metals
Article
Identifying Optimal Hot Forming Conditions for AA6010 Alloy
by Means of Elevated Temperature Tensile Testing
Scott Taylor 1, *, Sisir Dhara 1 , Carl Slater 1
Citation: Taylor, S.; Dhara, S.; Slater,
C.; Kotadia, H. Identifying Optimal
Hot Forming Conditions for AA6010
Alloy by Means of Elevated
Temperature Tensile Testing. Metals
2023, 13, 76. https://doi.org/
10.3390/met13010076
Academic Editor: Jingwei Zhao
Received: 28 November 2022
Revised: 22 December 2022
Accepted: 24 December 2022
Published: 28 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Metals 2023, 13, 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13010076
and Hiren Kotadia 1,2
1 Warwick Manufacturing Group, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
2 School of Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
* Correspondence: scott.taylor.1@warwick.ac.uk
Abstract: AA6010 in the F temper was investigated using a Gleeble 3800 test rig across a range of
temperatures (350–550 ◦ C) and strain rates (1 × 10−1 s−1 1 × 101 s−1 ) to identify optimal forming
conditions. Post-forming electron back-scattered diffraction analysis was conducted to identify the
mechanisms responsible for the material formability. Optimal forming conditions were observed to
be 500 ◦ C and a strain rate of 1 × 10−1 s−1 , with clear evidence of dynamic recrystallisation observed,
this being the dominant mechanism responsible for the increased formability. Peak yield strength of
335 MPa was achieved using a rapid aging treatment of 205 ◦ C for one hour.
Keywords: aluminium; hot forming; Gleeble; HFQ; EBSD
1. Introduction
The current urgent need to reduce the impact of road vehicles on the environment is
being approached from two sides: firstly, electrification of vehicles by replacing the more
traditional polluting internal combustion engine (ICE); and, secondly, by improving the
efficiency of ICE vehicles [1]. To counteract the increased weight of battery packs and motors
in electric vehicles and to improve the efficiency of ICE vehicles, higher strength materials
are required which allow for downgauging when compared to lower strength materials [2,3].
The 6000-series aluminium alloys offer an attractive solution to this problem, offering an
extremely good strength to weight ratio, good processability, and, when combined with the
correct forming process, high levels of formability [4].
Aluminium can easily replace steel material in applications such as automotive clo-
sures; there are many highly aluminium intensive vehicles on the market today, examples
of early adopters of this technology being Audi with the A8 [5]. High strength aluminium’s
limited ductility at room temperature, however, requires the use of advanced forming
processes to achieve sufficient elongations to produce more complex geometries for body-
in-white structures such as B-pillars [6]. The use of elevated temperature forming processes
such as superplastic forming (SPF), quick plastic forming (QPF), and hot form quench
forming (HFQ) all take advantage of aluminium’s increased ductility at elevated tempera-
tures [7,8].
Hot forming of aluminium is now a widely employed process within the automotive
field and with improvements in forming processes is moving from niche applications
to more high-volume manufacturing. The 5000-, 6000- and 7000-series are all used in
combination with hot forming to produce deep drawn parts of complex geometries [9–11].
Various studies have demonstrated the suitability of AA6082 in combination with the HFQ
forming process to achieve deep drawn high strength parts with complex geometries [12].
Other alloys such as AA6061 and AA6111 have been shown to exhibit improved formability
when combined with warm deep drawing [13,14]. AA6013 has also been demonstrated
to be suitable within warm forming operations, and AA6010 is listed within a range of
aluminium alloys suitable for hot forming in European patent EP3359699 [15,16]. These
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Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 9

