Laboratory Experiment

pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Studying Crystal Structures through the Use of Solid-State Model

Kits
Deborah Polvani Sunderland*
Department of Chemistry, Washington & Jefferson College, Washington, Pennsylvania 15301, United States
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: A solid-state crystal structure laboratory exercise for undergraduates in either a

general chemistry course or a more advanced inorganic chemistry course is described. Students
explore the lattice arrangement of atoms in unit cells by building models supplied by the Institute
for Chemical Education. Emphasis is placed on building three-dimensional visual models of various
crystal systems to display close packing of atoms, to identify tetrahedral and octahedral holes, to
reveal number of atoms per unit cell, and to highlight ion coordination numbers and size
differences. The relationship between solid-state bonding and a material’s physical properties is
emphasized for elemental carbon.

KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, Second-Year Undergraduate, Laboratory Instruction, Inorganic Chemistry,

Hands-On Learning/Manipulatives, Crystals/Crystallography, Solid-State Chemistry, Solids

M ost modern general chemistry textbooks will devote a

chapter to instruction of solids and crystalline materials.
It is interesting to note that, until recently, solid-state and
materials chemistry has not had a prominent role in the
undergraduate chemistry curriculum, and efforts to provide
instructional materials to help modernize introductory courses
have been addressed through the Ad Hoc Committee for Solid-
Sate Instructional Materials formed in 19901 and in several of
their publications.2−4 Specifically, one way to help illustrate the
connection between a crystalline solid’s atomic-level structure
and its physical properties is through the use of crystal-lattice
models. Considering the recent emphasis on solid-state
materials at the undergraduate level, it perhaps is no surprise
that there is only a limited collection of published laboratory
experiments and classroom demonstrations directly related to
construction and manipulation of crystalline models. A search
of this Journal5−10 resulted in a few examples from either home-
built resources or commercially available kits. One online
resource11 was found that describes kits from the Institute for
Chemical Education (ICE), which are the kits utilized in this
laboratory experience, and another presented an activity
utilizing virtual models of ionic structures.12 Other references
touted the general advantages of teaching chemistry through
the use of physical models,13,14 though there were no emphases
on any particular model sets. Using a combination of physical
and virtual models to supplement instruction in general and
organic chemistry courses has distinct advantages.15−17 These
results show that students can benefit from using both physical
and virtual models alongside each other. The physical (plastic)
models provide something tangible for students; they can be
touched and manipulated in three dimensions, and students
© 2014 American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
tend to enjoy the tactile experience afforded when working with
spheres and sticks. Virtual, or computer-based, models are
available in several different types such as ball-and-stick, stereo
line, or space filling. In addition, operations that include energy
minimization or other mathematical functions and unlimited
colors and sphere sizes are possible with the virtual models.
Significant improvement in student understanding can be
attributed to their exposure to physical and virtual models and
the active learning that these methods provide.
The laboratory exercise presented here utilizes physical
crystal-lattice model kits from the Institute for Chemical
Education (ICE)18 that are currently sold with a detailed
instruction manual.19 The instruction manual is designed to
give “layer by layer” directions for building three-dimensional
crystal structures by dropping spheres through intentionally
placed rods sticking up out of a template base (Figure 1). The
instruction manual only provides directions for building the
models; it does not prompt the students to answer questions
about particular structures based on their observations. We,
however, wish to extend the usefulness of this clever kit to the
classroom by describing a set of activities in which students can
participate as a lab experience.
This experiment was designed as a three-hour laboratory
session for our Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry course and
has been included for the past four years. Students take this
one-semester undergraduate course in their second year toward
completion of a chemistry degree or to help fulfill their general
chemistry requirements en route to a health professional
Published: February 25, 2014
432 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed400367x | J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91, 432−436
Journal of Chemical Education Laboratory Experiment

Figure 1. (Left) Photo of the kit for building models with base plates, a selection of templates, rods, and various sizes of spheres. (Right) Completed
solid-state model of sodium chloride.

Figure 2. The number of atoms per unit cell can be illustrated by considering the number of unit cells shared by an atom. Cubic unit cells are shown
here. When atoms are present at unit cell corners, they count as one-eigth of an atom per unit cell, body-centered atoms count as one whole atom,
and face atoms count as one-half of an atom per cell. The relationship between the edge length (a) and radius (r) of atoms in the simple cubic cell,
body-centered cubic (bcc) cell, and face-centered cubic (fcc) cell is additionally shown.

degree. Many students may struggle with visualizing and
mentally manipulating three-dimensional objects, and therefore,
this experiment was employed to help them conceptualize
crystal structures. The model kits are designed so that students
are able to build models within minutes of reading through an
example in the instruction manual.
effect this has on physical properties of molecules. Students
have started the crystalline solids unit prior to this experiment
and are familiar with crystalline lattices, types of unit cells,
close-packing, and number of atoms per unit cell. Students
should have an understanding of molecular geometry as well as
types of intermolecular forces and atomic bonding that includes

