NETWORK :

A network is collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices in

order to exchange information or share resources.

NEED/ADVANTAGE/APPLICATION OF NETWORK :
1. Sharing of resources : Network provide an easy and flexible sharing of
peripherals like printer, scanner etc. which reduce the cost.
2. Sharing of software : Software can be installed centrally on one machine and
can be used by number of machines.
3. Access to remote database : Database can be stored on one machine and can
be shared by many users at a time.
4. Improve communication : Data like pictures, files, voice data etc. can be sent
through email.
DISADVANTAGE OF NETWORK :
1. The systems are more complex to run that requires technical staff to maintain
the network.
2. If networks are badly managed services can become unusable.
3. It is impossible to work if server fails due to any reason.

COMPONENTS OF NETWORKS :
The major components of a computer networks are :
(i) Hosts/Nodes/Workstations : A computer becomes a workstation of a network
as soon as it is attached to a network.
(ii) Server : A computer that provide the sharing of data, software and hardware
resources on the network is called server. Servers can be of two types :
(a) Non-Dedicated server : In small network a computer which can works as
workstation as well as a server is called non-dedicated server.
(b) Dedicated server : In bigger network a computer is dedicated for some specific job
like printing, providing software /hardware resources etc. is called dedicated server.
(iii)Clients : A client computer is a host computer that requests for some services
from a server.
(iv) Network Hardware :
NIC (Network Interface Card): It is a device that is attached to each of the
workstations and the server which helps in communication between the server and
workstations.
Hub, Switch, router : These are the connectivity devices.
(v) Communication channel : Hosts in a network interact with other hosts and
server(s) through a communication channel or communication medium. It
may be either wired or wireless.
i. Wired communication channels : when hosts and server(s)
are connected with one another through guided media. Ex-
twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables.
ii. Wireless communication channels : when hosts and server(s)
are connected with one another through unguided media. Ex-
radio waves, Microwaves, satellites etc.
(vi) Software : The software layer of network make networking possible. It
includes network protocols, network operating system etc.
(vii) Network services : It refers to the applications that provide different
functionalities over a network such as DNS(Domain Name System), File
sharing, VoIP(Voice over IP) etc.

TYPES OF NETWORKS :
(A) Types of networks based on Geographical spread :
(1) LAN (Local Area Network) :- Small computer networks that are confined to a
local area such as office, school, building etc. are known as LANs. The
purpose of LAN is the sharing of hardware and software resources among its
users. It works properly aprox. upto 10 km.
(2) WAN (Wide Area Network) :- This type of networks spread across countries.
It is a group of computers that are separated by large distances and tied
together. It can be a group of various LANs that are spread across the world.
The largest WAN in existence is the internet.

(B) Types of networks by Component Roles:

(1) Peer to Peer Networks : Each computer on a peer-to-peer network is equal

i.e. each computer can play the role of a client or a server. The computers
termed as non-dedicated servers in a peer-to-peer network. It has upto 10
computers.
(2) The client-server Networks / master-slave networks : It has bigger network.
There may be many servers (dedicated/ non-dedicated) and client computers.
In client-server model, the client is dependent on the server to provide and
manage the information.

Differences between Client-server and P2P Networks :

Client-server P2P
The server controls security of the No central control over security
network
The server manages the network. No central control over the network
A dedicated team is required to manage Anyone can setup or manage the
the server network
Clients are dependent on the server Clients are not dependent on the server
The servers can be upgraded to be made Machines on the network are slow.
more powerful to cope with high
demand
Data in all backed up on the main Each computer has to be backed up.
server Data can easily be deleted by users.

