Syllabus

w'fmd'i' ^Wiia fm<&
ridhk úoHdj
.=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh
^miq úuiqï l<&
12 iy 13 fYa%Ks
^2012 jif¾ isg ls%hd;aul fõ'&
úoHd fomd¾;fïka;=j
úoHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
i
w'fmd'i' ^Wiia fm<&
ridhk úoHdj
.=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh

^miq úuiqï l<&
12 iy 13 fYa%Ks
© cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
m%:u uqøKh -
úoHd fomd¾;fïka;=j
úoHd yd ;dCIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
uqøKh -
ii
wOHCI ckrd,a;=ud f.a mKsjqvh
2009 § w'fmd'i' Wiia fm< ridhk úoHd kj úIh ks¾foaYh mdi,a moaO;shg y÷kajd
fok ,o w;r" wk;=re j tu jif¾ § u 12 jk fYa%Ksh i|yd;a" 2010 jif¾ § 13 jk
fYa%Ksh i|yd;a" thg wkql+, .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%y fol bÈßm;a lr we;'
mdi,aj, iy úYaj úoHd,j, b,a,Sïj,g wkqj w'fmd'i' Wiia fm< ridhk úoHdj
úIh ks¾foaYh 2012 jif¾ § miq úuiqï lrñka ixfYdaOkh lrk ,§' bka miq tu úIh
ks¾foaYhg wod< jk fia tu .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%y fol o kej; ixfYdaOkhg ,la lr
fuu kj .%ka:h ilid we;'
isiqka úiska m%.=K l< hq;= ksmqK;dj,g yd ksmqK;d uÜgïj,g wod< iúia;rd;aul
f;dr;=re fuu .%ka:fhka bÈßm;a fldg ;sfí' fuu f;dr;=re ridhk úoHdj úIhfha
bf.kqï - b.ekaùï wjia:d iïmdokfha § .=rejrekag uy;a fia m%fhdackj;a jkq we;e hs
hkq wmf.a úYajdih hs'
fuu .%ka:h Ndú;hg .ekSfï § .=rejrhd úiska i,ld ne,sh hq;= me;s ;=kla we;' t
kï .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh" úIh ks¾foaYh yd ukd j .e<mS ;sîu" th úIhud,dfõ
wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d mdol j úIhud,dfõ o¾Ykh yd oelau uq,a fldg f.k f.dvk`.d
;sîu yd 12 - 13 fYa%Ksj, orejd f.ka wfmalaIs; idOk uÜgu ie,ls,a,g .ksñka th
ilid ;sîu hs' t fyhska fuh fyd¢ka mßYS,kh lsÍu .=re Nj;d l< hq;= w;HjYH
ld¾hhla o" j.lSula o fjhs'
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh by; lS lreKq ;=k u Tn f.a wjOdkhg f.k tau i|yd
w'fmd'i' Wiia fm< fYa%Ksj, b.ekaùï lrk ish¨ u .=reNj;=kag wjYH mqyqKqùï ,nd
§ug o ls%hd;aul ù isà' ksrka;r j meje;afjk fuu mqyqKq ieisj,g wod< .=reNj;=ka
iyNd.s ùu w;sYhska u wjYH lreKla jkafka fuys oelafjk bf.kqï - b.ekaùï uQ,O¾u
yd ls%hdodu jgyd .ekSug tu mqyqKqj uy;a msájy,la jk neúks' úfYaIfhka u mdi,a
mdol we.hSï ls%hd" isiq ksmqK;d j¾Okh i|yd bjy,a lr .ekSug wfmalaId flf¾'
b.ekaùu" úIh lreKqj,g muKla iSud ùu j<ld,ñka" isiqka f.a l=i,;d Tma kexùfï
wNs,dIh bgq lr §ug fï ish¨ ueÈy;a ùï wjYH nj wOHdmk yd we.hSï ld¾hfha
kshef<k wm ish¨ fokd u jgyd .; hq;= fõ'
.=re ud¾f.damfoaY ms<sfh< lsÍfï w;sYh fjfyildÍ ld¾hh bgq lr ,Sug ueÈy;a jQ
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha Ydia;%Sh wxYj, ks,OdÍka we;=¿ iuia; ld¾h uKav,hg;a"
ndysr j ta i|yd odhl jQ úoaj;a yeu fokdg;a" ud f.a úfYaI ia;=;sh ysñ fõ'
uydpd¾h ví,sõ' tï' wfír;ak nKavdr

wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
iii
fmrjok
fuu .=re Wmfoia ix.%yh 12 fYa%Ksfha isiqka f.a bf.kqï - b.ekaùï

ls%hdj,sh ixúOdkh lr .ekSu i|yd m%fhdackj;a fõ' fok ,o ld, rduqj ;=<
fuys oelafjk ksmqK;d uÜgï yd wka;¾.;h wdjrKh lsÍu wksjd¾h fõ' mdi,a
mdol we.hqï WmlrK ie,iqï lsÍfï § ta ta ksmqK;d uÜgu hgf;a olajd we;s
bf.kqï M, ie,ls,a,g .ekSu jeo.;a fõ' wod< úIh lreKq ms<sn| jeäÿr
meyeÈ,s lr .ekSï wjYH ;kays" w;sf¾l fmd;m; yd fjí wvú mßyrKh lsÍu
i|yd isiqka Èß.ekaùu fuys ,d ks¾foaY flf¾'
ks¾udKd;aul b.ekaùul wjYH;dj ie,ls,a,g .kakd l,ays bf.kqï - b.ekaùï

ls%hdj,sh iqidOH lrk kùk ,laIK mka;s ldurfha Ndú;hg .; hq;= h' fuys
§ YsIHhd úiska myiqfjka .%yKh lr .; yels mßÈ bf.kqï wjia:d ixúOdkh
lsÍu .=rejrhd f.ka wfmaCId flf¾'
fuu .=re Wmfoia ix.%yh ms<sfh< lsÍfï § ld,h jeh l< yd ;u odhl;ajh
iemhQ cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha úIh úfYaI{hkag;a ndysr iïm;a odhlhkag;a
uf.a ia;=;sh ysñ fõ'
isâks chj¾Ok
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
iv
iïm;a odhl;ajh
^12 fYa%Ksh .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2009
13 fYa%Ksh .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2010&
WmfoaYkh ( uydpd¾h ,d,a fmf¾rd

wOHlaI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wdpd¾h Wmd,s fiaor
wOHlaI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wdpd¾h whs' t,a' .sksf.a
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úu,a ishU,df.dv uhd
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wëCIKh ( iS' tï' wd¾' weka;ks uhd

wOHlaI ^úoHd" fi!LH yd YdÍßl wOHdmk &
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úIh iïnkaëlrKh(
ta' ã' wfidal o is,ajd uhd - jHdmD;s kdhl ^ridhk úoHdj&
m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
t,a' fla' jvqf.a uhd - m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
tï' ud,kS rd.jdpdß ñh - jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úIhud,d lñgqj (
uydpd¾h tÉ' ã' .=Kj¾Ok - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h ví' ã' ví' ch;s,l - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h tia' mS' oerKsh., - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h wð;a wfífialr - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h lu,a nKavdr .=Kfyar;a - Y%S ,xld újD; úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h iql=u,S úu,fiak - le<Ksh úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h fla' ta' tia' m;sr;ak - le<Ksh úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h iqoka; ,shkf.a - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h cks;d ,shkf.a - le<Ksh úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h ã' mS' Èidkdhl - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h tï' ã' mS' fldia;d - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h fla' wd¾' wd¾' uydkdu - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
wdpd¾h c.;a fm%aupkaø - fudrgqj úYaj úoHd,hh
wdpd¾h ks,aj,d fldaÜgf.a - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
.=re Nj;=ka iy wOHdmk ks,OdÍka

moaud fmdkakïfmreu ñh - uyskao úoHd,hh" .d,a,'
wdkkao w;=fldar< uhd - foaú nd,sld úoHd,hh" fnd/,a,'
pkaødks vhia úfÊ.=Kisxy ñh - úYdLd úoHd,hh" fld<U 4'
hQ' mS' isßmd, uhd - uOH uyd úoHd,hh" weye<shf.dv'
uqos;d lrúg ñh - uOH uyd úoHd,hh" wkqrdOmqr'
tï' mS' rkanKavd - iqux., úoHd,hh" jdßhfmd<'
v
tÉ' Ô' ta' whsrdx.kS ñh - iqcd;d úoHd,hh" ud;r'
tka' tia' nd,fudayka uhd - l,dm wOHdmk ld¾hd,hh" yegka'
tia' fõ¨ms,af,a fufkúh - yskaÿ úoHd,hh" fld<U 4'
tia' ;sf,hskdoka uhd - yskaÿ ldka;d úoHd,hh" fld<U 6'
Ysfrdañ uqqksodi ñh - hym;a tf`ârdf.a lkHdrduh" kdhllkao'
wd¾' tka' à' nKavdr uhd - O¾urdc úoHd,hh" uykqjr'
mS' Ô' tia' fmruqK uhd - mskakj, uOH uyd úoHd,hh" rUqlalk
nkaÿ, rKisxy uhd - fjia,s úoHd,hh" fnd/,a,'
iS' tka' wkqcd fmf¾rd fuú' - foaúnd,sld úoHd,hh" fnd/,a,'
tï' tka' tia' chiQßh ñh - u,shfoaj nd,sld úoHd,hh" l=reKE.,'
B' ù' mS' O¾ujxY ñh - Ydka; mdjq`M úoHd,hh" ñ,d.sßh'
Nød o is,ajd ñh - Ydka; mdjq`M úoHd,hh" ñ,d.sßh'
tï' ta' mS' uqKisxy uhd - úY%dñl m%' jHd' ks,Odß - cd' w' wdh;kh
à' kd.r;akï uhd - úY%dñl Wm.=re" u' u' ú'" hdmkh'
tka' ;srekdjqlriq ñh - úY%dñl Wm.=re" yskaÿ úoHd,hh" fld<U 4'
tia' wreKdi,ï fuú' - yskaÿ úoHd,hh" ud;f,a
ù' fi,ajrkacka uhd - rdclSh úoHd,hh" fld<U 7'
kS,ldka;s .=Kj¾Ok ñh - úY%dñl ks' w' w'" .d,a,'
fla' mS' t,a' o is,ajd uhd - úY%dñl Wm.=re" ßÉukaâ úoHd,hh" .d,a,'
´' iS' iurisxy ñh - úY%dñl Wm.=re" rdclSh úoHd,hh" fld<U7'
tka' iS' fiakdr;ak ñh - úY%dñl Wm.=re" rdclSh úoHd,hh" fld<U 7'
fla' ã' nkaÿ, l=udr uhd - iyldr m%ldYk flduidßia"
wOHdmk m%ldYk fomd¾;fïka;=j'
fla' ta' ã' Ys%hdks u,a,sld ñh - O¾umd, úoHd,hh" mkaksmsáh'
mß.Kl ieliSu - wd¾' wd¾' fla' m;srK ñh

