02 Logic-Gates en

Paskaita bus įrašyta
This lecture will be recorded
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Logic gates. Number systems
Saulius Gražulis
Vilnius, 2020
Vilnius University, Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics

Institute of Informatics
This set of slides may be copied and used as specified in the

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license
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Saulius Gražulis Logic gates. Number systems Vilnius, 2020 1 / 28

NOT gate revisited
Input Output Input Output Input Output

L H 0 1 False True
H L 1 0 True False
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NOT gate revisited

L H 0 1 False True
H L 1 0 True False
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NOT gate revisited

L H 0 1 False True
H L 1 0 True False
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Boolean functions
Based on the two-element Boolean algebra, or switching
algebra.
B = {0, 1}
B × · · · × B 7→ B
Augustus De Morgan
George Boole
Claude Shannon
Photo by Konrad Jacobs,
reused with permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Number of one-input functions
Input Output
}
0 1
2 positions ⇒ 22 = 4 combinations
1 0
Input Output
0 0 identity f(x ) = x
1 1
Input Output
0 1 NOT f(x ) = x
1 0
Input Output
0 0 constant 0 f(x ) = 0
1 0
Input Output
0 1 constant 1 f(x ) = 1
1 1
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NAND
X = f(A, B) = A · B = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic NOR
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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Logic OR (disjunction)
X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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X = f(A, B) = A ∨ B
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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Two-argument Boolean functions
A B X

0 0 1

0 1 1 2
4 positions ⇒ 22 = 16 combinations
1 0 1

1 1 0
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Multiple-input logic circuits
A B C D X
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
…
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
A
B
C
D
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Computing arbitrary logic function
x1 x2 … xn f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) conjunction
0 0 … 0 1 x1 · x2 · ... · xn
0 1 … 0 1 x1 · x2 · ... · xn
0 1 … 0 0 0
0 1 … 0 0 0
… …
1 1 … 0 1 x1 · x2 · ... · xn
1 1 … 1 0 0
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF):
f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 · x2 · ... · xn
∨ x1 · x2 · ... · xn
∨ ...
∨ x1 · x2 · ... · xn
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Example: synthesis of the function XOR
A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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A B X conjunction
0 0 0
0 1 1 A·B
1 0 1 A·B
1 1 0
DNF: X = AB ∨ AB
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NAND gate (revisited)
X = f(A, B) = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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X = f(A, B) = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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X = f(A, B) = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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X = f(A, B) = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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X = f(A, B) = AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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NAND – a Universal Gate
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Dual gates
A B A B A·B A·B A·B A∨B

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Dual gates

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Dual gates

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Dual gates

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Dual gates

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Dual gates

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
A∨B = A·B
A = A
A∨B = A·B = A·B
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Dual gates, De Morgan laws
}
A·B = A∨B
dual functions
A∨B = A·B
}
A∨B = A·B
De Morgan laws
A·B = A∨B
h is dual of f ⇔ h(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

def
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Another universal gate: NOR
dual to
dual to
dual to
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Complete systems of logic functions
Superposition:
h(x1 , . . . , xn ) = f(g1 (x1 , . . . , xn ), . . . , gm (x1 , . . . , xn ))

Example:
NOT(AND(x1 , NOT(x2 )) ≡ x1 x2 = x1 ∨ x2 = x1 ∨ x2
def
Complete systems (examples):

{ }
{AND, OR, NOT} ={ ·, ∨,}X (not minimal!)
{AND, NOT} ={ ·, X}
{OR, NOT} = ∨, X
{AND, XOR, 1} = {·, ⊕, 1}
{OR, XOR, 1} = {∨, ⊕, 1}
{NAND} = {↑} Sheffer stroke
{NOR} = {↓} Peirce’s arrow/Quine’s dagger
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Closed Boolean function classes
Function classes closed under superposition:
1 T0 : zero-preserving:
f(0, 0, . . . , 0) = 0
2 T1 : one-preserving:
f(1, 1, . . . , 1) = 1
3 S: self-dual:
f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
4 L: linear:
f(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = a0 ⊕ a1 x1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an xn
5 M: monotonic:
⃗a ≡ (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
def
⃗a ≤ ⃗b ⇔ ∀i ∈ {1, . . . , n} : ai ≤ bi
def
f ∈ M ⇔ ⃗a ≤ ⃗b ⇒ f(⃗a) ≤ f(⃗b)
def
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Post’s theorem
A Boolean function set B = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn } is complete under
superposition iff:
1 it contains a function that does not preserve 0:
∃ fi ∈ B : fi 6∈ T0
2 it contains a function that does not preserve 1:
∃ fi ∈ B : fi 6∈ T1
3 it contains a function that is not self-dual:
∃ fi ∈ B : fi 6∈ S
4 it contains a function that is not linear:
∃ fi ∈ B : fi 6∈ L
5 it contains a function that is not monotonic:
∃ fi ∈ B : fi 6∈ M
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Apollo Guidance Computer gates
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Achievements so far ...
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Binary arithmetic
Representable digits in our hardware: 0 and 1