Metals 2023, 13, 76 2 of 8

range of aluminium alloys suitable for hot forming in European patent EP3359699 [15,16].
These alloys undergo solution heat treatment during the elevated temperature forming
alloys undergo solution heat treatment during the elevated temperature forming process;
process; following quenching and subsequent aging treatments it is possible to produce
following quenching and subsequent aging treatments it is possible to produce complex
complex geometries with high strength, able to replace steel structures.
geometries with high strength, able to replace steel structures.
The majority of published literature currently available on the subject focuses on
The majority of published literature currently available on the subject focuses on
AA6082 and its behaviour during HFQ forming; there are currently no available data on
AA6082 and its behaviour during HFQ forming; there are currently no available data on
AA6010 under the same conditions [17–19]. This paper sets out to identify the optimum
AA6010 under the same conditions [17–19]. This paper sets out to identify the optimum
forming parameters for HFQ forming of AA6010 using a Gleeble 3800 testing machine
forming parameters for HFQ forming of AA6010 using a Gleeble 3800 testing machine
and to identify a rapid post-forming heat treatment. Identifying the optimal forming pa-
and to identify a rapid post-forming heat treatment. Identifying the optimal forming
rameters for the material and demonstrating its formability across a wide range of strain
parameters for the material and demonstrating its formability across a wide range of
rates and
strain temperatures
rates will allow
and temperatures willfor better
allow product
for better and process
product anddesign
processto design
meet industrial
to meet
specifications. Identifying these optimum parameters will enable the forming
industrial specifications. Identifying these optimum parameters will enable the forming of more
complex
of part geometries
more complex where further
part geometries whereweight
furthersavings
weightcan be achieved
savings through part
can be achieved and
through
fixture reduction; it has been demonstrated previously that SPF formed parts
part and fixture reduction; it has been demonstrated previously that SPF formed parts cancan reduce
the overall
reduce weight weight
the overall of components and number
of components of partsofrequired
and number in a wide
parts required in arange
wide of appli-
range of
cations [20].
applications [20].

2. Materials and Methods

Within this
Within this study
study AA6010 alloy nominally supplied in the F temper was investigated;
investigated;
the composition of the alloy as defined in the Aluminium Association Teal
Teal Sheets
Sheets is given
Table 11 [21].
in Table [21].

Table1.
Table 1. AA6010
AA6010 chemical
chemical composition
compositionin
inwt%
wt%[18].
(18).

Element Al Si Element Fe Al Cu Si Fe
Mn CuMg Mn Cr Mg ZnCr Zn Ti Ti
Wt% Balance 0.8–1.2 0.5 0.15–0.6 0.2–0.8 0.6–1.0 0.1 0.25 0.1
Wt% Balance 0.8–1.2 0.5 0.15–0.6 0.2–0.8 0.6–1.0 0.1 0.25 0.1

Dog-bone shaped specimens were machined from 4 mm flat sheet using a Datron
CNCDog-bone shaped Dynamics
machine (Datron specimensInc.,
were machined
Milford, NH,from
USA),4 having
mm flat sheet using
a nominal a Datron
gauge length
CNC machine (Datron Dynamics Inc., Milford, NH, USA), having a nominal gauge
of 15 mm and gauge width of 10 mm as shown in Figure 1. Previous studies have indicated length
of 15amm
that and gauge
shorter gauge length
width of 10in
aids mm as shown
achieving in Figure 1. Previous
a homogenous studies
temperature ±5 have indicated
°C throughout
that a shorter gauge length aidsthermomechanical
in achieving a homogenous temperature ◦
±5out C throughout
the specimen [17]. No further processing was carried before test-
the
ing.specimen [17]. No further thermomechanical processing was carried out before testing.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Sample
Sample geometry
geometry used
used for
for Gleeble
Gleeble thermomechanical
thermomechanical processing,
processing, and
and Gleeble
Gleeble 3800
3800 test
test
machine (Gleeble, Poestenkill, NY, USA).
machine (Gleeble, Poestenkill, NY, USA).

Hot tensile
tensile testing
testingwaswascarried
carriedoutoutinina Gleeble
a Gleeble38003800in ainsimilar methodology
a similar methodology to pre-to
vious studies
previous on 2000-
studies and 6000-series
on 2000- alloys alloys
and 6000-series [22,23].[22,23].
K-type thermocouples were attached
K-type thermocouples were
to the gauge
attached to thelength
gaugeof length
the sample of theand a preload
sample and aofpreload
0.1 kN was of 0.1applied
kN was to applied
the sample.
to the A
typical thermal
sample. A typicalprofile can be
thermal seen in
profile Figure
can be seen2. The sample2.was
in Figure Theheated
sampleto 565
was°C at a rate
heated to
of 7◦ °C/s
565 C at awhere ◦ C/sheld
rate ofit7was whereforit5was
minheldfor solutionising; subsequently,subsequently,
for 5 min for solutionising; the sample was the
cooled to
sample was thecooled
deformation temperaturetemperature
to the deformation at 10 °C/s and 10 ◦ C/s
at held for and
10 s,held
and then
for 10deformed
s, and then to
failure before
deformed beingbefore
to failure quenchedbeingtoquenched
room temperature. A matrix of
to room temperature. A deformation tempera-
matrix of deformation
temperatures andrates
strainwas
rates was comprising
used, comprising deformation temperatures every ◦C
50 be-
tures and strain used, deformation temperatures every 50 °C
between 350 and550 ◦
550°C,C,atatstrain
strainrates
ratesofof0.1,
0.1,11and
and 10 − 1
10 ss−1 with
with33repeats
repeatsfor
foreach
eachcondition.
condition.
tween 350 and
Test parameters were selected to investigate the most industrially relevant conditions under
which this material would potentially be formed.
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 9