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wd¾' ta' ã' whs' oikdhl ñh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
vi
iïm;a odhl;ajh
^w'fmd'i ^Wiia fm<& ridhk úoHdj
.=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh ^miq úuiqï l<& 12 iy 13 fYaa%Ks&
WmfoaYkh ( uydpd¾h ví' tï' wfír;ak nKavdr

wOHCI ckrd,a - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wëCIKh ( isâks chj¾Ok uhd

iyldr wOHCI ckrd,a - úoHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úIh iïnkaëlrKh(
ta' ã' wfidal o is,ajd uhd - jHdmD;s kdhl ^ridhk úoHdj&
m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
t,a' fla' jvqf.a uhd - m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
tï' ud,skS rd.jdpdß ñh - jHdmD;s ks,Odß - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úIhud,d lñgqj (
uydpd¾h wð;a wfífialr - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h ´' ta' bf,afmreu - fmardfoKsh úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h tia' mS' oerKsh., - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h iqoka; ,shkf.a - Y%S chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h fla' ta' tia' m;sr;ak - le<Ksh úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h tï' ã' mS' fldia;d - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h fla' wd¾' wd¾' uykdu - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
uydpd¾h tia' fudydkaodia - hdmkh úYaj úoHd,hh
iïm;a mqoa., lKavdhu

uydpd¾h ruKs ã' úfÊfialr - fld<U úYaj úoHd,hh
fla' ã' nkaÿ, l=udr uhd - iyldr m%ldYk flduidßia"
wOHdmk m%ldYk fomd¾;fïka;=j
pkaødks vhia úfÊ.=Kisxy ñh - úYdLd úoHd,hh" fld<U 05
uqÈ;d w;=fldar< ñh - ;laIs,d uOH úoHd,hh" fydrK
tia' fõ¨ms,af,a ñh - yskaÿ úoHd,hh" fld<U 04
iS' tka' wkqcd fmf¾rd fufkúh - foaú nd,sld úoHd,hh" fld<U 08
tï' ta' mS' uqKisxy uhd - úY%dñl m%Odk jHd' ks,Odß- cd' w' wd'
tia' ;sf,hskdoka uhd - yskaÿ ldka;d úoHd,hh" fld<U 06
ã' î' rKisxy uhd - fjia,s úoHd,hh" fld<U 09
wdkkao w;=fldar< uhd - foaú nd,sld úoHd,hh" fld<U 08
à' ;srekdjqlriq ñh - yskaÿ úoHd,hh" fld<U 04
NdId ixialrKh - koS wud chfialr ñh - jHmD;s ks,Odß - cd' w' wd'
ljrh yd mß.Kl ieliSu - wd¾' wd¾' fla' m;srK ñh - cd' w' wd'
fjí wvúh - www.nie.lk
úúO iydh - ux., je,smsáh uhd - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
moaud ùrj¾Ok ñh - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
rxð;a ohdjxY uhd - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
vii
mgqk
msgqj
1'0 wOHCI ckrd,a;=ud f.a mKsjqvh iii
2'0 fmrjok iv
3'0 iïm;a odhl;ajh

^12 fYa%Ksh .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2009
13 fYa%Ksh .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh - 2010& v-vi
4'0 iïm;a odhl;ajh

^w'fmd'i ^Wiia fm<& ridhk úoHdj
.=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yh ^miq úuiqï l<& 12 iy 13 fYaa%Ks& vii
5'0 mgqk viii
6'0 l%shdldrlï ika;;sh

ksmqK;dj 1 ^tallh 1& 1-18
6'0 mdi, mokï lr .;a ;lafiarelrKh 293-294
7'0 we.hSï WmlrK 295-300
viii
ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( mod¾:fha iajNdjh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl
ieleiau yd Yla;s yqjudre fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 1'1 ( mrudKql jHqyh ms<sn| wdlD;s úuiqug ,la lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² WmmrudKq wxY=" iuia:dksl yd úlsrKYS,;dj ms<sn| f;dr;=re bosßm;a lrhs'
² lef;dav lsrKj, ,laIK úia;r lrhs'
² úlsrKYS,S;dj meyeÈ<s lrhs'
² rkam;a mÍlaIdj úia;r lrhs'
² mrudKql wdlD;s ixikaokd;aul j úuid n,hs'
úIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

² WmmrudKql wxY= ms<sn| f;dr;=re ^fm%dafgdak yd kshqfg%dak wkdjrKh ms<sn|
ft;sydisl f;dr;=re wjYH fkd fõ'&
² lef;dav lsrK wkdjrKh lr .ekSu iy tajdfha .=K
bf,lafg%dakh fm%df
a gdakh kshf
q g%dk
a h
wxY=fõ ixfla;h e p n
wxY=fõ ialkaOh$kg 9'107 × 10-31 1'6725 × 10-27 1'6742 × 10-27
wxY=fõ idfmalaI ialkaOh 1 1 1

1840
wxY=fõ wdfrdamKh$C 1'602 × 10-19 1'602 × 10-19 0
wxY=fõ idfmalaI wfrdamKh -1 +1 0
² iuia:dksl
tl u mrudKql l%udxlh we;a;d jQ o" fjkia ialkaO l%udxl we;a;d jQ o"
mrudKq tu uQ,øjHfha iuia:dksl f,i ye|skafõ' îdfmalaI iuia:dksl
ialkaO iy tajdfha idfmalaI iq,n;d iïnkaO .Kkh lsÍï wjYH fkd fõ'&
² kshqla,hsv
fm%dafgdak wxlh iy kshqla,sfhdak wxlh úfYaIs; j olajk ,o mrudKql
m%fNao hs'
kshqla,sfhdak wxlh
fm%dafgdak wxlh X
1
kshqla,hsv j¾.h
1' iajdNdúl j mj;akd ia:dhS kshqla,hsv

2' iajdNdúl j mj;akd wia:dhS kshqla,hsv
3' lD;%su úlsrKYS,Ss kshqla,hsv
² úlsrKYS,S;dj
kHIaáfha ia:dhs;dj Wfoid wia:dhS kHIaá fyda wxY= fyda úiska iajhxisoaO j
úlsrK ksl=;a lsÍu úlsrKYS,S;dj f,i ye¢kafõ' fuu úlsrKj,g úksúo
hdug;a" yd jdhq whkSlrKh lsÍug;a" yels h'
úoHq;a fCIa;%h
;srh È,siSfuka úlsrK
y÷kd .efka'
úlsrKYS,S m%Njh
α lsrK
lsrK
lsrK
γβ
we,a*d" îgd yd .eud lsrKj, .=K
j¾.h úl,am ku wdfrdamKh úksúo k;r lrkq

hdfï n,h ,nk øjH
we,a*d yS,shï kHIaá +2 wvq hs' jd;h fyda

^fm%dafgdak 2 lvodis
+ kshqfg%dak 2&
îgd bf,lafg%dak -1 uOHia: hs' ;=kS we¨ñkshï

;yvqjla
.eud by< Yla;sfhka 0 by< hs' >klï f,â

hq;a úoHq;a pqïnl ;yvqjla
;rx.
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² mrudKqj ms<sn| kHIaál wdlD;sh bosßm;aa lsÍug mokï jQ .hs.¾ iy udiavka
f.a mÍlaIKh
f¾pkh lrk ,o
úÿre n,anh
ßla; fmdïmh
;=kS f,day ;yvqj
- wxY= m%Njh
N%uK m%;s§ma; ;srh
N%uK wKaùlaIh
f,â wdjrKh
wm.ukh jQ -lsrK
² .hs.¾ iy udiavka f.a mÍlaIKfha ksÍlaIK meyeÈ,s lsÍu
² fnda¾ wdlD;sh yd Wml,amk

fnda¾ wdlD;sh Wml,amk ;=kla u; mokï fõ'
1' yhsvc% ka mrudKqfõ bf,lafg%dk
a hï ksYÑ a ; Yla;j s ,g wkqrEm ksYÑ
a ; wrhj,ska
hq;= llaIj, mj;S'
2' wkqo;a (permitted) llaIhl mj;sk bf,lafg%dakhlg ksYaÑ; Yla;shla we;s
w;r wkqo;a Yla;s wjia:djl mj;SαE' wkq
= hυo;a Yla;s wjia:djl we;s bf,lafg%dk
a hla
Yla;sh ksl=;a fkd lrk neúka th i¾ms,dldr m:hl .uka lr kHIaáhg
fkd jefÜ'
3' tla wkqo;a Yla;s wjia:djl isg fjk;a wjia:djlg ixl%uKh ùfï § muKla
bf,lafg%dakh úiska Yla;s wjfYdaIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda flf¾' fuu
Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda flfrkafka f*dafgdak^photon&
jYfhks'
fnda¾ wdlD;sh wkqj yhsârcka mrudKqfõ kHIaáh