(C) Types of networks based on communication channel:

(1) Wired computer networks : In wired computer network, the hosts and other
devices are interconnected through wiring or cable. Most commonly used
cables are one of the following three types :
(a) Twisted Pair Cable :-It is the most common form of wiring in data
communication. It consists of two identical wires wrapped together in
a double helix. Ex- CAT-1, CAT-2, CAT-3, CAT-4,CAT-5 & CAT-
6.There are two types of twisted pair cables : (i) UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair) Cable (ii) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Cable

(b) Coaxial Cable :-This type of cable consists of a solid wire core
surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields, each separated by some
kind of plastic insulator. The inner core carries the signal, and the
shield provided the ground. There are two types of coaxial cables : (i)
Thicknet (ii) Thinnet

(c) Optical Fibers Cable :- The fiber cable consists of three pieces
(i) the core : the glass or plastic through which the light travels.
 (ii) the cladding : which is covering of the core that reflects light back to
the core.
(iii) Protective coating : which protects the fiber cable from hostile
environment.
Fiber optical cable can be either single node or multi-node.
Advantages : It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments. It has
secure transmission and very high transmission capacity.
Disadvantages : Installation problem. More difficult to solder. Most
expensive. Connection looses are common problem.

(2) Wireless computer networks : The computer networks that use environment
or air as the media, through which information is transmitted without requiring
any cable, are wireless computer networks. Most commonly wireless networks
are :
a. Microwave : Microwave waves are high frequency waves that can be
used to transmit data wirelessly over long distances. It consists of a
transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. It can be used to transmit
signals such as mobile phone calls.
b. Radio waves : Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio
programmes. It can be classified by frequency and wavelength. When
the frequency is higher than 3HGz, it is named microwave. WiFi used
radio wave to transmit data.
c. Satellite (Satellite Microwave): It uses the synchronous satellite to
relay the radio signal transmitted from ground station.

NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE :
(1) NIC (Network Interface Card) / TAP (Terminal Access Point)/ NIU (Network
Interface Unit): It is a device that is attached to each of the workstations and
the server. It helps the workstation to establish the all important connection
with the network. Each NIC attached with workstation has a unique number
identifying it, which is known as node address.
(2) MAC Address (Media Access Control Address) : The NIC manufacturer
assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card, it is known as MAC
address. It is a 6-byte address with each byte separated by a colon. Ex :
The first three bytes are the
The last three bytes are the card-
manufacturer-id, assigned by an
no, assigned by manufacture
international organization IEEE
10 : B5 : 03 : 63 : 2E : FC

(3) WiFi Card : A WiFi card is either an internal or external LAN adapter with a
built-in-wireless radio and antenna. PCI-Express WiFi cards are made to fit
the PCI-Express slots on the motherboard. It can be install on desktop also.
(4) Hub : It is a hardware device having multiple ports that are used for
connecting multiple computers or segments of a LAN together. Hubs can be
either passive or active.
a. Active Hub : it electically amplify the signal as it moves from one
connected device to another. It works like repeaters to extend the
length of a network.
b. Passive Hub : it allow the signal to pass from one computer to another
without any change.
(5) Switch : It is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub
networks. It is responsible for filtering i.e. transforming data in a specific way
and for forwarding packets between LAN segments only to the requesting
port. It can support any packet protocol.
 (6) Bridge : It is a device that lets us link two networks together. Bridges are
smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the bridge, so
they only allow those messages that need to get to the other side to cross the
bridge. It can handle networks that follow same protocols.
(7) Router :- It is a network device that is used to separate different segments in a
network to improve performance and reliability. It works like a bridge but can
handle different protocols. It works on physical addresses. Based on a network
road map called a routing table, routers can help ensure that packets are
travelling the most efficient paths to their destinations. If a link between two
routers fails, the sending router can determine an alternate route to keep traffic
moving.
(8) Gateway :- It is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It
established an intelligent connection between a local network and external
networks with completely different structures.
(9) Access Points(AP)/ Wireless Access Point(WAP) : It is a hardware device that
establishes connection(s) of computing devices on wireless LAN with a fixed
wire network. It has range upto 150 feet. It can work as an router.