Metals 2023, 13, 76 Test parameters were selected to investigate the most industrially relevant conditions
3 of 8 un-
der which this material would potentially be formed.

Figure 2.
Figure Thermal profile
2. Thermal profileused
usedduring
duringtesting.
testing.

To identify
To identify the
the material’s
material’speak
peakstrength,
strength,it itwas
was subjected
subjected to to
thethe
same thermal
same cycle
thermal cycle
as would be experienced during tensile tests but without any mechanical deformation
as would be experienced during tensile tests but without any mechanical deformation
being imparted; it then underwent an industrial aging treatment of 205 ◦ C for one hour.
being imparted; it then underwent an industrial aging treatment of 205 °C for one hour.
Following heat treatments, the specimens were then subjected to room temperature tensile
Following
deformation heat treatments,
to failure. the specimens
The same were
thermal cycle asthen subjected
illustrated to room
in Figure 2 buttemperature
without anyten-
sile deformation
imparted to failure.
deformation The to
was used same thermal
prepare cycle as
specimens forillustrated in Figure 2 but without
strength determination.
any imparted deformation was used to prepare specimens
Microstructural analysis was conducted using a JEOL 7800F FEGSEM for strength determination.
(JEOL Ltd.,
Microstructural analysis was conducted using a JEOL
Tokyo, Japan) and an Oxford Instruments (Abingdon, UK) Symmetry electron 7800F FEGSEM (JEOL
back-Ltd.,
Tokyo,
scatteredJapan) and an
diffraction Oxford
(EBSD) Instruments
camera (Abingdon,
with Oxford UK) Symmetry
Aztec software. electron
An accelerating back-scat-
voltage of
tered
20 keV diffraction (EBSD)allcamera
was used across withaOxford
scans, with step sizeAztec
of 0.2 software.
µm. Samples An were
accelerating
preparedvoltage
using of
20 keV was used
a mechanical acrossregime
polishing all scans, with afrom
modified stepstandard
size of 0.2 µm. Samples
preparation were prepared
techniques using
[24]; a final
step of 30 min broad beam ion milling using a Hitachi IM4000 (Hitachi
a mechanical polishing regime modified from standard preparation techniques [24]; a fi-High-Technologies
Corporation,
nal step of 30 Tokyo, Japan)
min broad operating
beam at 4 kVusing
ion milling was applied
a Hitachi to achieve
IM4000a(Hitachi
high-quality surface
High-Technol-
finish.Corporation,
ogies Post-processing of scans
Tokyo, wasoperating
Japan) conducted atusing
4 kV Oxford Channel
was applied 5 software
to achieve (Oxford
a high-quality
Instruments,
surface finish.Abingdon, UK). of scans was conducted using Oxford Channel 5 software
Post-processing
(Oxford Instruments, Abingdon, UK).
3. Results
3.1. Elevated Temperature Formability
3. Results
Representative flow curves of the material tested across all temperatures and strain
3.1. Elevated
rates Temperature
are illustrated Formability
in Figure 3, alongside the log stress-strain plot used to derive the
Representative
material’s flow curves
‘m’ value throughout of theWe
testing. material
observedtested across
reduced allstresses
peak temperatures and strain
in the material
as theare
temperature ◦ C and 20 MPa at 550 ◦ C
rates illustratedincreased
in Figurewith peak stresses
3, alongside of 95
the log MPa at 350 plot
stress-strain used to derive the ma-
as the material
terial’s ‘m’ valueapproached
throughoutitstesting.
meltingWe temperature. A slightpeak
observed reduced reduction in in
stresses peak
thestrain
material
was observed from 500 ◦ C to 550 ◦ C; at this temperature further softening of the alloy
as the temperature increased with peak stresses of 95 MPa at 350 °C and 20 MPa at 550 °C
asledthe
to material
promoted cavitation around
approached secondary
its melting particles
temperature. A as shown
slight in Figure
reduction 5 andstrain
in peak led towas
premature failure. This demonstrates the alloy’s ability to deform at elevated
observed from 500 °C to 550 °C; at this temperature further softening of the alloy led to temperatures,
a requirement for high strength aluminium alloys, but shows that increasing forming
promoted cavitation around secondary particles as shown in Figure 5 and led to prema-
temperatures past 500 ◦ C is not beneficial. The material exhibits a low ‘m’ value which is
ture failure. This demonstrates the alloy’s ability to deform at elevated temperatures, a
a material’s strain rate sensitivity or its ability to resist localised necking; with a peak of
requirement for high strength aluminium alloys, but shows that increasing forming tem-
around 0.18, this would indicate deformation controlled by dislocation creep as would be
peratures past
expected at such 500 °C is not
relatively beneficial.
high The[25].
strain rates material exhibits
Previous studiesa have
low ‘m’
alsovalue which
reported lowis a
material’s
‘m’ values for strain rate sensitivity
6000-series or its
alloys, which ability to as
is beneficial resist
fasterlocalised necking;
forming rates can bewith a peak of
employed
around 0.18, this would indicate deformation controlled
industrially without negatively impacting levels of formability [26]. by dislocation creep as would be
expected at such relatively high strain rates [25]. Previous studies have also reported low
‘m’ values for 6000-series alloys, which is beneficial as faster forming rates can be em-
ployed industrially without negatively impacting levels of formability [26].
Metals 2023,13,
Metals2023, 13,76
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
of 89