yd bf,lafg%dak mj;sk m<uq jk ljp y;r
3
fhdað; bf.kqï-b.ekaùï l%shdldrlï (
² mrudKqj ms<sn| j;auka oekqu yd fvda,agka úiska ish jdofhka bÈßm;a l<
lreKq w;r mj;akd fkd .e<emSï idlÉPd lrkak'
² Wm mrudKql wxY= ms<sn| fmr oekqu úuikak'
² mrudKql l%udxlh yd ialkaO l%udxlh ms<sn| fmr oekqu úuikak'
² iuia:dksl y÷kajd fokak'
² idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh flfrys idfmalaI iuia:dksl ialkaOh n,mdk
whqre úia;r lrkak'
² mrudKqj ms<sn| f;dïika" ro¾*'â yd fnda¾ bosßm;a l< wdlD;s ms<sn|
lKavdhï.; j idlÉPd lsÍug i,iajkak'
² tu wdlD;s ixika o kd;a u l j úuiq u g ,la lrñka iuQ y idlÉPdjla
fufyhjkak'
4
ksmqK;d uÜgu 1'2 ( úoHq;a pqïnl lsrKj, úúO;ajh úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 03 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ;rx.hl .=K úia;r flfrk rdYs kï lr tajd w;r in|;d m%ldY lrhs'
² úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx.hla hkq l=ula oe hs myod fohs'
² úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO mrdi y÷kajd tu mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj,
Ndú; i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'
² WÑ; Wml%u Ndú; lrñka oDYH mrdih ksÍlaIKh lr tys iajNdjh jd¾;d
lrhs'

² wNHdjldYh yryd Yla;sh iïfm%aIKh
λ
jkafka úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. f,ig hs'
² ta j dg úoHq ; a fla I a ; % h la yd pq ï nl
fla I a ; % h la we;' tu fla I a ; % fol
tlsfklg ,ïn j msysghs'
² ish¨ úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. ßla;hl § .uka
oï
lrk fõ.h" wdf,dalfha m%fõ.hg iudk
fõ'
ks,a
3.00 x108 m s-1
² ;rx. wdhuh yd ixLHd;h jk úg
fld<
úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx.hl m%fõ.h -
C= ly
² úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx.hl Yla;sh -
;eô,s
E = h ^ E hkq tla f*dafgdakhl Yla;h s
hs'&
fuys h hkq ksh;hls' th ma,dkala ksh;h r;=
kï fõ'
ma,dkala ksh;h } 6'624 × 10-34 J s
fu u`.ska
² ixLHd;h wdfrdayKh jk
ms<sfj<g úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. fm<
.eiaùfuka ,efnk igyk úoHq;a
pqïnl j¾Kdj,sh fõ'
úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sh
5
² úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, m%fhdack
² f¾äfhda ;rx. ( rEmjdyskS" .=jka úÿ,s udOH Tiafia ikaksfõok
lghq;= i|yd fhfoa'
² f¾vd¾ ;rx. ( .=jka yd kdúl moaO;sj, Ndú; flf¾'
² laIqø ;rx. ( laIqø ;rx. W÷kaj, l%shdldÍ;ajh fu u`.ska isÿ fõ'
cx.u ÿrl:kj, Ndú; fõ'
² wfOdarla; ;rx. ( fN!; Ñls;ail m%;sldr lghq;=j, oS fhfoa' ÿria:
md,l ix{d ksl=;a lsÍfï oS yd j¾Kdj,SlaI l%u
u`.ska flfrk úYaf,aIK lghq;=j, oS Ndú; flf¾'
² oDYH ;rx. ( oDIaáh" PdhdrEm Ys,amh fuu mrdifha ;rx. weiqßka
isÿ fõ' j¾Kñ;sl úYaf,aIKfha oS fhfoa'
² mdrcïnq, ;rx. ( úIîc keiSug" uqo,a fkdaÜgq wdosfha fhdod we;s ryiH
ixfla; lshùug fhfoa' j¾Kdj,SlaI úYaf,aIKj,
oS Ndú; flf¾'
² X - lsrK ( X lsrK PdhdrEm .ekSu yd iaMál wdosfha jHqy
yeoEÍfï oS Ndú; flf¾'
² γ - lsrK ( ms<sld i|yd m%;sldr lsÍfï oS Ndú; flf¾'
² m%siauhla wdOdrfhka iqÿ wdf,dal loïnhla úfNaokh ùug i,iajd ;srhla

u;g ,nd .kak' tys j¾K úfNaokh ù we;s wdldrh ksÍlaIKh lsÍu i|yd
isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
² úoHq;a pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, Ndú; fidhd n,d
meñfKk f,i isiqkag mQ¾jfhka oekqï fokak'
² tla tla mrdifha m%fhdack l=vd lKavdhï ,jd iuia; mka;shg bosßm;a
lrjkak'
² ma,dkala iñlrKh Ndú; lr ir, .eg¨ úi|kak'
ksoiqka - ly wdf,dalfha ;rx. wdhduh 589 nm fõ' fuu ;rx.h wod<
f*dafgdak ujq,hl Yla;sh .Kkh lrkak'
6
ksmqK;d uÜgu 1'3 ( mrudKqj, bf,lafg%daksl Yla;s uÜgï ms<sn| idlaIH

úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr weiqßka mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak m%Odk Yla;s
uÜgïj, yd Wm uÜgïj, meje;au ms<sn| idlaIH bosßm;a lrhs'
² mrudKql yhsârcka j¾Kdj,sfha f¾Ld fY%aKs fnda¾ wdlD;sh uÕska .=Kd;aul
j meyeos,s lrhs'
² hï mrudKqjl msysá bf,lafg%dakhl wkkH;dj Bg wod< lafjdkagï wxl
l=,lfhka úia;r jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² lafjdkagï wxl y;r u`.ska fokq ,nk f;dr;=re m%ldY lrhs'
² bf,lafg%dakfha ;rx.uh yd wxY=uh iajNdjh WodyrK iys; j úia;r lrhs'
² Yla;sh lafjdkagkSlrKh ùu meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² s yd p ldlaIslj, yev ksrEmKh lrhs'

² ldnka" Tlaic
s ka yd f*dia*ria hk uq,øjHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%i;
a drh
k
l
² fuu uQ,øjHj, mj;sk ish¨ u wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s rEmfha fmkajd we;'
tu wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s .Kk mrudKqfõ we;s bf,lafg%dak .Kkg
iudk fõ' wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;sfha laIKsl jeä ùï flfrys wjOdkh
fhduq l< úg bf,lafg%dak ldKav jYfhka úúO Yla;s uÜgïj, msysgd we;s
nj ;yjqre fõ'
7
² wjfYdaIK j¾Kdj,sh
wdf,dal ' ' isyska isÿre

lïnh ' ' iys; ;yvq m%i
s u
a h
' '' '
' ''
ksheÈh
wika;;sl f¾Ld j¾Kdj,sh
² úfudapk j¾Kdj,sh
isyska isÿre
iys; ;yvq
m%i
s u
a h
W;af;að; wjia:dfõ
mj;sk jdhq ksheosh
wika;;sl f¾Ld j¾Kdj,sh
² fnda¾ wdlD;sh weiqßka yhsârckays úfudapk j¾Kdj,sfha f¾Ld we;s jk

wkaou meyeos,s lsÍu
n=5
n=4
n=3
l=656 nm
ndu¾
l=486 nm
l=434 nm
fY%K
a h
s
n=2
r;=
fl
ks,a
d<
,hsudka
fY%K
a h
s 400 500 600 700
;rx. wdhduh$nm
n=1
8
² fnda¾ wdlD;sfha iSud
fnda¾ wdlD;sh u`.ska yhsv%cka mrudKqfjys f¾Ld j¾Kdj,sh úia;r flfrk
w;r wfkl=;a mrudKqj, j¾Kdj,s úia;r l< yelafla o< jYfhks' iDK
wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dak Ok wdfrdams; kHIaáh u; m;s; fkd jk nj
Wml,amkh lrñka t fia fkd jkafka uka oe hs úia;r lsÍu fnda¾ úiska
u`. yer we;' tu ksid yqfola bf,lafg%dakhla hkq kHIaáh jgd mßN%uKh
jk l=vd wxY=jla f,i úia;r lsÍu .eg¨ iy.; fõ'
² s, p, d yd f Wm Yla;s uÜgï'
Wm Yla;s uÜgï ldlaIsl ixLHdj mej;sh yels Wmßu

bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
² bf,lafg%dakfha ;rx.uh yd wxY=uh iajNdjh

² ;rx.uh .=K - whksl iaMálhla ;=<ska x - lsrK loïnhla .uka
lsÍfï§ isÿ jk wdldrhg u bf,lafg%dak loïnhla
.uka lsÍfï § o új¾;khg ,la fõ' bf,lafg%dak
loïnhla u`.ska ksfrdaOk rgd o we;s flf¾'
² wxY=uh .=K - bf,lafg%dak loïnhlg ld¾h lsÍfï yelshdj