THE CLOUD :
The term cloud refer to the collection of servers. It is a generic term used for
internet. Cloud computing is the use of internet for the tasks we perform on our
computer for storage, retrieval and access.
There are Four types of clouds :
1. Private Clouds : these are the clouds for exclusive use by a single organization
and typically controlled, managed and hosted in private data centers.
2. Public Clouds : these are the clouds for use by multiple organizations on a
shared basis and hosted and managed by a third party service provider.
3. Community clouds : these are the clouds for use by a group of related
organizations who wish to make use of a common cloud computing
environment.
4. Hybrid clouds : when a single organization adopts both private and public
clouds for a single application in order to take advantage of the benefits of
both.

INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT) :

IoT is a technology that connects the things i.e. the smart devices to the internet
over wired or wireless connections. It allows people and the things to be
connected anytime, anyplace, with anything and anyone.
To enabling Technologies for IoT the following technological concepts are used :
1. RFID (Radio Frequencies Identification) : This technology is designed to use
radio waves to read and capture information stored on a RFID tag (it is a small
microchip attached to the antenna) . Every device on IoT has an RFID tag
which identifies and tracks the data of the things.
2. Sensors : It is a device which is able to detect changes in an environment. It is
able to measure a physical phenomenon like temperature, pressure etc.
3. Smart technologies : It include additional functionality to take action and have
other processing capabilities as per the requirements.
4. Software : It provides the reusable solutions for connecting, taking actions and
solving issues that may arise.
5. Effective Network connectivity : Network connectivity is very important as
IoT forms through interconnections of devices to the internet.

MODULATION TECHNIQUES :
Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics of the carrier wave by
superimposing the message signal on a high frequency signal.
Modulation alters the shape of a carrier wave to encode somehow the speech or data
information that is to be carried. Now this encode form of wave will be transmitted.
The main function of carrier wave is to carry the audio or video signal from
transmitter to the receiver. The new wave is called modulated wave.

There are two major types of modulation technique:

1.Amplitude Modulation (AM) :
The amplitude of a wave is its maximum disturbance from its undisturbed position. It
is measured in the form of the height of the wave.
In amplitude modulation, the strength of the carrier signal, i.e. amplitude, is varied as
per the changes in the amplitude of the modulating signal.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM) :
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves produced by a source, per second. It
is measured as the number of waves that pass a certain point in one second.
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied as per the
changes in the amplitude of the modulating signal.

COLLISION IN WIRELESS NETWORK :

In a computer network, collision is a specific condition that occurs when two or more
nodes on a network transmit data at the same time and data gets lost.
In wireless networks, if collision occurs, the transmitting nodes cannot deduct it.
Wireless network use a special protocol called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance) for collision handling.

How CSMA/CA works :

1. Node is ready to transmit.
2. Listen for other nodes, if any transmission is taking place. One of the two
possibilities are :
2.1 Busy : A transmission is taking place. Now do the following :
2.1.1 Increase back off or wait time
2.1.2 Sleep as per wait time
2.1.3 Wake up and go to step 1
2.2 Free : No transmission is taking place. Now do the following :
2.2.1 Send message
2.2.2 Verify it proper transmission has taken place using one of the
following two
methods :
(a) ACK (Acknowledgement ) method
(b) Request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS) method

CSMA/CA with ACK method :

The ACK signal is generated by the receiver node, only if the data frame is
received in valid form.
In this method, as soon as a node transmits data to another node, the receiving
node must send an acknowledgement signal called ACK, once it has received
the data.
The ACK signal must reach to the sender node within a specific time-frame. If
the sender node does not receive ACK in specific time, it consider it as a failed
transmission and retransmits the data.

CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS method :

In this method, the sender node first sends an RTS signal to its receiver.
Receiver confirms its readiness to receive by sending a CTS signal to the
sender as well as all other nodes.
1. Other nodes upon receiving a CTS will now not transmit (will wait).
 2. The sender node upon receiving a CTS goes ahead with transmission.

Once the transmission ends, the receiver nodes send ACK signal to all nodes :
1. The sender node takes ACK as confirmation of successful transmission.
2. Other nodes take ACK signal as end of transmission. Now they can
transmit.

