Cambridge International A Level Physics

QUESTIONS
17 Two consecutive peaks in an ultrasound A-scan
are separated by a time interval of 0.034 ms.
Calculate the distance between the two
reflecting surfaces. (Assume that the speed of
sound in the tissue between the two surfaces is
1540 m s−1.)
18 Explain why an ultrasound B-scan, rather than
X-rays, is used to examine a fetus.
Magnetic resonance imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, is a diagnostic
technique used in medicine. It can provide images
(including moving images) of the insides of a patient. It does
their body, and the RF waves that emerge are detected.
From this, a picture of the patient’s insides can be built up
by computer. As we will see, MRI gives rather different
information from that obtained by the other non-invasive
techniques such as X-rays or ultrasound.
Principles of nuclear magnetic resonance
The nuclei of certain atoms have a property called spin,
and this causes them to behave as tiny magnets in a
magnetic field. In MRI, it is usually the nuclei of hydrogen
atoms that are studied, since hydrogen atoms are present
in all tissues. A hydrogen nucleus is a proton, so we will
consider protons from now on.
A proton has positive charge. Because it spins, it behaves
like a tiny magnet with N and S poles. Figure 32.30a shows
a number of protons aligned randomly.

N
not rely on exposing patients to ionising radiation such as

S
N

S
N

N
S
X-rays; rather, it relies on the fact that some atomic nuclei

S
a N
N N
S
S
behave like tiny magnets in an external magnetic field. S

N
S

N
S

S
N
(MRI was originally known as nuclear magnetic N

N
S

S
S

N
S

S
N
resonance imaging, but the word ‘nuclear’ was dropped

N
S
S
because it was associated in patients’ minds with bombs
522 and power stations. To emphasise: MRI does not involve b N
radioactive decay, fission or fusion.) S N S S S

As in CT scanning, MRI scanning involves N S N N N

electromagnetic radiation, in this case radio frequency external N S N S

S N S N
(RF) electromagnetic waves. The patient lies on a bed in a field
S S S N S
strong magnetic field (Figure 32.29), RF waves are sent into N N N S N

S S S S
N N N N

electromagnet

Figure 32.30  How protons behave in a strong magnetic

field. a Protons are randomly directed when there is no
external magnetic field. b Because protons are magnetic,
a strong external magnetic field causes most of them to
align themselves with the field.

When a very strong external magnetic field is applied,

the protons respond by lining up in the field (just as
plotting compasses line up to show the direction of a
magnetic field). Most line up with their N poles facing the
S pole of the external field, a low energy state; a few line up
the other way round, which is an unstable, higher energy
state (Figure 32.30b).

Figure 32.29  A patient undergoing an MRI scan of the brain.

This is a form of tomography; the display shows different
‘slices’ through the patient’s brain.
 Chapter 32: Medical imaging

A proton does not align itself directly along the resonance requires a system with a natural frequency of
external field. In practice, its magnetic axis rotates around vibration; when it is stimulated with energy of the same
the direction of the external field (Figure 32.31), just like frequency, it absorbs energy. In MRI, protons precessing
the axis of a spinning top. This rotation or gyration action about the strong external field are exposed to a burst or
is known as precession. pulse of RF waves whose frequency equals the frequency
of precession. Each proton absorbs a photon of RF energy
path of path of and flips up into the higher energy state; this is nuclear
precession spin precession
magnetic resonance (Figure 32.32).
Now we come to the useful bit. The RF waves are
switched off and the protons gradually relax into their
lower energy state. As they do so, they release their excess
energy in the form of RF waves. These can be detected,
axis of axis of spin spin and the rate of relaxation tells us something about the
spin environment of the protons.
In Figure 32.32, you can see that the relaxation of the
protons follows an exponential decay pattern. Curves like
this are characterised by two relaxation times:
gravitational field magnetic field
■■ T1, the spin–lattice relaxation time, where the energy of the
Figure 32.31  A spinning top (left) rotates about its axis; at the
spinning nuclei is transferred to the surrounding ‘lattice’ of
same time, its axis precesses about the vertical, which is the
nearby atoms
direction of the gravitational field. In a similar way, a proton
(right) spins and its axis of rotation precesses about the ■■ T2, the spin–spin relaxation time, where the energy is
direction of the external magnetic field. transferred to other spinning nuclei.