^.uH;dj fya;f= jka & we;s w;r wdfrdamKhla o we;'
² ldlaIslj, yev
s ldlaIslh p ldlaIsl
9
² Yla;sh lafjdkagkSlrKh
² mrudKq Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda isÿ lrkafka l=vd ksYaÑ;
Yla;s m%udK f,ig h'
² tu l=vd u ksYÑa ; Yla;s m%udKh lafjdkagï fyj;a f*dafgdak f,i ye¢kafõ'
² ma,dkala f.a jdohg wkqj mod¾:h wjfYdaIKh lrkafka fyda uqodyßkafka
fyda f*dafgdakfha Yla;sh fyda tys mQ¾K .=Kdldrhla jk Yla;s m%udKhls'
Wod - h , 2 h , 3 h , .............
² t neúka Yla;sh lafjdkagkSlrKh ù we;e hs i,lkq ,efí'
² lafjdkagï wxl
² m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh ^n&
bf,lafg%dakh wh;a m%Odk Yla;s uÜgu fu uÕska ksrEmKh flf¾'
n = 1, 2, 3, ......
² Woaos.xY lafjdkagï wxlh ^l&

bf,lafg%dakh wh;a WmYla;s uÜgu (s, p, d, f, ...) fu u`.ska ksrEmKh fõ'
l = 0, 1, 2, ...... ^n-1&
² pqïnl lafjdkagï wxlh ^ml&

hï WmYla;s uÜgul bf,lafg%dakh mj;akd ldlaIslh (ksoiqka (px, py, pz )
fu uÕska ksrEmKh flf¾'
ml= -l,(-l+1),....,0,.....,(l-1), l
² neuqï lafjdkagï wxlh ^ms&

hï ldlaIslhl msysá bf,lafg%dakhl osYdk;sh fu u`.ska ksrEmKh flf¾'
ms =
10
mrudKqjl uq,a Yla;s uÜgï ;=fkys mj;sk bf,lafg%dak i|yd
n, l, ml yd ms hk lafjdkagï wxl i;r fhfok wdldrh
m%Odk Woao.
s xY wkqrEm pqïnl neuqï ldlaIslj, m%Odk Yla;s
lafjdkagï lafjdkagï Wm Yla;s lafjdkagï lafjdkagï wxlh mj;sk Wmßu uÜgug wh;a
wxlh wxlh l uÜgu wxlh ml ms bf,lafg%dak Wmßu
n (0 isg n-1 (-l isg +l (+1/2, -1/2 ) .Kk bf,lafg%dak
olajd) olajd) .Kk
1 0 1s 0 + 1$2 2 2
- 1$2
2 0 2s 0 + 1$2 2
- 1$2
1 2p -1 + 1$2
- 1$2
0 + 1$2 6 8
- 1$2
+1 + 1$2
- 1$2
3 0 3s 0 + 1$2 2
- 1$2
1 3p -1 + 1$2
- 1$2
0 + 1$2 6
- 1$2
+1 + 1$2
- 1$2
2 3d -2 + 1$2
- 1$2
-1 + 1$2
- 1$2
0 + 1$2 10 18
- 1$2
+1 + 1$2
- 1$2
+2 + 1$2
- 1$2
* mrudKqjl msysá hï bf,lafg%dakhl lafjdkagï wxl l=,lh ,shd oelaùug we;s

yelshd w'fmd'i'^W$fm<& úNd.fha oS uek n,kafka ke;' by; j.=j bosßm;a
flfrkafka hï bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk lafjdkagï wxl l=,lh Bg wkkH
jk nj fmkajd oSu i|yd muKs'

² fok ,o uQ,øjHhl wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s o;a; bj;a jk bf,lafg%dak
ixLHdjg tosß j m%ia;dr .; lrjkak'
² by; j.=j isiqka iu`. tl;= j f.dvk`.kak'
11
ksmqK;d uÜgu 1'4 ( yqfol,d jdhquh mrudKqj, yd whkj, N+ñ wjia:dfõ

bf,lafg%dak úkHdi úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² bf,lafg%dak msÍfï rgdjg wod< uQ,O¾u yd kS;s m%ldY lrhs'
² mrudKql l%udxlh 1 isg 38 olajd uQ,øjHj, jdhq wjia:dfõ mj;sk yqfol,d
mrudKqj, yd whkj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi iïu; wdldrhg ,shd olajhs'
² Yla;s uÜgïj, yd WmYla;s uÜgïj, ia:dhS bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ie,els,a,g
.ksñka uQ,øjHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;sj, yd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;sj,
úp,k rgd meyeos,s lrhs'

² bf,lafg%dak msÍfï rgdjg wod< uQ,O¾u yd kS;s
yqkaâ kS;sh
iudk Yla;sfhka hq;a úfNaokh jQ ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak mj;skqfha tajdfha
neuqï iudka;r jk mßos h' ke;fyd;a úhq.au bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj Wmßu jk
mßos m<uq j bf,lafg%dak ne.ska msÍ wk;=re j" N%uK úreoaO ÈYdjg msysgk
mßÈ hq.,kh fõ'
mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,O¾uh

fuu uQ,O¾ufhka lshefjkafka hï ldlaIslhl bf,lafg%dak follg jvd
mej;sh fkd yels nj hs' ^ke;fyd;a mrudKqjl hï bf,lafg%dk
a hl lafjdkagï
wxl l=,lh thg u wkkH jk nj hs' t kï tl u lafjdkagï wxl l=,lhla
iys; bf,lafg%dak folla ;sìh fkd yels nj hs'&
f.dvkexùfï uQ,O¾uh Âufbau principle&

ñka lshefjkafka ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msÍu mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,O¾uhg
wkqj t kï" ldlaIslj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<g isÿ jk nj hs'
² WmYla;s uÜgïj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<
mrudKql l%udxlh 1-20 olajd uQ,øjHj, m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s úp,k m%ia;drh
12
m%:u whkSlrK Yla;sh$kJ mol-1
mrudKql l%udxlh
² ldKavh II isg III olajd;a ldKavh V isg VI olajd;a hdfï § fmkakqï
flfrk widudkH yeisÍu s2 w¾O msÍu iy p3 w¾O msÍu ksid we;s jk
wu;r ia:dhS;dj fya;= fjhs' d 5 iy d10 bf,lafg%dksl úkHdih o wu;r
ia:dhS;djla fmkakqï lrhs'

² wod< kshu yd uQ,O¾u fhdod .ksñka" 1- 38 olajd uQ,øjH w;=ßka mjrkq ,nk
uQ,øjH lsysmhl bf,lafg%dak úkHdi f.dvkxjkakg isiq lKavdhï fhduq
lrkak'
² mjrk ,o uQ,øjHj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ii|ñka tajdfhka jvd;a ia:dhS
úkHdi iys; uQ,øjH y÷kd .ekSug bv i,iajkak'
² yqkaâ kS;shg wkqj mrudKql ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msfrk wdldrh
ksrEmKh lrjkak'
² wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s yd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s úp,k" bf,lafg%dak
úkHdij, ia:dhs;dj weiqfrka ú.%y lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
13
ksmqK;d uÜgu 1'5 ( wdj¾;s;d j.=fjys uQ,øjHj,g ysñ ia:dk ks¾Kh lrkq
msKsi tajdfha bf,lafg%dak úkHdih úYaf,aIKh lr
mrudKql .=K bf,lafg%dk a úkHdih yd iïnkaO lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² bf,lafg%dak úkHdi mokï lr f.k wdj¾;s;d j.=j f.dvkxjhs'
² uQ,øjH" s, p, d iy f f.dkq hgf;a j¾.SlrKh lrhs'
² s, p iy d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjH iy 1 isg 18 olajd ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,øjH
y÷kd .kshs'
² wdj¾; Tiafia bÈßhg yd ldKav Tiafia my<g s iy p f.dkqj,g wh;a
uQ,øjH fmkakqï lrk keUqre;d úia;r lrhs'

² wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ 15 jk msgqfõ we;'
wdj¾; Tiafia bÈßhg yd ldKav Tiafia my<g s iy p f.dkqj,g wh;a
uQ,øjH fmkakqï lrk úp,k rgd
² legdhk iy wekdhk iE§u
² legdhk iy wekdhk iE§u ixhqc;d ljpfha mj;sk bf,lafg%dak
ixLHdj yd whkSlrK Yla;sh u; ;SrKh fõ'
² ldKavh I^1& yd II^2& g iy III (13) wh;a uQ,øjH legdhk idokq ,nk
w;r ldKavh V^15&" VI ^16& iy VII ^17& g wh;a uQ,øjH wekdhk idohs'
² ldKavh IV^14&g wh;a uQ,øjH idudkHfhka ksoyia M4+ whk fkd
idohs' tajdfha m<uq jk" fo jk" f; jk yd isõ jk whkSlrK Yla;sj,
tl;=j úYd, w.hla ùu fuhg fya;=j hs'
² TlaislrK wjia:d
² uQ,øjHuh wjia:fõ § ´kE u uQ,øjHl TlaislrK wjia:dj 0 f,i
i,lkq ,nhs'
² TlaislrK wjia:dj hkq uQ,øjHuh wjia:djg idfmalaI j ixfhda.hl
§ mrudKqjl md,kh hgf;a mj;sk bf,lafg%dk
a ixLHdj ms<n
s | ñkquls'
² ixfhda.hl§ uQ,øjHhlg meje;sh yels by< u TlaislrK wxlh tys
ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak ixLHdjg iudk fõ'
² iuyr uQ,øjHj,g ixfhdað; wjia:dfõ § úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d
;sfí'
² TlaisyrK yelshdj$TlaislrK yelshdj