ERROR CHECKING (ERROR DETECTION) :

Error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input
information. The errors can be one or more of following types :
(i) Single-bit error : If only one bit of the transmitted data got changed from 1 to
0 or vice versa.
(ii) Multiple-bit error : If two or more nonconsecutive bits in data got changed
from 1 to 0 or vice versa.
(iii)Burst Error : If two or more consecutive bits in data got changed from 1 to 0
or vice versa.

To avoid such error in transmission, some error deduction or error checking methods
are used in computer network that ensure if the received packet is error free or not.
Some common error checking methods in networks are :
1. Single Dimensional Parity Checking : Parity refers to an additional bit added
to the actual data.
Steps :

(A) Before transmission, at sender node : Number of 1’s is counted in the actual
data unit and an extra bit (either 0 or 1), called parity bit, will be added to
actual data so that the number of 1’s along with the extra bit, become even or
remain even.

Example : suppose two data units as 10110111 and 11001011

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

The data is now transmitted along with the parity bit.

(B) After transmission, at the receiver node : From the received data, excluding
the parity bit, once again determine the parity bit. If the received parity bit
matches with the calculated parity bit, data is considered as CORRECT,
otherwise it is CORRUPTED.
Suppose received data is as 10100111 and 11001011.

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
Calculated parity bit is 1 so ERROR

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Calculated parity bit is 1 so NO
ERROR

Advantage :
1. It is a simple and easy to implements.
2. It is inexpensive technique for deducting the errors.
Disadvantage :
1. It can detect only single-bit errors which occur rarely.
2. If, in the data transmitted, two bits get interchanged, then even though data
gets affected, but the parity bit will remain correct. In such cases, this
technique cannot detect the errors.

2. Two Dimensional Parity Checking : This technique works with multiple data
units simultaneously.
Steps :

(A) Before transmission, at sender node : Organize all data units one below
another so that it appears as table of bits. Now calculate parity bits for each
data unit row-wise and colomn-wise.

Example : suppose data units as 11010001,00100000, 00111100, 10010001

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

The data is now transmitted along with the parity bit.

(B) After transmission, at the receiver node : From the received data, excluding
the parity bit, once again determine the parity bit row-wise and column-wise.
If the received parity bit matches with the calculated parity bit, data is
considered as CORRECT, otherwise it is CORRUPTED.
Suppose received data is as 11001001, 00100000, 00111100, 10010001

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

On comparison row and column wise parity bits it is found that there
is an ERROR.
Advantage :
1. It is more efficient than single dimensional parity technique.
 2. It can deduct multiple bit errors also.

Disadvantage :
1. It cannot deduct compensating multiple bit errors.
2. It cannot deduct 4 or more bit errors in some cases.

3. Checksum : The checksum refers to a sum of data bits calculated from digital
data that is used to ensure the data integrity at the receiver’s end.
The checksum is calculated as per a specific scheme and is used for error
checking in computer network.
Steps :
(A) At the sender node, before transmission :
1. The data being transmitted is divided into equal sized k number of
segments, where each segment contains m number of bits.
2. The divided k segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic
and extra bits, more than m bits, are added back to the sum (wrap
around).
3. The final sum’s complement is calculated. This is the checksum.
4. Now the data will be transmitted along with the checksum.
(B) At the receiver node, after transmission :
5. Step 2 is repeated at receiver end to get new sum.
6. The new sum is added with the received checksum and then
complemented. Now if the result is all 0’s then there is no error, accept
data and if result is not all 0’s then reject the data.
Example :
Suppose k=4 data segments with m=8 bits

MAIN IDEA OF ROUTING :

Routing is the process of efficiently selecting a path in a network along which the data
packets will travel to their destination.
When a data packet reaches a router, the router selects the best route to the destination
network from its routing table and forwards the data packet to the neighboring router
as per the selected best route. This way each router keeps passing the data packet to
its neighboring router on best route to the destination and finally the data packet
reached its destination.
A router maintains a table called the routing table that stores routing information
based on which the router determines the best path to a network. Routers are not
concerned with hosts, they only deal with networks and the best path to reach to them.