Figure3.3.Stress
Figure Stressvs.
vs.strain
strainatat(a) 350◦°C,
(a)350 C, (b) 400◦°C,
(b)400 C, (c) 450◦°C,
(c)450 C, (d) 500◦°C,
(d)500 C, and
and(e) 550◦°C,
(e)550 C, (f)
(f)‘m’
‘m’values
values
ofmaterial
of materialacross
acrossall
alltemperatures
temperaturesatat0.10.1strain.
strain.

To
Tobetter
betterillustrate
illustratethe
thebehaviour
behaviour of ofthe
thematerial
material across
across all
all conditions,
conditions, forming
forming pro-
pro-
cessing
cessing maps illustrating strain to failure and peak stress are shown in Figure 4.4.Strain
maps illustrating strain to failure and peak stress are shown in Figure Strain
to
to failure
failure increases
increases due
due to to
thethe increased
increased energy
energy available
available at at higher
higher temperatures,
temperatures, which
which al-
allows extradeformation
lows extra deformationmechanisms
mechanisms to to become
become active
active within
within the
the microstructure.
microstructure. Figure
Figure44
then better illustrates the reduction in peak strain at 550 ◦ C compared to 500 ◦ C due to
then better illustrates the reduction in peak strain at 550 °C compared to 500 °C due to
excessive
excessive material
material softening. Similarreductions
softening. Similar reductionsininstrain
straintotofailure
failurehave
havebeen
beenreported
reportedat
at lower temperatures in AA6082, indicating AA6010’s ability to
lower temperatures in AA6082, indicating AA6010’s ability to be formed at higher be formed at higher
tem-
temperatures
peratures [23]. [23].
Aluminium alloys are strain rate sensitive during hot forming but as stated AA6010
is only slightly strain rate sensitive with an ‘m’ value ranging from 0.14–0.18; as such, we
observe that for a given temperature the strain to failure decreases with increased strain
rate but not by a significant amount. At 450 ◦ C we see a decrease in strain to failure from
0.65 to 0.55 when the strain rate is increased from 1 × 10−1 s−1 to 1 × 101 s−1 . Whilst
this does not represent the material’s optimal forming parameters, this region still offers
industrially relevant levels of deformation.
Optimal forming conditions were observed to be 500 ◦ C with a strain rate of 1 × 10−1 s−1 ,
giving a maximum strain to failure of around 0.7. It has been reported that dynamic recovery
and dynamic recrystallization are the dominant deformation mechanisms with 6000-series
Metals 2023, 13, 76 5 of 8

alloys at elevated temperatures. The strain rates during testing were greater than those where5 of 9
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
grain boundary sliding would occur, and so a combination of dislocation creep and dynamic
recrystallization would have been responsible for the material’s deformation.

Figure4.4.Strain
Figure Straintotofailure,
failure, strain
strain rate,
rate, temperature
temperature forming
forming parameter
parameter map.map.