² wdj¾;hla Tiafia bÈßhg ldKavh VII^17& olajd uQ,øjHj, Tlail
s rKh
ùfï yelshdj idudkHfhka wvq fõ'
² ldKavhla Tiafia my<g TlaislrKh ùfï yelshdj idudkHfhka jeä
fõ'
14
ns2 np6
18/VIII
1 2
ns ns 2
ns np 1 2
ns np 2 2
ns np3 2
ns np4 2
ns np5
1/I 2/II 13/III 14/IV 15/V 16/VI 17/VII
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
15
² úoHq;a iDK;dj
² wKqjl mj;sk nkaOkhl oS bf,lafg%dak ;ud foig wdl¾IKh lr .ekSfï
yelshdj uQ,øjHfhka uQ,øjHhg fjkia fõ' m%udKd;aul j m%ldY l< fuu
yelshdj uQ,øjHhl úoHq;a RK;dj f,i ye|ska fõ'
² úoHq;a RK;dj úúO mßudKj,g wkqj m%ldY lr we;' fmda,ska mßudKhg
wkqj úúO uQ,øjHj, jvd;a iq,n TlaislrK wjia:dj i|yd úoHq;a RK;d
w.h my; j.=fõ oelafõ'
fmda,ska mßudKh wkqj úúO uQ,øjHj, úoHq;a RK;d w.h

H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At
0.7 0.9 1.8 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.2
² fmda,ska mßudKhg wkqj tla tla uQ,øjHh i|yd ksYaÑ; úoHq;a RK;d w.hla
m%ldY lr we;s uq;a hï uQ,øjH mrudKqjl úoHq;a RK;dj tu mrudKqfõ
mßirh ûqyqïlrKh" wdfrdamKh" TlaislrK wxlh& u; fjkia fõ'
ksoiqka ( yd hk m%fNaoj,§ N ys úoHq;a RK;dj
f,i úp,kh fõ'
² bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj
² jdhquh uQ,øjH mrudKqjla tla bf,lafg%dakhla ,nd f.k jdhquh tal iDK
whkhla njg m;a ùfï § isÿ jk Yla;s úm¾hdih fï kñka ye¢kafõ'
² fndfyda uQ,øjHj, m<uq jk bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj RK w.hla .kshs' thg
fya;=j tl;= jQ bf,lafg%dakh kHIaál wdfrdamKh u`.ska wdl¾IKh lsÍu hs'
fo jk bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj ieu úg u Ok w.hla .kshs' thg fya;=j oekg
u;a RK wdfrdams; whkhlg RK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dakhla tl;= ù ;sîu hs'
² fo jk yd f; jk wdj¾;j,g wh;a uQ,øjHj, m<uq jk bf,lafg%dak
nkaOq;d
uQ,øjHh Li Be B C N O F
bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj$kJ mol -59'6
-1
+66 -26'7 -122 +31 -141 -318
uQ,øjHh Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
bf,lafg%dk
a nkaO;
q dj$kJ mol-1 -53 +67 -30 -135 -60 -200 -364
16
² wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS kHIaál wdfrdamKh jeä jk w;r
mrudKql wrh wvq fõ' t neúka whkSlrKh Yla;sh jeä fõ' tu ksid
wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS legdhk iEoSfï m%jK;dj wvq jk
w;r Tlaisydrlhla f,i ls%hd lsÍfï yelshdj o wvq fõ'
² tfia u wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS wekdhk ieoSfï yelshdj
jeä jk w;r Tlaisldrlhla f,i ls%hd lsÍfï yelshdj o jeä fõ'
² mrudKql wrh
² idudkHfhka kHIaáh yd bf,lafg%dak mj;sk ndysr;u Yla;s uÜgu w;r ÿr
mrudKql wrh f,i i,lkq ,efí'
² tfy;a bf,lafg%dakhla msysgk ia:dkh wúksYaÑ; neúka tys m%;sM,hla f,i
mrudKql wrh m%ldY lsÍu wiSre h'
² t neúka mrudKql wrh úúO wdldrhg w¾: olajkq ,efí'
² wNHka;r Yla;suÜgïj, mj;sk bf,lafg%dak u`.ska ndysr;u bf,lafg%dak
flfrys kHIaáh olajk wdl¾IKhg ndOd muqKqjkq ,efí' fuu n,mEu
zksjdrl wdprKhZ kï fõ'
² kHIaáfha we;s fm%dafgdak u`.ska bf,lafg%dak j,dj wdl¾IKh flf¾' fuu
wdl¾IKfha yd ksjdrl wdprKfha iuia; n,mEu ziM, kHIaál wdfrdamKhZ
f,i ye¢kafõ'
² mrudKql wrh yd whkSlrKh Yla;sh flfrys ksjdrl wdprKh n,mdhs'
² iyixhqc wrh
tl u uQ,øjHfha mrudKq folla iyixhqc j ne|S

we;s úg tu mrudKq fol w;r wka;¾ kHIaál
ÿßka yß wvla tys iyixhqc wrh f,i ye|skafõ'
iyixhqc wrh } d/2
d mrudKql iy ixhqc wrh ldKavfha my<g hk úg
jeä jk w;r th wdj¾;hl jfï isg ol=Kg 18
jk ldKavh olajd wvq fõ'
² jeka v' jd,aia wrh ( wKq folla fyda mrudKq folla fyda tlsfklg yels
;dla <`.ska mj;sk úg" wdikakfha mj;sk kHIaá
fol w;r ÿßka yß wvla jeka v' jd,aia wrh kï fõ'
d
jeka v' jd,aia wrh } d/2
² f,dayl wrh
² f,dayl oe,sfia we;s hdno legdhk kHIaá folla w;r we;s ÿßka yß wvla
f,dayl wrh fõ'
d
f,dayl wrh } d/2
² kHIaál wdfrdamKh" wrh iy ksjdrl wdprKh u`.ska whkSlrKh Yla;sh

ks¾Kh fõ'
17
² whksl wrh
² whk f.da,dldr he hs yd ksYaÑ; m%udKhlska hq;= he hs Wml,amkh lr
>k iaMálhl mj;sk whkhlg mjrkq ,nk wrh whksl wrh hs' >k
iaMálhl wka;¾ kHIaál ÿr ks¾Kh lsÍug x - lsrK új¾;kh fhdod
.; yels h' wka;¾ kHIaál ÿr wkqj whksl wrh .Kkh l< yels h'
² idudkHfhka iDK whkhlg tys WodiSk mrudKqjlg jvd úYd, whksl
wrhla mj;sk w;r Ok whkhlg tys WodiSk mrudKqjg jvd l=vd whksl
wrhla mj;S'
² úYd, wdj¾;s;d j.=jla m%o¾Ykh lr ldKav yd wdj¾; ms<sn| fmr oekqu

isysm;a lrkak'
² s f.dkqjg" p f.dkqjg yd d f.dkqjg wh;a uQ,øjH lsysmh ne.ska ^tajd wh;a

f.dkqj i|yka fkd lr& isiq lKavdhïj,g mjrkak'
² tajdfha bf,lafg%dk
a úkHdi ,shd" wjika jYfhka bf,lafg%dk
a msreKq WmYla;s
uÜgu y÷kd .kakg fhduq lrkak'
² wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ tu uQ,øjHj,g ysñ ia:dkh mÍlaId lr ne,Sug i,iajkak'
² uQ,øjHhla wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ msysá ldKavh" wdj¾;h yd f.dkqj iuÕ tys

bf,lafg%dak úkHdih olajk iïnkaO;d fy<s lr .ekSug isiq lKavdhï
fhduq lrjkak'
² khsg%cka yd fmdiamria w;r;a *a¨fjdÍka yd laf,dÍka w;r;a mj;akd

bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d fjki idlÉPd lrkak'
² fnß,shï" ue.akSishï yd khsg%cka ys widudkH bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d w.h

ms<sn| idlÉPd lrkak'
² whkSlrK Yla;sh flfrys my; idOlj, n,mEu idlÉPd lrkak'

² kHIaál wdfrdamKh
² kHIaáfha isg ÿr ^mrudKql wrh&
² ksjdrl wdprKh
² bf,lafg%dak úkHdih ^ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak ;ks j fyda hq., jYfhka
mj;S o hkak&
18
ksmqK;dj 2'0 ( mod¾:fha .=K iu`. jHqyh yd nkaOk iïnkaO lr olajhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 2'1 ( mod¾:fha jHqyh yd .=K ks¾Kh lrkq msKsi nyq mrudKql
moaO;sj, mj;akd m%d:ñl wka;¾l%shd úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² mrudKqjl ldlaIsl w;sÉPdokh ùfuka iyixhqc nkaOk iEfok nj m%ldY
lrhs'
² ixhqc;d nkaOk jdoh bosßm;a lrhs'
² nkaOkhg iïnkaO mrudKqj, úoHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj tajd ks¾O%eùh
iyixhqc nkaOk" O%eùh iyixhqc nkaOk iy whksl nkaOk f,i fjka
lrhs'
² odhl nkaOk iy f,dayl nkaOk we;s jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'

