Name: Luka Hilda Hassana

Department: English and literary studies

Course title: Modern Literary Theory

Course code: ENL 409

Matriculation number: 18221093

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. Broadly classify theory

2. Of what use is theory to the student?

A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon or the results of such thinking. The
process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational
study or research. Theories may be scientific, belong to a non-scientific discipline or no discipline at all.
 Depending on the context, a theory's assertions might, for example, include generalized explanations
of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several
related meanings.

CLASSES OF THEORY

1. Theory as classics
2. Theory as criticism
3. Taxonomic theory
4. Scientific Theory

CLASSICAL THEORY

The classical theory is the traditional theory wherein more emphasis is on the organization rather than
the employees working therein. According to the classical theory, the organization is considered as a
machine and the human beings as different components/parts of that machine.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSICAL THEORY

1. It is built on an accounting model.

2. It lays emphasis on detecting errors and correcting them once they have been commited.
3. It is much more concerned with the amount of output than the human beings.
4. The human beings are considered to be relatively homogeneous and unmodifiable. Thus labour
is not divided on the basis of different kinds of jobs to be performed in an organization.
5. It is assumed that employees are relatively stable in terms of the change in an organization.
6. It is assumed that the authority and control should be vested with the central authority only in
order to have a centralized and integrated system.

Some writers of the classical theory emphasized on the technological aspects of the organization and
how the individuals can be made more efficient while others emphasized on the structural aspects of an
organization so that individuals collectively can be made more efficient. Thus this purview of different
writers resulted in the formation of two distinct streams:

1. Scientific management stream

2. Administrative management stream

Thus, according to this theory the human beings are just considered as a means of production.

THEORY AS CRITICISM

Criticism theory also called literary criticism is the study, evaluation and interpretation of literature.
Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory which is the philosophical discussion of
literature's goals and methods. Though the two activities are closely related, literary critics are not
always and have not always been theorists.
Literary criticism is often published in essay or book form.

TAXONOMIC THEORY

A taxonomy is a standardized framework to classify and organize items into categories. Hierarchical
taxonomies are ubiquitous ranging from the classification of organism to the file system on a computer.

A theory of taxonomy establishes the principles that we use to reconcile and to rank taxonomic groups.
There are two currently popular theories of taxonomy:

1. Traditional evolutionary taxonomy

2. Pholygenetic systematics (cladistics).

Both are based on evolutionary principles. We will see however that these two theories differ on how
evolutionary principles are used. These difference have important implications for how we use a
taxonomy to study the evolutionary process.

SCIENTIFIC THEORY

A scientific Theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been
repeatedly tested and corroborated in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols
of observation, measurement and evaluation of results. Where possible theories are tested under
controlled conditions in an experiment. In circumstances not amenable to experimental testing, theories
are evaluated through principles of abductive reasoning.

TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

Albert Einstein described two different types of scientific theories:

1. Constructive theories: These are constructive models for phenomena; for example, kinetic
theory.
2. Principle theories: They are empirical generalizations, one such example being Newton's laws of
motion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

For any theory to be accepted within most academia there is usually one simple criterion. The essential
criterion is that the theory must be observable and repeatable. The aforementioned criterion is essential
to prevent fraud and perpetuate science itself.

The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make
falsifiable or testable predictions. The relevance and specificity of those predictions determine how
potentially useful the theory is.
USES OF THEORY TO THE STUDENT

Theory helps us get from research questions to research answers. It helps us make sense of research
questions by phrasing them in terms of a particular conceptual pathway and it guides us to certain
methods which match that pathway.

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships within
concepts. It allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change.
Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the
situation.
2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support-need to explain what is being
done and demonstrate that it works _ theory and research.
3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with
theories from both within and without the area of distant learning. That body of knowledge
grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.
4. Theory also helps us understand what we don't know and therefore is the only guide to
research. Relating to theory, it increases its ability to solve other problems in different times and
different places.