■
ionic, covalent, and metallic.
STUDENT BACKGROUND
Prior to doing this laboratory experiment, students cover Lewis
dot structures and VSEPR theory in the lecture portion of the
■ LABORATORY WORK
Coordinating a multisection laboratory for this experiment is
course. They also have a background in bond polarity and the relatively simple. The model kits are available in either a Deluxe
433 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed400367x | J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91, 432−436
Journal of Chemical Education Laboratory Experiment

version or a less expensive Student kit. There are approximately

Relate the 3D carbon network to diamond’s inherent hardness. Compare the ice structure to that of diamond and note that two of
the hydrogen−oxygen bonds are covalent, and two H atoms are attracted to O via intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Deduce that
Count the number of tetrahedral and octahedral holes, recognize that the ccp arrangement is identical to face-centered cubic (fcc)

Students deduce oxidation states of the Si and O, the SiO44− tetrahedra can join in a variety of ways and must be charge balanced
Simple, bcc, or fcc unit cells are defined for one kind of atom or ion, provides a 3D visual aid for counting atoms in unit cells.
18 students enrolled per laboratory section of this course. For

Students become familiar with the parts of the kit and learn how to build structures using the supplied templates and parts.
the purposes of this lab experiment, a Student Version model
kit is shared between two students, though it is merely a cost
factor that dictates whether students can work individually or if
students need to share a kit. Metric rulers and scissors are made
available to the students for cutting spacers in order to properly

Count the number of tetrahedral and octahedral holes, recognize coordination numbers in crystal lattices.
build some of the crystal models. Because no chemicals are
involved, a classroom works well for this experiment, so that
students can sit at desks while they build their structures.
Prior to coming to lab, all students are required to list the
seven crystal systems and provide their characteristic lattice
parameters (a, b, and c edge lengths and α, β, and γ angles).
They are highly encouraged to complete textbook homework

the extra empty volume in ice is due to the weaker intermolecular bonding.

with cations that can fit into the rings that form through shared O atoms.
problems relevant to crystal structures from the lecture portion

Learning Objective
of the course. In addition, they are asked to consult their lecture
textbook20 so that they understand how to count atoms in
cubic unit cells (Figure 2). Lastly, students calculate the density
of copper, in grams per centimeter cubed, which crystallizes as a

Identify the packing type for As and the hole type for Ni.
face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell and has an edge length of
361.49 pm. The relationship between cubic unit cell edge
length and atomic radius is also shown in Figure 2.
During this laboratory exercise, students need 2−3 h to build
their structures, make their observations, and answer questions
pertaining to each model. Table 1 summarizes the specific
laboratory components correlated with the desired learning
objectives. After the laboratory, students provide typed answers
to the questions posed for each model and a brief conclusion
that summarizes their work. They are encouraged to generalize
Table 1. Summary Components and Learning Objectives for the Crystal Structure Model Lab

some of the common features of crystal structures that they

observed.

■ HAZARDS
The laboratory session does not involve any chemical reagents,
unit cells.

and thus, there are no chemical hazards or waste disposal

Radius size (As > Ni), As is in a hcp lattice with Ni occupying all octahedral holes, both

Highlights the unambiguous radius size difference between O and Si (O > Si) and the
SiO44− tetrahedron as the basic unit in the structure, provides a 3D visual model of the
Shows that each carbon atom is tetrahedrally coordinated and the network extends in all
three dimensions. Students are then shown that frozen water has the same crystal
The cesium ions (or alternatively, the chloride ions) form a simple cubic unit cell.

concerns. The entire lab exercise could be completed in a

3D model of hcp crystals, recognition of the ABA layer pattern, tetrahedral holes,

3D model of ccp crystals, recognition of the ABC layer pattern, tetrahedral holes,

classroom. Students should treat the solid-state model kits with

respect, as there are many small marbles and parts that could be
lost. Likewise, students are directed not to share parts of their
model kits with other groups, as the small parts might
inadvertently migrate among the kits.

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structure, with each oxygen bonded to four hydrogens.

DISCUSSION
Students count the number of each ion per unit cell.
Concept Illustrated

chains and sheets that form by shared O atoms.