² mrudKqfjys ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak nkaOk iEoSug iyNd.s fõ'
² nyq mrudKql moaO;shl Yla;sh wju lr .ekSu i|yd mrudKq w;r mj;sk
wdl¾IKh ridhksl nkaOkhla f,i y÷kajhs'
whksl nkaOk
² úoHq;a RK;d fjki wêl mrudKq hq.,hla w;r nkaOkhla we;s ùfï oS tla
mrudKqjl ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak fjk;a mrudKqjlg ,nd oS we;s jk Ok yd
RK whk w;r yg .kakd iaÓ;s úoHq;a wdl¾IKh whksl nkaOkhla f,i
ye|skafõ'
² >k wjia:dfõ mj;sk fidaähï laf,darhsâ ie,el+ úg tys whk" iaÓ;s úoHq;a
f,i wdl¾IKh ù ksYaÑ; rgdjlg weisÍ mj;S' t neúka whksl ixfhda.hla
>k wjia:dfõ mj;sk úg whkj,g ip,kh ùfï yelshdj ke;' wxY= msysá
ia:dkj, u isg lïmkh ùu muKla isÿ fõ' fï wkqj whksl iaMálhla
úoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
² øj wjia:dfõ mj;sk fidaähï laf,darhsâ ie,el+ úg whk fjka j mj;S'
whksl ixfhda.hla ú,Sk wjia:dfõ mj;sk úg whkj,g ip,kh ùfï
yelshdj mj;sk neúka úoHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'
² O%eùlrKh - legdhkhl O%eùlrK n,h yd wekdhkhl O%ejKYS,S;dj

mßmQ¾K whksl ixfhda.hla ie,el+ úg tajdfha ix>gl jk legdhk yd
wekdhk iúê >k f.da, jYfhka mj;sk nj ie,efla' tfy;a whksl ixfhda.h
iukaú; jk legdhkfha yd wekdhkfha iajNdjh wkqj leghdkh úiska
wekdhkfha bf,lafg%dk
a j,dj wdl¾IKh lrk w;r u ^legdhkfha O%eùlrK
n,h& wekdhkfha kHIaáh úl¾IKh lrhs' ta fya;=fjka wekdhkh úlD;s
ùu fyda wekdhkh O%eùlrKh ùu isÿ fõ' Ô%ejKYS,S;dj yd O%eùlrKh ùfï
keUqre;dj& O%eùlrKhg ,la jk m%udKh fkd i,ld yeßh yels ;rï l=vd
kï nkaOkh whksl iajNdjfhka mj;sk w;r ie,elsh hq;= O%eùlrKhla isÿ
fõ kï nkaOkhg tla;rd m%udKhl iyixhqc ,CIK ysñ fõ'
19
kso ( mQ¾K whksl nkaOkh O%eùlrKhla fkdue;
úlD;s ùu wekdhkfha O%ejKYS,S;dj

jeä ùu
hï m%udKhlg iyixhqc
,laIK fmkakqï lsÍu
² legdhkh ( m%udKfhka l=vd ùu
by< wdfrdamKhlska
hqla; ùu fyda by; O%eùlrK n,h jeä h'
lreKq fol u
² wekdhkh ( m%udKfhka úYd, ùu
by< wdfrdamKhlska O%ejKYS,;
S dj jeäh' ^úlD;s
hqla; ùu fyda by; ùug fyda O%eùlrKhg ,la
lreKq fol u úh yels h'&
² ksoiqka ( AgF, AgCl, AgBr iy AgI j, whksl .=K my; mßos úp,kh fõ'
AgF > AgCl > AgBr > AgI

wekdhkh úYd, ùu fya;=fjka O%ejKYS,;dj jeä fõ' ta wkqj
iyixhqc ,laIK hï muKlg fmkakqï lsÍu fuhg fya;=j hs'
CO32-
CsI , KI , NaI , LiI j, whksl .=K my; mßos úp,kh fõ'
CsI > KI > NaI > LiI

legdhkh l=vd ùu fya;=fjka O%eùlrK n,h jeä fõ' ta wkqj
iyixhqc ,laIK hï muKlg fmkakqï lsÍu fuhg fya;=j hs'
MCO3 MO + CO2
ldKavh O2- yd CO2 f,i ì|S hdug M2+ whkfha
O%eùlrK n,h n,mdkq ,efí' II ldKavfha legdhkj,
O%eùlrK n,h Be>Mg>Ca f,i úp,kh fõ' tu ksid fo jk
ldKavfha ldnfkagj, ;dm úfhdack WIaK;ajh
BeCO3< MgCO3< CaCO3 f,i úp,kh fõ'
iyixhqc nkaOk
² nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq., mrudKq folg u fmdÿ jk mßos ;nd .ekSfuka
iyixhqc nkaOk iEfoa' iyixhqc nkaOk iE§fï § mrudKql ldCIsl
w;sÉPdokh ùu isÿ fõ'
² iyixhqc f,i nkaOkh jQ mrudKq folla w;r úoHq;a iDK;d fjki Y=kH
kï th ks¾O%eùh iyixhqc nkaOkhla f,i ye¢kafõ' t fia fkd jk iyixhqc
nkaOk O%eùh iyixhqc nkaOk fõ'
20
² tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la mj;sk mrudKql ldlaIslhla fjk;a mrudKqjl
ixhqc;d ljpfha ysia ldlaIslhla iu`. w;sÉPdokfhka nkaOkhla iEosh yels
h' fu f,i iEfok nkaOkh odhl nkaOkh f,i y÷kajkq ,efí' fuys oS
tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h fokq ,nk m%fNaoh odhl ldKavh ^¨úia Niaauh&
f,i o nkaOkh iEoSu i|yd bf,lafg%dak ,nd .kakd m%fNaoh m%;s.%dyl
ldKavh ^¨úia wï,h& f,i o y÷kajkq ,efí'
ksoiqka ( + - + -
fyda
f,dayl nkaOkh
² f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha mj;sk bf,lafg%dak mrudKqjg ,sys,a j

ne|S we;' t neúka f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak uqod
yßñka Ok whk f,i meje;Sug keUqrejla we;' ta wkqj f,day mrudKqj,ska
ksoyia jk bf,lafg%dak u`.ska we;s jk bf,lafg%dak ihqf¾ .s,S mj;sk Ok
whkj,ska iukaú; moaO;shla we;s fõ' Ok whk iy bf,lafg%dak ihqr iaÓ;s
úoHq;a jYfhka wdl¾IKh ù f,dayl nkaOk iEfoa'
bf,lafg%dak ihqr
² ksoyia bf,lafg%dak mj;sk neúka f,day úoHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'

² f,day whkfha ;ru l=vd jk úg" f,day whkfha wdfrdamKh úYd, jk úg
yd f,dayl nkaOkhg odhl lrk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj jeä jk úg m%n,
f,dayl nkaOk we;s fõ'
² f,dayl nkaOk m%n, jk úg f,dayfha øjdxlh by< hhs'
² iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska ne÷Kq wKq ;=< fyda whksl moaO;s ;=< fyda f,dayl
oe,sia ;=< fyda mj;sk wdl¾IK" m%d:ñl wka;¾ls%hd kï fõ'
² úúO m%d:ñl wka;¾l%shdj,g ksoiqka jk wKq yd whksl moaO;s iuQyh ne.ska

isiq lKavdhïj,g ,nd oS tajd ms<sn| j my; i|yka oE idlÉPd lsÍug fhduq
lrkak'
² m%d:ñl wka;¾l%shd yg f.k we;s wdldrh
² m%d:ñl wka;¾l%shdj, iajNdjh yd úoHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj fmkakqï
lrk .=Kdx.
21
ksmqK;dj uÜgu 2'2 ( iyixhqc wKqj," O%eùh iyixhqc wKqj, yd ir, whk
ldKavj, yev úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iq,n j yuq jk yd Wmßu jYfhka mrudKq oyhla olajd wvx.= iyixhqc
wKqj, yd whk ldKavj, ¨úia jHqy w|shs'
² ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak hq., úl¾IK jdoh fhdod .ksñka iyixhqc
wKqj, yd whk ldKavj, uOH mrudKqj jgd tu bf,lafg%dak hq.,a osYdk;
jk wkaou yd wKqfõ$whkfha cHdñ;sl yevh mqfrdal:kh lrhs'
² WÑ; WodyrK weiqfrka sp, sp2 yd sp3 uqyï
q lrKh we;s jk wkaou úia;r lrhs'
² fok ,o wKqjlg fyda whk ldKavhlg fyda meje;sh yels ish¨ u iïm%hqla;
jHqy we| tajdfha ia:dhS;dj ixikaokd;aul j úuiqug ,la lrhs'
² mrudKql ldlaIslj, f¾Çh yd md¾Yaúl w;sÉPdokh wdY%fhka yd
nkaOkj, iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'

² iyixhqc wKqjl fyda whk ldKavhl fyda mj;akd iyixhqc nkaOk ¨úia
;s;a ixfla;j,ska t kï yjqf,a ;nd .kakd bf,lafg%dk a hq.,a flá f¾Ldjlska
ke;fyd;a ;s;a hq.,lska ^fyda ;s;a-l;sr hq.,lska& o tla tla mrudKqj u;
msysá tlir hq.,a ;s;a hq.,aj,ska fyda l;sr hq.,aj,ska o olajkq ,nk jHqyhla
¨úia jHqyh f,i ye|skf a õ' ¨úia jHqyfha olajkq ,nkafka ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dk
a
muKs'
ksoiqk 1 ( H2O wKqj i,luq'
²²
Tlaisckaj, ¨úia ixfla;h ² O ²
²²
yhsv%ckaj, ¨úia ixfla;h H×

²²
²×
²×
c, wKqfõ ¨úia ;s;a l;sr jHqyh H O H

²²
²²
c, wKqfõ ¨úia jHqyh H O H
²²
²² –
ksoiqk 2 ( Cl- whkh i,luq'
²²
²²
Cl
²²
H
××
+
H
²×
H
²×
ksoiqk 3 ( NH4+ whkh i,luq' N