These relaxation times depend on the environment of

the nuclei. For biological materials, it depends on their 523
The angular frequency of precession is called the Larmor water content:
frequency ω0, and depends on the individual nucleus and
■■ Water and watery tissues (e.g. cerebrospinal fluid) have
the magnetic flux density B0 of the magnetic field: relaxation times of several seconds.
ω 0 = γB0 ■■ Fatty tissues (e.g. white matter in the brain) have shorter
So, the stronger the external field, the faster the protons relaxation times, several hundred milliseconds.
precess about it. The quantity γ is called the gyromagnetic ■■ Cancerous tissues have intermediate relaxation times.
ratio for the nucleus in question and is a measure of its
magnetism. (Note that the Larmor frequency is measured
in radians per second. This means that, strictly speaking, it
is an angular velocity, not a frequency.) absorption relaxation
For protons, γ has the approximate value
2.68 × 108 rad s−1 T −1. To determine the frequency f 0 of the
precessing nuclei, we can use the equation:
ω 0 = 2πf 0
Therefore:
Energy of protons

λB0
f0 =
2π
In an MRI scanner, the external magnetic field is very
strong, of the order of 1.5 T (thousands of times the
strength of the Earth’s field). The precession frequency f 0
is: 0
0 Time
2.68 × 108 × 1.5 Figure 32.32  In nuclear magnetic resonance, a spinning
f0 = = 6.4 × 107 Hz = 64 MHz
2π nucleus is flipped into a higher energy state when it absorbs
This frequency lies in the radio frequency (RF) region a photon of RF energy; then it relaxes back to its lower energy
of the electromagnetic spectrum. You should recall that state.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

This means that different tissues can be distinguished by value for resonance and so the computer can precisely
the different rates at which they release energy after they locate the source of the RF signal within the patient’s body
have been forced to resonate. That is the basis of medical and construct an image.
applications of nuclear magnetic resonance. ■■ A computer that controls the gradient coils and RF pulses,
and which stores and analyses the received data, producing
and displaying images.
QUESTIONS
longitudinal
19 Protons precess at a frequency of 42.6 MHz in an gradient coil RF receiving coil
external field of magnetic flux density 1.0 T. large
a Determine the frequency at which will they
external
magnet
precess in a field of magnetic flux density 2.5 T.
b State the frequency of RF radiation that will
cause the protons to resonate in this stronger
magnetic field.
20 Figure 32.33 shows how the amplitude of RF
waves coming from watery tissue varies after RF transmitting coil
resonance. Copy the graph and add lines and
labels to show the graphs you would expect to computer
see for cancerous and fatty tissues.
Figure 32.34  The main components of an MRI scanner.

Procedure
Amplitude

The patient lies on a bed which is moved into the centre of

the electromagnet. The central imaging section is about
524 watery tissue
0.9 m long and 0.6 m in diameter. The magnetic field is
very uniform, with variations smaller than 50 parts per
0 million in its strength. The gradient field is superimposed
0 Time
on this fixed field. An RF pulse is then transmitted into
Figure 32.33  See Question 20. the body, causing protons to flip (resonate). Then the
receiving coils pick up the relaxation signal and pass it to
the computer.

MRI scanner
Figure 32.34 shows the main components of an MRI
scanner. The main features are:
■■ A large superconducting magnet which produces the
external magnetic field (up to 2.0 T) needed to align the
protons. Superconducting magnets are cooled to 4.2 K
(−269 °C) using liquid helium.
■■ An RF coil that transmits RF pulses into the body.
■■ An RF coil that detects the signal emitted by the relaxing
protons.
■■ A set of gradient coils. (For clarity, only one pair of gradient
coils is shown in Figure 32.34.) These produce an additional
external magnetic field that varies across the patient’s
body. These coils are arranged such that they alter the
magnitude of the magnetic flux density across the length,
depth and width of the patient. This ensures that the
Larmor frequency of the nuclei within the patient will be Figure 32.35  MRI scan through a healthy human head.
slightly different for each part of the body. This means that Different tissues, identified by their different relaxation times,
only a small volume of the body is at exactly the right field are coloured differently.
 Chapter 32: Medical imaging

The result is an image like the one shown in Figure

32.35. This image has been coloured to show up the
different tissues, which are identified by their different
relaxation times.

Advantages and disadvantages of MRI

MRI has several advantages compared to other scanning
techniques:
■■ It does not use ionising radiation which causes a hazard to
patients and staff.
■■ There are no moving mechanisms, just changing currents
and magnetic fields.
■■ The patient feels nothing during a scan (although the
gradient coils are noisy as they are switched), and there are
no after-effects.
■■ MRI gives better soft-tissue contrast than a CT scan,
although it does not show bone as clearly.
■■ Computer images can be generated showing any section
through the volume scanned, or as a three-dimensional Figure 32.36  A combined CT scan and MRI scan, showing how
image. the tissues revealed by MRI relate to the bone structure shown
by X-rays.
One disadvantage of MRI is that any metallic objects in
the patient, such as surgical pins, can become heated.
Also, heart pacemakers can be affected, so patients with QUESTION
such items cannot undergo MRI scans. Loose steel objects
21 An MRI scan might be considered a safer 525
must not be left in the room as these will be attracted to
the magnet, and the room must be shielded from external procedure than a CT scan.
radio fields. a Explain why it might be considered to be safer.
Figure 32.36 shows how an MRI scan can be combined b Why might a CT scan be chosen in preference
with a CT scan to show detail of both bone and soft tissue, to an MRI scan?
allowing medical staff to see how the two are related. c Explain why MRI is described as non-invasive.
Compare this with Figure 32.35.