3.2. EBSD Analysis alloys

Aluminium of Deformed Specimens
are strain rate sensitive during hot forming but as stated AA6010
is only
EBSDslightly
mapsstrain
from theratefailure
sensitive with
region of an ‘m’ value
samples ranging
deformed at 1from −1 s−1 strain
× 100.14–0.18; as such,
rate we
◦ ◦ ◦
observe
and three that for a given
temperatures (350temperature
C, 400 C and the500strainC)to
arefailure
showndecreases with respectively.
in Figure 5a–c, increased strain
Tearing
rate butfailures
not by can be observed
a significant withinAt
amount. 350°C◦ Cwe
the450 and see400 ◦ C specimens with far more
a decrease in strain to failure from
deformation ◦
0.65 to 0.55 when the strain rate is increased from 1 × 10 s to 1 × With
and localised necking observed in the 500 C specimen.
−1 −1 101 s−1all specimens,
. Whilst this does
tearing and void coalescence is evident in the presence of secondary
not represent the material’s optimal forming parameters, this region still offers particles which is
industri-
more clearly shown in the band
ally relevant levels of deformation. contrast image in Figure 5d where a clear tear in the bulk
material is obvious
Optimal as theconditions
forming grains have moved
were past the
observed tointermetallic.
be 500 °C with a strain rate of 1 × 10−1
Within the 350 ◦ C and 400 ◦ C specimens there are clear bands orientated in the
s , giving a maximum strain to failure of around 0.7. It has been reported that dynamic
−1
direction of deformation, showing highly elongated grains; this is typical of deformation
recovery and dynamic recrystallization are the dominant deformation mechanisms with
controlled by dislocation creep where grains elongate rather than rotate and move past
6000-series
each alloys at
other. Within theelevated temperatures.
500 ◦ C specimen the sameThe ‘bands’
strain rates duringhowever,
are visible; testing were greater
within
than those where grain boundary sliding would occur, and
these bands there are clearly new individual grains, showing the presence of dynamicso a combination of disloca-
tion creep and dynamic
recrystallization within the recrystallization
specimen during would have beenThe
deformation. responsible
presence for the material’s
of this extra
deformation.
deformation mechanism at the higher temperature is responsible for the increased peak
strain at failure.
3.2. EBSD Analysis of Deformed Specimens
3.3. Post-Forming Heat Treatment
EBSD maps from the failure region of samples deformed at 1 × 10−1 s−1 strain rate and
threeAstemperatures
with all 6000-series
(350 °C,alloys, AA6010
400 °C and 500is age-hardenable,
°C) are shown in which allows
Figure 5a–c,itsrespectively.
use in
aTearing
variety failures
of high can
strength applications. To identify the suitability of the alloy
be observed within the 350 °C and 400 °C specimens with far more within
industrial applications, the strength of the material post-forming required investigation;
deformation and localised necking observed in the 500 °C specimen. With all specimens,
this was done by applying a heat treatment cycle the same as that of the optimal forming
tearing and void coalescence is evident in ◦the presence of secondary particles which is
conditions. Following solutionisation at 565 C, specimens were then transferred to a
more clearly shown in the band contrast image in Figure 5d where a clear tear in the bulk
furnace at 500 ◦ C to replicate the optimum forming temperature, and then water quenched
material
and is obvious
then exposed to aasrapid
the grains have moved
aging treatment past
of 205 ◦ Cthe
for intermetallic.
1 h, to achieve a fine dispersion
of Mg2 Si precipitates which inhibit dislocation movement. As shown in Figure 6 there
is limited strain hardening of the material observed, indicating it has achieved its peak
strength. Following artificial aging the material had an average 335 MPa yield strength
with an average 11.5% axial strain.
 Metals 2023, 13, 76 6 of 8
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 9

2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 5. EBSD maps of failure region of specimens post-formed at 1 × 10−1 s−1 at (a) 350 °C, (b) 400
Figure 5. EBSD maps of failure region of specimens post-formed at 1 × 10−1 s−1 at (a) 350 ◦ C,
°C and (c) 500 °C and (d) band contrast image detailing tearing around intermetallics.
(b) 400 ◦ C and (c) 500 ◦ C and (d) band contrast image detailing tearing around intermetallics.