²×
H
22
² ¨úia jHqyhla u`.ska wKqjl mrudKq iïnkaO ù mj;sk wdldrh ms<sn|;a"
ixhqc;d ljpj, mj;sk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj ms<sn|;a" nkaOkj, iajNdjh
ms<sn|;a" f;dr;=re ,efí' tfy;a yev ms<sn| f;dr;=re ¨úia jHqyfhka m%ldY
fkd fõ' wKqjl uOH mrudKqj jgd msysá σ nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk
yd tlir hq.,a .Kk ¨úia jHqyfhka ,nd f.k ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak
hq.,a úl¾IK jdoh ^VSEPR& Ndú;fhka wKqj, yev mqfrdal:kh l< yels h'
f¾Çh
;%shdk;s oaú msrñvdldr
;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr
wIag;,Sh
p;=ia;,Sh
uOH mrudKqj jgd ;sfnk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk wkqj
tajd wjldYfha osYdk; jk wdldrh
bf,lafg%dak hq., hq.,a ilia jk wKqfõ yevh

tl;=j nkaOk tlir wkaou
2 2 0 f¾Çh f¾Çh
3 0 ;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr
3 ;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr
2 1 fldaKsl
4 0
p;=ia;,Sh
4 3 1 p;=ia;,Sh
;%sfldaKdldr msróvh
2 2
fldaKsl
23
bf,lafg%dak hq., hq.,a ilia jk wKqfõ yevh
tl;=j nkaOk tlir wkaou
5 0 ;%shdk;s oaú msróvh
4 1 iS-fida
5 3 2 ;%shdk;s T - yevh
oaú msrñãh
2 3 f¾Çh
6 0 wIag;,Sh
6 5 1 wIag;,Sh iup;=ri%dldr
msróãAh
4 2 ;,Sh
iup;=ri%dldr
tl u wKqjla fyda whk ldKavhla i|yd bf,lafg%dak ieleiqfï fjkialï

u; muKla fjkia jk ¨úia jHqy folla fyda jeä .Kkla mj;sk wjia:d
yuq fõ' hï wKqjla i|yd meje;sh yels t jeks jHqy iïm%hqla; jHqy f,i
ye|skafõ' wKqfõ ienE jHqyh ñka tlla j;a fkd jk w;r th iïm%hqla; jHqy
uqyqï ùfuka iEfok jvd;a ia:dhS fjkia jHqyhls' iïm%hqla; jHqy i|yd
iajdh;a; meje;aula fkdue;s uq;a yqÿ myiqj i|yd w¢kq ,efí'
²² ²²
O+ +O
²² ²² ²²
²²
²O O
²²
²O O
²²
² ²² ² ²²
O3 i|yd jk iïm%hqla; jHqy
24
² O2, O3 , yd N2 wd§ wKqj, mj;akd nkaOkj, iajNdjh (σ yd & idlÉPd

lrkak'
² my; i|yka wKqj,$whkj, ¨úia jHqy we| cHdñ;sl yev ks¾Kh lsÍug
Wmfoia fokak' ^fjk;a WÑ; ksoiqka o bosßm;a l< hq;= h'&
BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, PCl3, NH4+, SF6, SF4, ClF3, XeF2, IF5, XeF4
² my; wKqj,$whkj, uOH mrudKqfõ uqyï q lrKh ks¾Kh lsÍug i,iajkak'

(sp, sp yd sp muKs) BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, PCl3, NH4+ ^fjk;a WÑ; ksoiqka
2 3
o bosßm;a l< hq;= h'&
² my; m%fNaoj, iïm%hqla; jHqy we|Sug Wmfoia fokak'

O3, N2O ^fjk;a WÑ; ksoiqka o bosßm;a lsÍu l< hq;= h'&
25
ksmqK;d uÜgu 2'3 ( mod¾:fha jHqyh yd .=K ks¾Kh lrkq msKsi úúO moaO;s
;=< mj;sk oaú;shsl wka;¾l%shd úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² O%eùlrKh" oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh yd O%ejKYS,S;dj hk ixl,am WÑ; WodyrK f.k
yer olajñka úia;r lrhs'
² úIh ks¾foaYhg we;=<;a oaú;shsl wka;¾l%shd j¾. WÑ; ksoiqka f.kyer
olajñka úia;r lrhs'
² hï øjHhl mj;akd oaú;shsl wka;¾l%shdj, iajNdjh yd tu øjHfha fN!;sl
.=K w;r iïnkaO;d biau;= lrhs'

² tlsfkl yd ridhksl j nkaOkh ù mj;akd mrudKq folla w;r úoHq;a
RK;d fjki fya;= fldg f.k fyda fjk;a ndysr n,mEula fya;=fjka fyda
nkaOkhg iïnkaO mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak j,d wiuñ;sl j jHdma; ùu
O%eùlrKh f,i y÷kajhs'
r
ksoiqka (
+δ −δ
-δ +δ
H
² fu jeks oaúO%ejhl tla wdfrdamK flakaøhl mj;akd wdfrdamKfha;a" tu

mrudKq w;r nkaOk osf.ys;"a (r) .=K;
s h nkaOkfha oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh
kï fõ' nyq mrudKql wKqj, oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh tla tla nkaOkh iïnkaOfhka
ie,elsh yels h' tajdfha iïm%hqla;h wKqfõ oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh f,i ie,efla'
²²
² ish¨ u N - H nkaOkj, oaúO%ej >Q¾Kj,
N iïm%hlq ;
a h u`.k
s a NH3 wKqfõ oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh
,efí'
² iuyr iuñ;sl wKq i|yd oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh Y+kH fõ'
ksoiqka (
Cl − δ Be+ δ Cl − δ
² O%ejKYS,S;dj i|yd ksmqK;dj 2'1 n,kak'
26
oaú;shsl wka;¾l%shd
wKq w;r mj;akd ish¨ u j¾.j,g wh;a wka;¾ wKql wka;¾ls%hd fmdÿfõ
jeka vz jd,aia wka;¾ls%hd f,i ye¢kafõ' fuu wka;¾ls%hd wdldr mylg j¾.
l< yels h'
² whk - oaúO%ej wka;¾l%shd
² oaúO%ej - oaúO%ej wka;¾l%shd iy yhsv%cka nkaOk
² whk - fma%aß; oaúO%ej wka;¾ls%hd
² oaúO%ej - fma%ß; oaúO%ej wka;¾l%shd
² wmlsrK ^,kavka& n,
² whk - oaúO%ej wka;¾l%shd

hï legdhklg fyda wekdhlg O%eùh wKqjla wdl¾IKh ùfï § fuu wka;¾lsh
% d
we;s fõ' fuu wka;¾ls%hdj, m%n,;ajh whkj, m%udKh" wdfrdamKh iy
oaúO%ejfha úYd,;ajh u; r|d mj;S'
wekdhkh O%eùh wKqj
legdhkh O%eùh wKqj
² oaúO%ej - oaúO%ej wka;¾l%shd

iaÓr oaúO%ejhla iys; wKq w;r fuu nkaOk we;s fõ'
''''''' ''''''' '''''''
Wod - .......
......
² yhsârcka nkaOk
*a¨fjdÍka$laf,daÍka$khsÜrcka jeks tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la fyda hq.,a
lssysmhla fyda iys; úoHq;a RK mrudKqjlg (X) iyixhqc j ne÷Kq yhsârcka
mrudKqjla yd *a¨fjdÍka$laf,daÍka$khsÜrcka jeks tlir bf,lafg%dk
a hq.,la
fyda hq.,a lssysmhla fyda iys; fjk;a úoHq;a RK mrudKqjla (Y) w;r yg
.kakd úfYaI wdldrhl bf,lafg%dksl wka;¾ls%hdjla yhsârcka nkaOkh
f,i ye¢kafõ' fuu wka;¾ls%hdj my; mßÈ oelaúh yels h'
27
nkaOk j¾.h nkaOk Yla;sh$ kJ mol-1
yhsârcka nkaOk 10 - 40
fjk;a wka;¾ wKql n, 0'1 - 10
F
ksoiqka -
..
...
....
...
(i) HF
H.
H
H
....
...
F
yhsârcka nkaOk
F
(i) H2O
yhsvc
% ka nkaOk
15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,øjH idok yhsvh

% v
s j, ;dmdxl úp,kh weiqfrka
yhsârcka nkaOkj, meje;au ;yjqre l< yels h'
;dmdxlh$ 0C
wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ msysá wdj¾;h
15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsârhsvj, ;dmdxl úp,kh
28
² whk - fm%aß; oaúO%ej wka;¾ls%hd
whkhla jeks wdfrdams; wxY=jla" wdfrdamKhla rys; ks¾O%eùh wKqjla ^Wod-
WÉp jdhq wKqjla& wdikakfha we;s úg mrudKqfõ fyda wKqfjys
bf,lafg%dak j,dj úlD;s fõ'
ksoiqk - c,Sh fmdgEishï whvhsâj, Èh l< I2 u`.ska I3- whk we;s ùu'
² oaúO%ej - fm%aß; oaúO%ej wka;¾ls%hd

fuu j¾.fha wka;¾ls%hd wdfrdamKhla rys; ks¾O%eùh m%fNao yd O%eùh
m%fNao w;r yg .kS'
ksoiqk - O2 , I2 , Xe jeks ks¾O%eùh m%fNaoj, c,fha Èh ùu'
² wmlsrK n, ^,kavka n, fyda ,kavka wmlsrK n,&

ks¾O%eùh wKq fyda mrudKq w;r mj;akd wka;¾ ls%hd wmlsrK n, f,i
ye¢kafõ' ´kE u ks¾O%eùh wKqjla tys bf,lafg%dak j,dj laIKsl
úlD;s;djlg m;a ùfuka ;djld,sl j O%eùlrKhg ,la úh yels h' tu
wKqfõ O%eùh;dj fya;=fjka ;j;a ks¾O%eùh wKqjla ;djld,sl j O%eùh
úh yels h' t jeks wKq w;r mj;akd wka;¾l%shd wmlsrK n, f,i
ye¢kafõ' t jeks n, ish¨ u wKq w;r we;s fõ' idudkHfhka ish¨ u
j¾.j,g wh;a jeka vz jd,aia n, w;r ÿn, u wdldrh jkqfha wmlsrK n,
hs' fl fia fj;;a oaúO%ej - oaúO%ej wka;¾ls%hd blaujd hk wmlsrK n,
mj;sk wjia:d o we;'
ixfhda.h øjdxlh oaú;shsl wka;¾ls%hdfõ

iajNdjh
CH3F -142 0C oaúO%ej - oaúO%ej wka;¾ls%hd iy

wmlsrK n,
CCl4 -23 0C wmlsrK n,

² 15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsv%hsvj, ;dmdxl úp,k m%ia;drh m%o¾Ykh lr tu
úp,khg fya;= úh yels lreKq úuikak'
² ir, wKq lsyms h ne.ska isiq lKavdhïj,g bosßm;a lr tajdfha oaúO%ej >Q¾Khla
meje;Su$fkd meje;Su yd oaúO%ej >Q¾Kfha m%n,;d ms<sn| idlÉPd lsÍug
i,iajkak'
² iqÿiq wKql$whksl moaO;s lKavdhïj,g mjrd tajdfha meje;sh yels oaú;shsl
wka;¾l%shdj, iajNdjh yd ta wkqj ysñ jk .=K ms<sn| idlÉPd lsÍug fhduq
lrkak'
29
ksmqK;d uÜgu 2'4 ( mod¾:fha >k wjia:dfõ jHqyh tajdfha fN!;sl .=K yd fl fia
iïnkaO fõ oe hs úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, ( ² oe,si ieleiau wkqj øjH j¾.SlrKh lrhs'

