results
torque for
valuethe beginning of the test was
of the
observed, as showninput
separately manufactured in Figure
shaft was14. Thethan
higher general trend
that of the of the
machined simulation
input shaft and was fairly consistent
was lower
with thethan that of the one-body
experimental result. input shaft.the
Thus, From the result, thecondition
simulation one-body input shaft
is assumed to be reasonable
manufactured by the multi-stage cold forging process is confirmed to be superior to the
for the torsion test. We observed that the torque value of the separately manufactured
existing processes in terms of mechanical properties, material recovery rate, and produc-
input shaft
tivity. For was higher
improving than that
the expendability and of the machined
scalability, input
further study couldshaft and was lower than that of
be conducted
usingone-body
the lightweight materials to improve
input shaft. From thethe
implementation
result, theofone-body
the process [34].
input shaft manufactured by the
multi-stage cold forging process is confirmed to be superior to the existing processes in
terms of mechanical properties, material recovery rate, and productivity. For improving the
expendability and scalability, further study could be conducted using lightweight
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
materials
to improve the implementation of the process [34].

Figure 14. Numerical analysis of the separate input shaft process and the comparison of torque–angle curves obtained
Figure 14. Numerical analysis of the separate input shaft process and the comparison of torque–angle curves obtained from
from numerical and experimental torsion test.
numerical and experimental torsion test.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a multi-stage cold forging process was proposed to manufacture a high-
strength one-body input shaft with a long length and a high material recovery rate. From
the FEA and experimental results, the process was successfully designed, and the one-
body input shaft could be well-manufactured with high strength, hardness, torque, and
fatigue limit. The following conclusions were obtained:
Materials 2021, 14, 532 12 of 13

5. Conclusions
In this paper, a multi-stage cold forging process was proposed to manufacture a high-
strength one-body input shaft with a long length and a high material recovery rate. From
the FEA and experimental results, the process was successfully designed, and the one-body
input shaft could be well-manufactured with high strength, hardness, torque, and fatigue
limit. The following conclusions were obtained:
1. From the FEA, it was predicted that the one-body input shaft has no external and in-
ternal defects with the Cockcroft–Latham equation and the hydrostatic stress analysis,
and that the die life could be improved with a suitable shrink fit for the proposed pro-
cess. The proposed process has a material recovery rate of 80.3%, which is 2.56 times
higher than that of the conventional machining process.
2. The numerically designed and verified multi-stage cold forging dies were produced
to verify its application in the manufacturing of a high-strength one-body input shaft.
The one-body input shaft was successfully manufactured with no defects.
3. From the tensile and hardness test results, the mechanical properties improved by
approximately 45–50%, and the durability obtained from the torsion and fatigue
results also increased. The proposed process could be effective in the grain refinement
of the input shafts and in efficiently producing high-strength products with more
LAGBs and HAGBs.
4. Additional FEA was successfully carried out to compare the separately manufac-
tured input shaft consisting of upper and lower parts and the one-body input shaft
produced by the proposed process. The results confirmed that the one-body input
shaft is superior to the input shafts produced by existing processes in terms of the
torque value.
5. A one-body input shaft was manufactured using conventional SWRCH45F metal.
Lightweight materials, such as aluminum or titanium, are increasingly applied in
several parts of an electric vehicle to reduce the vehicle’s weight and improve the
energy efficiency. Hence, lightweight materials can be applied during the cold forging
process for manufacturing the automobile parts, such as a high-strength input shaft,
to improve mechanical properties and reduce vehicle weight.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R.J. and S.K.H.; methodology, A.R.J. and S.K.H.; soft-
ware, A.R.J. and M.S.J.; data curation, A.R.J. and S.K.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.J.
and S.K.H.; writing—review and editing, S.K.H.; validation and investigation, Y.H.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was conducted with the support of the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology
as “Development of intelligent root technology with add-on modules (KITECH EO-20-0017)”.
Data Availability Statement: New data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not
applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by SUNG JIN FO-MA INC. The authors also acknowl-
edge Woon Hak Lee for performing the experiments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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