TCP/IP :
It is a collection of protocols that includes Transmission Control Protocol, Internet
Protocol, User Datagram Protocol and many others. Each of these protocol has a
specific function:
TCP: It ensures reliable communication. It is a connection-oriented protocol. TCP
follows handshake process.
Handshake process means establishing a direct connection between sender and
receiver with start signal, acknowledgement signals etc.
UDP : It is a connectionless protocol. It allows information to be sent without using a
handshake process.
IP : It is connectionless protocol responsible for providing addresses of each computer
and performing routing.

Network Congestion and retransmission in TCP :

Network congestion is a special situation in a computer network where the network
devices such as routers have to deal with much more data incoming to them than they
can handle at a time.
Network congestion results in many problems such as :
(i) The receiving network device cannot send acknowledgement signal in time
even if they have received the data correctly.
(ii) The sender node retransmits the data when it does not receive the ACK signal
and, this increase the network traffic.
(iii) It reduces the network throughput.

Symptoms of network congestion :

Networks identify the congestion situation through the following symptoms :
(i) Excessive packet delay (ii) loss of data packets (iii) retransmission

How network congestion is handled ? (Analogy to Road network congestion)

Network congestion is analogous to the congestion on roads and can be handled
similarly. To control the roads’ congestion problem, a metering technique is used for
controlling the incoming traffic on roads by employing measures like traffic-signals
or routing the traffic.
The metering technique is implemented as follows :
1. It ensures that the sender does not overflow the network and it is done by
controlling the flow of data packets. With this measure, the sender maintains a
value indicating the limit of data that can be sent into the network without being
acknowledged.
2. It ensures that the routers along the path work as per their capacity to handle
network traffic and do not become overflowed.

ADDRESSES ON A NETWORK:
(A) Web Address (URL) : A location on a net server is called a web site. Each web
site has a unique address called URL (Uniform Resource Locator).
HTTP uses Internet addresses in a special format called URL.
URL is also referred as Web Address i.e an address of a file on internet. It is
determined by the following
 type:// address / path
where type: specifies the type of server in which the file is located,
address is the address of server, and
path tells the location of file on the server.
Ex:
http://www.yahoo.com
http://www.yahoo.com/index,asp
ftp://ftp.prenhall.com
http://www.cbse.nic.in/academics.html

The Domain Name & DNS :

The URL of a website is also known as its domain name. The domain name is
unique name of a website.
A domain name contains following parts :
(i) www
(ii) name describing the website’s purpose
(iii) TLD(Top Level Domain) such as .com, .net etc.

Domain name is also known as DNS name.

Domain Name Resolution refers to the process of obtaining corresponding IP
address from a domain name.

DNS (Domain Name System) : The character based naming system by which
servers are identified is known as DNS.
,gov - government .in – India
.com - commercial .au - Australia
.edu - school or university .jp – Japan
.org - nonprofit organization .pk – Pakistan
.mil - milatrary .us – United states of America
.net - Networker organization

(B) IP Address :
Each network device on a TCP/IP network needs to have a unique address on a
network. This unique address is called IP address. Through IP address different
networks can communicate with each other.
Each IP address is a series containing four numbers separately by dots or periods.
Ex. 192.168.1.1,10.127.1.1 etc

There are two versions of IP : IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 :
It is the first version of IP and most widely deployed internet protocol used to
connect devices to the internet.
IPv4 address are 32 bit long.
It has total 232 addresses.
IPv4 has the following format : x.x.x.x; where x is called an octet and must be a
decimal value between 0 to 255.
IPv4 address must contain three periods and four octets.
Ex: 1.2.3.4
192.168.2.1
20.103.104.126 etc

IPv6 :
It has two formats :
(i) Normal – Pure IPv6 formats
(ii) Dual – Ipv6 plus IPv4 formats