Within the 350 °C and 400 °C specimens there are clear bands orientated in the direc-
tion of deformation, showing highly elongated grains; this is typical of deformation con-
trolled by dislocation creep where grains elongate rather than rotate and move past each
other. Within the 500 °C specimen the same ‘bands’ are visible; however, within these
bands there are clearly new individual grains, showing the presence of dynamic recrys-
tallization within the specimen during deformation. The presence of this extra defor-
mation mechanism at the higher temperature is responsible for the increased peak strain
at failure.

3.3. Post-Forming Heat Treatment

As with all 6000-series alloys, AA6010 is age-hardenable, which allows its use in a
variety of high strength applications. To identify the suitability of the alloy within indus-
trial applications, the strength of the material post-forming required investigation; this
was done by applying a heat treatment cycle the same as that of the optimal forming con-
ditions. Following solutionisation at 565 °C, specimens were then transferred to a furnace
at 500 °C to replicate the optimum forming temperature, and then water quenched and
then exposed to a rapid aging treatment of 205 °C for 1 h, to achieve a fine dispersion of
Mg2Si precipitates which inhibit dislocation movement. As shown in Figure 6 there is lim-
ited strain hardening of the material observed, indicating it has achieved its peak strength.
Following artificial aging the material had an average 335 MPa yield strength with an
average 11.5% axial strain.
Figure 6. Flow curves of AA6010 following aging heat treatment.
Figure 6. Flow curves of AA6010 following aging heat treatment.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
In this study the formability of AA6010 was investigated across a range of industrially
applicable strain rates; optimal forming parameters were identified as 500 ◦ C and 1 ×
10−1 s−1 with peak strains of 0.7 achieved. Sub-optimal but still industrially relevant
In this study the formability of AA6010 was investigate
levels of formability were observed at lower temperatures and higher strain rates, with
ally applicable strain rates; optimal forming parameters were
10−1 s−1 with peak strains of 0.7 achieved. Sub-optimal but sti
of formability were observed at lower temperatures and hig
Metals 2023, 13, 76 7 of 8

a peak strain of 0.55 at 450 ◦ C and 1 × 101 s−1 . Forming above 500 ◦ C led to a decrease
in peak strains with premature failures occurring due to excessive softening of the alloy
around intermetallics.
The low ‘m’ value of the material combined with the evidence from EBSD results
indicated that dislocation creep in combination with dynamic recrystallization are the
dominant deformation mechanisms within the material. Coalescence of voids around inter-
metallics leading to tearing was responsible for failures within the material. The reduction
of formability at 550 ◦ C compared to 500 ◦ C indicates that at the higher temperature, the
rate of dynamic recrystallization is not sufficient to overcome the rate of development of
voids due to excessive softening.
The ability to form the material at higher strain rates increases the potential industrial
applications and shifts the use of the material towards higher volume manufacturing.
To further investigate the suitability of the material within these applications, a rapid
aging treatment was investigated; when combined with a preheating treatment to replicate
optimal forming conditions, the material achieved a yield strength of 335 MPa. The material
exhibited no evidence of strain hardening within this condition, indicating it had achieved
peak strength, further demonstrating its suitability for automotive applications.

5. Conclusions
This paper set out to identify optimum forming parameters for AA6010 in an HFQ
like forming process by means of elevated temperature tensile tests, and to demonstrate
the material’s suitability for use in industrial processes by assessing strength after a rapid
aging treatment. From this work we conclude the following:
1. Optimal forming conditions for AA6010 in terms of peak ductility were established as
500 ◦ C and 1 × 10−1 s−1 achieving a strain to failure of 0.7.
2. Industrially usable levels of deformation are achievable under sub-optimal conditions
at 450 ◦ C and 1 × 101 s−1 achieving a strain to failure of 0.55.
3. Dislocation creep and dynamic recrystallization are the dominant deformation mech-
anisms within AA6010 during HFQ like deformation.
4. Following rapid aging treatments the material can achieve a yield strength of 335 MPa.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.T.; methodology, S.T. and C.S.; validation, S.T., S.D. and
C.S.; formal analysis, S.T.; investigation, S.T., S.D., C.S. and H.K.; writing—original draft preparation,
S.T.; writing—review and editing, S.T., S.D., C.S. and H.K.; project administration, S.T.; funding
acquisition, S.T. and H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by WMG High Value Manufacturing Catapult project 8214, with
matched industrial funding and material contributions from Speira GmbH.
Data Availability Statement: The data are not publicly available due to NDA agreements on com-
mercially sensitive data.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Higher Education
Funding Council for England (HEFCE) to the electron microscopy characterisation facility.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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