Using physical and virtual models to complement instruction in

types of atoms have coordination number of 6.
This is the tutorial structure supplied in the kit.

a general chemistry course can help students comprehend

concepts. Having an understanding for the states of matter and
octahedral holes, coordination numbers.

octahedral holes, coordination numbers.

knowledge of the spatial arrangement of atoms in matter is vital

to understanding the relationship between structure and
properties of materials. An overarching goal of this experiment
is to provide structural relationships with solids. An ordinary
and very familiar substance such as table salt resembles tiny
cubes under a microscope, and indeed, the face-centered cubic
(fcc) unit cell of NaCl is readily apparent once the unit cell is
constructed. This situation is common for crystalline solids;
visualization of crystals at the atomic level with physical model
kits provides clear parallels to properties such as radius ratios,
densities of solids, and packing efficiency. These properties, in
Build CsCl crystal

crystal structure

Build NiAs crystal

Model of hexago-

Model of silicates

turn, can be related to other materials’ characteristics such as

Build NaCl crys-

nal close-pack-
Exercise Com-

Model of cubic
close-packing

Build diamond
tal structure

hardness or even interesting electrical or magnetic behavior.

pleted

ing (hcp)

Si4O116−,
structure

structure

Si2O52−)
(SiO32−,

Building a crystal lattice, layer by layer, with these model kits

(ccp)

provides an elegant and direct process for students to visualize

and manipulate unit cells so that coordination number, atomic
434 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed400367x | J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91, 432−436
Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 3. Survey results, represented as a percentage of students that completed the lab and had a positive response to each question. The questions
asked of students are given under each graph. Students had to rank their learning for each question (1 = no opinion, 2 = did not help my
understanding, 3 = mildly helpful, 4 = definitely helpful, and 5 = extremely helpful.).
size, occupation of tetrahedral or octahedral holes, packing
type, and number of ions or atoms in a unit cell are readily
apparent.
Students responded favorably to specific learning outcomes
asked of them in the format of a postlaboratory survey (Figure
3 and in Supporting Information). The survey questions
directly correlated with the models that students built to
complete the lab. For each question, students had to rank their
assessment of how helpful the model-building exercise was to
their understanding of particular aspects of solid-state structures
(1 = no opinion to 5 = extremely helpful). The survey was
divided into two sections: one for “knowledge about crystal
structures” and the second for “knowledge about structure−
property relationships”. For a majority of the questions, about
80% or more of all students who completed the lab chose that
the models were “definitely helpful” (a rank of 4 on the survey)
or “extremely helpful” (a rank of 5) for their understanding. It
is interesting to note that for question 8 of the survey, which
prompted reflection on differences between crystalline and
amorphous materials, only 34% of all students chose a ranking
of 4 or 5. This low percentage is likely attributed to the fact that
models of amorphous materials were not included in this
laboratory, and hence, any enhancement to understanding such
crystalline−amorphous differences was minimal and inciden-
tally achieved.
Anecdotally, students enjoy this laboratory and they see
concrete benefits in completing it. Because instructors directly
interact with students as they build their models, perplexing
435
Laboratory Experiment
concepts are immediately identified. For example, students have
particular difficulty visualizing where tetrahedral or octahedral
holes exist within certain lattices. The ability for an instructor to
directly point out their locations in the plastic models quickly
enhances overall recognition and comprehension. This lab is
often noted in course evaluations as being interesting, useful,
and fun.
■
CONCLUSION
In a single 2−3 h laboratory session, general chemistry students
build three-dimensional models of crystalline solids using kits
manufactured by the Institute for Chemical Education.
Students make observations for each lattice that they build
and record them through a series of guided questions supplied
by the instructor. This laboratory has a positive influence on
students’ understanding of solid-state materials, noted by
considerably favorable survey results that aimed to assess
student understanding as a direct result of building and
manipulating solid-state models.
■ ASSOCIATED CONTENT
* Supporting Information
S
Complete laboratory experiment directions for students;
instructor notes; assessment of this laboratory experiment.
This material is available via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed400367x | J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91, 432−436
Journal of Chemical Education

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Laboratory Experiment

AUTHOR INFORMATION (14) Criswell, B. Do you See What I See? Lessons about the Use of
Models in High School Chemistry Classes. J. Chem. Educ. 2011, 88,
Corresponding Author 415.
*E-mail: dsunderland@washjeff.edu. (15) Dori, Y. J.; Barak, M. Virtual and Physical Molecular Modeling:
Fostering Model Perception and Spatial Understanding. Educ. Technol.
Notes Soc. 2001, 4 (1), 61.
The authors declare no competing financial interest. (16) Sinex, S. A.; Gage, B. A. Empowering Student Learning with

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author sincerely thanks the entire Washington & Jefferson
College Department of Chemistry for their enduring
professional support and advice and for the purchase of the
ICE solid-state model kits that made this laboratory possible.
Patricia Brletic, Jennifer Logan, and Steven Malinak of the
department helped to implement this experiment by teaching
laboratory sections. Additionally, the author thanks the CHM
260 students of W&J College for participating in this lab
exercise and for providing suggestions.
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Institute for Chemical Education. Institute for Chemical Education,
University of Wisconsin: Madison, WI, 2008; http://education.mrsec.
wisc.edu/supplies/SSMK/.
(19) Lisensky, G. C.; Covert, J. C.; Mayer, L. A. Solid-State Model Kit
Instruction Manual, 2nd ed.; Institute for Chemical Education,

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University of Wisconsin: Madison, WI, 1994.
(20) Petrucci, R. H.; Herring, G. F.; Madura, J. D.; Bissonnette, C.
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