Normal IPv6 formats :

It has following format y:y:y:y:y:y:y:y ; where y is called a segment and can be
any hexadecimal value between 0 and FFFF.
The segments are separated by colons.
It must have eight segments. Zero segments can be omitted.
Ex :
2001:db8:3333:4444:5555;EEEE:FFFF
:: (it has all 8 segments - Zeros)
2001:db8:: ( have last six segments are zero)

Dual IPv6 formats :

It combines an IPv6 & IPv4 addresses and has following format :
y:y:y:y:y:y:x.x.x.x

CELLULAR/ WIRELESS CONNECTIVITY PROTOCOLS :

2G GSM - the second generation :
2G, known as GSM(Global System for Mobile Communication), was introduced
in 1992 and is a fully digital technology.
It allowed some data along with calls in the form of text messages.
GSM can handle data speeds of up to 250 Kbps.
3G - the third generation :
3G was introduced in 2000. It offered speeds upto 20 Mbps. It can handle data in
the form of text messages and multimedia such as audio/video messages along
with voice calls. 3G is transmitted at frequency 2100 Mhz.

4G - the fourth generation :

4G was introduced in 2013. In India the frequency range for 4G(LTE) is 1800Hz
to 2300Hz. It use ultra-high broad-band internet services with much faster data
speed, typically between 100 mbps-1gbps. It provides internet access, high
quality streaming video and “anytime, anywhere” voice and data transmission at
a much faster speed that 3G. The “anytime, anywhere” feature of 4G is also
referred as “MAGIC” (Mobile multimedia) anytime/anywhere.
VoLTE( Voice over Long-Term Evolution) :
It is a standard for high-speed wireless communication for mobile phones and
data terminals.

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidely):

Wi-Fi protocol governs the rules to connect to the Internet without a direct line
from PC to the ISP.
For Wi-Fi to work, we need :
(i) A broadband Internet connection
(ii) A wireless router, which relays Internet connection from the ISP to the PC
(iii) A PC/laptop with a wireless internet card.

Wi-Fi Hotspot :
A hotspot is a venue that offers Wi-Fi access. We can use a laptop, mobile or any
portable device to access the internet through Wi-Fi hotspot.

WHAT MAKES A PROTOCOL HAVE A HIGHER BANDWIDTH?

A number of factors are responsible for a protocol to have a higher bandwidth :
1. With the digitization of the signal over generations of mobile communications,
data traffic already exceeds voice traffic and is growing exponentially.
2. The telephone, computer and entertainment industries have all gone digital
and have almost converged into one. Smartphones nowadays act as a
telephone, music and video player, gaming machine, email terminal web
interface, mobile TV and run high-speed applications and more, all with
worldwide wireless connectivity to the internet at high bandwidth.

BASIC NETWORK TOOLS :

When we are connected to internet, many problems may encountered. To figure
out what type of errors are encountered, we need to work with different network
tools or simple networking commands.
1. PING :
To test the connectivity between two hosts, PING command is used. It determines
whether the remote machine can receive the test packet and reply. It is
determined by finding how much time it takes to get the response from the
remoter machine.
On command prompt type
ping <domain name or ip address>
ex: ping cbse.nic.in

2. TRACEROUTE (FOR LINUX) OR TRACERT( FOR WINDOWS) :

It is used to tack the pathway taken by a packet on an IP network from source
to destination.
On command prompt type
traceroute or tracert <domain name or ip address>
Ex: traceroute or tracert google.com

3. NSLOOKUP (NAME SERVER LOOKUP) :

It is used to obtain information about internet servers. It does two things :
(i) It displays the name and IP address of computer’s default DNS server.
(ii) It also displays a small prompt that is nslookup’s own prompt. Here we
can type the domain name or IP address.

4. IPCONFIG COMMAND :
It displays detailed information about the network we are connected to. The
ipconfig/all command gives more detailed information such as DNS servers,
DHCP enabled or not, MAC address along with more helpful information.