System: dec bin oct hex
Base: 10 2 8 16
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
3
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 10000
17 10001
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 10000
17 10001
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 10
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 10000
17 10001
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 10
9 1001 11
10 1010 12
11 1011 13
12 1100 14
13 1101 15
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12
11 1011 13
12 1100 14
13 1101 15
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13
12 1100 14
13 1101 15
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14
13 1101 15
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Binary arithmetic

Base: 10 2 8 16
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expressing numbers
In base b, an m-digit number is represented as a polynomial:
N = am−1 bm−1 + am−2 bm−2 + · · · + a2 b2 + a1 b + a0
Example:
1101012 = 1 · 25 + 1 · 24 + 0 · 23 + 1 · 22 + 0 · 21 + 1 · 20
= 3210 + 1610 + 410 + 110
= 5310
Another example:
1616 = 1 · 161 + 6 · 160 = 1610 + 610 = 2210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expressing fractions
In base b, a fraction f = 0.a1 a2 . . . am is represented as a

polynomial:
f = a1 b−1 + a2 b−2 + · · · + am−1 b−m+1 + am b−m
Example:
0.01101012 = 0 · 2−1 + 1 · 2−2 + 1 · 2−3 + 0 · 2−4 +

+1 · 2−5 + 0 · 2−6 + 1 · 2−7
1 1 1 1
= 410 + 810 + 3210 + 12810
= 0.414062510
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Converting into other number systems
Division by the system’s base gives reminder that is the last digit of
the number:
N = am−1 bm−1 + am−2 bm−2 + · · · + a2 b2 + a1 b + a0
= b(am−1 bm−2 + am−2 bm−3 + · · · + a2 b + a1 ) + a0
Thus, repeated division by a base gives us digits in that base as

reminders:
38 210
1-4
1-7
1-10
1-13
1-16
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:
1001102 /102 = 10011.02 (quotient = 100112 , reminder = 0)

reminders:
38 210
210
210
210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
210
210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 210
210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 210
210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0 0 0
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0 0 0
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

the number:

reminders:
38 210
38 19 210
0 18 9 210
1 8 4 210
1 4 2 210
0 2 1 210
0 0 0
1
1001102 = 25 + 22 + 21 = 3210 + 410 + 210 = 3810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Converting fractions
Fractions can be multiplied by the new number base to yield

consequently digits after the fraction point:
0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0.011012 × 102 = 0.11012 ; b0.011012 × 102 c = b0.11012 c = 0

0.11012 × 102 = 1.1012 ; b0.11012 × 102 c = b1.1012 c = 1
1.1012 − b1.1012 c = 0.1012
0.1012 × 102 = 1.012 ; b1.012 c = 1
…
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Convert 0.62510 to binary.

0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
0.1012
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .



0.62510 × 210 = 1.2510 ; b0.62510 × 210 c = b1.2510 c = 1
1.2510 − b1.2510 c = 0.2510
0.2510 × 210 = 0.510 ; b0.2510 × 210 c = b0.510 c = 0
0.510 − b0.510 c = 0.510
0.510 × 210 = 1.010 ; b1.010 c = 1
1.010 − b1.010 c = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ end
0.1012 = 1 · 2−1 + 0 · 2−2 + 1 · 2−3 = 0.510 + 0.12510 = 0.62510
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Converting to/from base 8 and base 16
Dividing by 810 gives the 3 last binary digits as a reminder:
1101 10112 /810 ≡ 1101 10112 /10002 = 1101 1.0112
Dividing by 1610 gives the 4 last binary digits as a reminder:
1101 10112 /1610 ≡ 1101 10112 /100002 = 1101 .10112
Therefore:
To convert to octal (hexadecimal), group your binary digits by 3 (4)
and convert each group to a corresponding digit:
Octal digits Hex digits

000 0 ←− 0000 0 1000 8
001 1 Example (octal): 0001 1 1001 9
010 2 010110112 = 001 011 0112 = 1338 0010 2 1010 A
011 3 0011 3 1011 B
100 4 −→ 0100 4 1100 C
101 5 Example (hexadecimal): 0101 5 1101 D
110 6 010110112 = 0101 10112 = 5B16 0110 6 1110 E
111 7 0111 7 1111 F
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Take home messages
Digital circuits can be described using Boolean algebra;

Any Boolean function can be implemented using a complete
set of Boolean functions, as per Post’s theorem; each of
functions NAND and NOR alone form a complete set and
any digital circuit can be build from them;
All Boolean functions can be implemented as electric (e.g.
CMOS FET) switches;
Binary is a natural positional number system for digital
computations; simple algorithms exist to convert numbers
between binary and other number systems, but systems
with bases 8 and 16 are the most convenient to represent
binary numbers.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Saulius Gražulis Logic gates. Number systems Vilnius, 2020 4 / 28

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Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF):

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A B A B A·B A·B A·B A∨B

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A B A B A·B A·B A·B A∨B

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A B A B A·B A·B A·B A∨B