5. WHOIS COMMAND :
It is a query command that is used to get some information on a specific
domain name, such as who registered it, when was it registered, and when the
domain will expire etc.
whois –h <domain name>

6. SPEED TEST :
To check download and upload speed of network connections, we can use
speed-test utility. There are many speed-test utilities are available online.
Ex. speedtest.net, pingtest.net etc.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

It is an application level protocol used mainly to access data on the World Wide
Web. HTTP function as a combination of FTP and SMTP.
HTTP consists of two items : the set of requests from browsers to servers and the
set of responses going back to the other way.

Working mechanism of HTTP:

(i) For web communications, the request message (HTTP request), is sent to an
HTTP server in the form or URLs by HTTP client.
(ii) The HTTP server receives the HTTP request, fetches the information as per
the request and sends it to the HTTP client. This is called the response
message from HTTP server.
(iii) The HTTP client (web browser) receives the response message, interprets
the message and displays the contents of the message on the browser’s
window (which could be website or error message, if such URL does not
exist) .

HTTP is a stateless protocol. In other words, the current request does not know
what has been done in the previous requests.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

It is a standard for exchange of files across internet. Files of any type can be
transferred.
Advantage of FTP :
(i) It is very useful to transfer files from one network in an organization to
another.
(ii) It is an effective way to get a geographically dispersed group to co-operate on
a project.
(iii) It is patent and popular way to share information over the internet.

POP (Post Office Protocol)

POP3 i.e. the Post Office Protocol version 3 has become a standard mail protocol.
The POP3 defines the rules about receiving emails from a remote server to a local
email client. It also download received email messages onto their local computer
even when not connected to the internet so that we can read them when internet
connection is available. By default, POP3 deletes emails on the server after
downloading them on local email client machine.
By default, the POP3 protocol works on two ports :
Port 110 : the default POP3 non-encrypted port, used for unsecured email
communication,
Port 995 : the encrypted port, used for secure email communication using POP3.

IMAP ( Internet Message Access Protocol)

It is mail protocol used in conjunction with POP3 protocol for accessing emails
on a remote web server and downloads them to a local client.
IMAP supports multiple applications, multiple clients and multiple locations,
IMAP is more suitable when we are going to access our email from different
locations or if messages are managed by multiple users.
By default, the IMAP works on two ports :
Port 143 : the default, non-encrypted port, used for unsecured email
communication,
Port 993 : the encrypted port, used for secure communication,

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

It is used for sending emails to other networks or computers. It handles only
outgoing messages and not incoming messages. SMTP does not create messages,
rather it helps in forwarding messages between client servers.
By default, the IMAP works on two ports :
Port 25 : the default, non-encrypted port, (unsecured )
Port 465 : the encrypted port, (secure communication,)

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

For transferring of voice, voice over internet protocol is used. The voice calls are
first digitized, compressed and then fragmented into small packets, which are
then relayed by Internet Protocol cross network, VoIP implementation enables
users to carry voice traffic over on IP network. VoIP uses packet-switching
technology. VoIP allows both voice and data communications to be run over a
single network.
The protocols used for VoIP are :
H.323 and Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

NFC (Near Field Communication)

NFC protocol is used to provide short-range connectivity between two electronic
devices that within the distance of 4-5 centimeters. It does not required physical
connections.
It is inherently more secure because it is established only when two NFC
supporting devices come closer to one another.

WORKING OF EMAIL
1. When we compose and send an email from email client then it has the
recipient’s email address along the email message.
2. Now, email client connects to the outgoing SMTP server and hands over the
email message in the required format i.e. in MIME(Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extension).
3. The outgoing SMTP fist validates the sender details and if valid, processes the
message for sending and place it in outgoing queue.
4. The SMTP server, based on the domain details in the recipient address, look
up the DNS server of the domain and retrieves the recipient server
information ( MX records) of the recipient domain. [MX (Mail Exchange)
are DNS records that are necessary for delivering email to the recipient’s
address]
5. Then the SMTP server connects with the recipient email server and sends the
email through SMTP protocol.
6. The recipient server in turn validates the recipient account and delivers the
email to the users mail account.
7. The user logs into own email account and views the received email using
email client that will use POP3/IMAP protocols.

SECURE COMMUNICATION
Secure communication is when two entities are communicating and do not want a
third party to listen in,
To ensure the safety of the information being transmitted over the web, amny
internet security measures are employed.
1. Encryption :
It is a technique that translates the original data into a form which is not a
usable form of data. The encrypted data must be decoded or decrypted to
bring it back to the original form.

2. Decryption :
To decrypt the data, a specific code called the decryption key is required.
Only the people that have access to this secret code (the key) can decode and
read the actual data.

3. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure)

It is a combination of HTTP and SSL protocols. It provides encrypted
communication and secure identification of a network web server and ensure
protected data-transfer.

How to check the connection is secure ?

When we open any website, we should make sure that the URL starts with
“HTTPS” and there is a padlock sign on the navigation bar or footer or
browser.

4. SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)

It is a mechanism of data transfer over internet to provide a safe passage for
the transmission of data. It encrypts the data so that a third party cannot
eavesdrop on the transmission and view the data being transmitted.

The working of SSL requires that the website has SSL certificate installed
which ensures its authenticity. Once installed, the sensitive information is
obtained from the user through a secure connection over internet.

HTTPS tells the connection between the server and browser must be secured
using SSL.
The activated padlock shows that browser connection to the server is now
secure. If there is no padlock or the padlock shows a broken symbol, the page
is does not use SSL.

5. SCP(Session Control Protocol)

SCP is a means of securely transferring computer files between a local host
and a remote host or between two remote hosts. It is based on the Secure
Shell(SSH) protocol.
SCP is a simple protocol which lets a server and client have multiple
conversations over a single TCP connection.
SCP’s main service is dialogue control. This service allows either end of the
connection to establish a virtual session over a single transport connection.

6. SSH Protocol
Secure Shell(SSH) is a cryptographic network protocol for operating network
services securely over an unsecured network.
The SSH protocol is a method for secure remote login from one computer to
another.
It provides several alternative options for strong authentication, and protects
the communication security and integrity with strong encryption.
 NETWORK APPLICATIONS
1. Remote Desktop :
The remote desktop is a type of network application through which a person
can work on the desktop of another computer (which is at a different location)
in the same manner as if that computer is right in from of the person.
The person connects to the remote computer (called host computer) via own
computer (called client computer) on which he is working.
2. Remote Login :
The remote login is a network application that permits a user sitting at a
different location to work on a specific program on another computer.
The work access to a program is granted by login concept wherein users
having authorized login and password to work on that program are allowed
access.
There are two programs TELNET and SSH that facilitate remote login on the
Internet.
-----------------------***************--------------------
LAN DESIGN :
Cable layout /Possible layout: It must use less length of wire.
Kind of network [LAN/MAN/WAN] : According to distance it must be used.
LAN- upto 10 Kms
MAN- In a city [upto 100 Kms]
WAN – world wide
Server Position : According to 80-20 rule server must be place where most of the computer resides.
Placement of Devices :
Server : Large number of computers in building [According to 80-20 rules]
Modem : In the server room.
HUB/Switch : in each building.
Repeater : Use it if distance between two segment is greater than 50m.
Hub: Share bandwidth among all attached devices.
Switch : Provides dedicated bandwidth to all devices.
Bridge : It filter network traffic based on MAC addresses. It ensures that traffic goes only to requited
segment and not to all segments.
Router : It filter network traffic based on IP addresses.
Type of cable/transmission media is used for connection
Type of cable Max. segment length
Twisted Pair cable 100 mts.
500 mts.
100 kms
Radio wave Used for long distance specially for hilly region where cable connection is
not feasible, transmission in all direction(omni direction), easy to install
Microwave Use for directional transmission, required repeaters at every 30 miles.
Satellite Used over a very large area of earth.
Type of internet connection : Broad band.