² oe,si ieleiau wkqj fok ,o øjHhl fN!;sl .=K mqfrdal:kh lrhs'
² tlsfklg fjkia oe,si jHqy iys; øjHj, fN!;sl .=K ii|hs'
bf.kqï-b.ekaùï l%shdj,sh (
² ;ekqï tall l%uj;a rgdjlg tlsfkl iïnkaO ùfuka ks¾udKh jQjla
cd,hla fyj;a oe,sila f,i ye|skafõ'
² úêu;a rgdjlska hq;= ùu yd kej; kej; fhfok uQ,sl tallhlska
ks¾udKh ù meje;Su oe,siaj, fmdÿ ,laIKhla fõ'
² oe,sia wdldrfha jHqy iys; úúO øjH iajNdjfha mj;S'
² mrudKq fyda wKq fyda whk fyda l%uj;a rgdjlg ilia jQ cd, iys;
øjH we;'
² cd,uh mod¾:j, ;ekqï tallh wkqj tajd my; mßos j¾. l< yels h'
² iu mrudKql cd, ² O%eùh wKql cd,
² úIu mrudKql cd, ² whksl cd,
² ks¾O%eùh wKql cd,
² cd,uh mod¾:j, ;ekqï tallfha iajNdjh wkqj cd,h f.dvkeÕSfï
oS we;s lr .kakd ne|Sï úúO fõ'
² cd,h f.dvkeÕSfï oS we;s lr .kakd ne|Sïj, iajNdjh" cd,fha
fN!;sl .=K flfrys n,mdhs'
² iu mrudKql oe,si
² iucd;Sh mrudKqj,ska f.dvkeÕS we;s oshuka;s yd ñksrka oe,sia iu
mrudKql cd, i|yd ksoiqka fõ'
1.54 0A
1.41 0A
} 3.35 0A
rEmh 2'4'1 ñksrkaj, cd, ieleiau rEmh 2'4'2 Èhuka;j

s , cd, ieleiau
30
² úIu mrudKql oe,si
² úIucd;Sh mrudKqj,ska f.dvkeÕS we;s is,slka vfhdlaihsâ úIu
mrudKql oe,si i|yd ksoiqkla fõ'
rEmh - 2'4'3 is,sldj, oe,si ieleiau

² iucd;Sh yd úIucd;Sh mrudKql oe,sia ks¾udKh ù we;af;a mrudKq
tlsfkl iyixhqc j ne|Sfuks'
² iucd;Sh yd úIucd;Sh mrudKql oe,si f.dvkeÕS we;af;a m%n, iyixhqc
nkaOkj,ska neúka tu oe,siaj,ska ks¾udKh jQ øjH by< oeä njlska
o" by< øjdxl$;dmdxlj,ska o" hq;= h'
² mrudKql oe,si ;=< mj;sk iyixhqc nkaOk jvd;a m%n, neúka ødjK
.; ùug keUqrejla fkdue;'
² ip, bf,lafg%dak ke;s mrudKql cd, úoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
^ñksrka fuhska wm.ukh jQ øjHhls'&
² ks¾O%eùh wKql oe,si

² ks¾O%eùh whãka wKqj,ska f.dvkeÕS we;s whãka iaMálhla ks¾O%eùh
wKql oe,si i|yd ksoiqkls'
rEmh - 2'4'4 ( whãkaj, oe,si ieleiau

² ks¾O%eùh wKql cd, f.dvkeÕS we;af;a fm%aß; oaúO%ej - fm%aß; oaúO%ej
w;r we;s lr .kakd wdl¾IK n, uÕska ks¾O%eùh wKq tlsfkl
ne|Sfuks'
² ÿn, jeka v' jd,aia n,j,ska tlsfkl ne÷Kq wKqj,ska iukaú; ks¾O%eùh
wKql cd, iys; øjH oeä núka wvq w;r wfkl=;a cd,j,ska ks¾udKh
jQ øjHj,g idfmalaI j my< øjdxl$;dmdxlj,ska hqla; fõ'
² ks¾O%eùh wKqj,ska ks¾udKh ù we;s neúka ks¾O%eùh wKql cd,j,ska
ks¾ñ; øjH ks¾O%eùh ødjl ;=< osh jk w;r ip, bf,lafg%dk a fkdue;s
neúka úoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
31
² O%eùh wKql oe,si
² O%eùh wKqj,ska f.dvkeÕS we;s whsia O%eùh wKql cd,hla i|yd ksoiqkls'
rEmh 2'4'5 ( whsiaj, oe,si ieleiau
² O%eùh wKql cd, f.dvkeÕS we;af;a iaÓr oaúO%ej-iaÓr oaúO%ej w;r we;s
lr .kakd wdl¾IK n, uÕska O%eùh wKq tlsfkl ne|Sfuks'
² O%eùh wKql cd,j,ska ks¾ñ; øjH O%eùh ødjl ;=< Èh ùug jeä
keUqrejla olajk w;r ip, bf,lafg%dak fkdue;s ksid úoHq;h
ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
² iaÓr oaúO%ej-iaÓr oaúO%ej wdl¾IK n,j,ska ^fyda yhsârcka nkaOkj,sk&a
ne÷Kq wKqj,ska iukaú; O%eùh wKql cd,j,ska ks¾ñ; øjH ks¾O%eùh
wKql cd,j,ska ks¾ñ; øjHj,g idfmalaI j by< oeä njlska yd by<
øjdxl$;dmdxlj,ska hqla; fõ'
² whksl oe,si
² fidaähï whk yd laf,darhsâ whkj,ska ieÿï ,;a fidaähï laf,darhsâ
whksl oe,si$cd, i|yd ksoiqkls'
Na+ Cl-
rEmh 2'4'6 ( fidaähï laf,darhsâj, oe,si ieleiau
² whksl oe,si f.dvkeÕS we;af;a Ok wdfrdams; yd RK wdfrdams; whk w;r

we;s lr .kq ,nk m%n, iaÓ;s úoHq;a wdl¾IK uÕska whk tlsfkl ne|Sfuks'
² m%n, iaÓ;s úoHq;a wdl¾IKj,ska ne÷Kq whksl cd,j,ska ks¾ñ; øjH by<
øjdxl$;dmdxl fmkajk w;r oeä núka o by< fõ'
² whksl cd,j,ska hqla; øjH O%eùh ødjl ;=< osh ùug keUqrejla
olajhs'
32
² whksl cd,j,ska iukaú; øjHj, o ip, bf,lafg%dak fkdue;s
neúka >k wjia:dfõ oS úoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
² whksl cd,j,ska iukaú; øjH ú,Sk l< úg yd ødjK .; l<
úg ip, whk mj;sk ksid úoHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'
² f,dayl oe,si i|yd 2'1 n,kak'

² oe,sil mska;+rhla mka;shg m%o¾Ykh lrkak'
² my; i|yka .eg¨ mka;shg bosßm;a lrkak'
² oe,si hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ula o@
² oe,sij, olakg ,efnk fmdÿ ,laIK fudkjd o@
² oe,si ieleiau iys; mod¾: mj;S o@
² oe,si ieleiqï iys; mod¾: f.dvkeÕS we;s ne|Sï fl n÷ o@
² mka;sh lKavdhï mylg fnod oaú;shsl wka;¾ls%hd tla j¾.h ne.ska lKavdhug
mjrkak'
² mjrk ,o oaú;shsl wka;¾ls%hd j¾.h iys; oe,sila iu. my; i|yka .=K iïnkaO
lr olajk f,i lKavdhïj,g mjrkak'
² øjdxl$;dmdxl
² úoHq;a ikakdhl;dj
² oeä nj
² ødjH;dj
33
ksmqK;dj 3'0 ( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j isÿ lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 3'1 ( wKq yd mrudKq iïnkaO fN!;sl rdYs fhdod .ksñka
ridhksl iQ;% f.dv kexùu yd wod< ksh; wdYs;
% .Kkh isÿ
lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² wej.dâfrda ksh;h ^L& yd *erfâ ksh;h ^F& w.h yd tall iys; j m%ldY
lrhs'
² wej.dâfrda ksh;h yd *erfâ ksh;h iïnkaO .Kkh isÿ lrhs'
² ixhq;sh hkak w¾: olajhs'
² ialkaO Nd.h" mßud Nd.h yd ujq, Nd.h w¾: olajhs'
² ialkaO Nd." mßud Nd. yd ujq, Nd. wdY%s; .eg¨ úi|hs'
² ujq,$mßud weiqßka m%ldYs; ixhq;sh idkaøKh jYfhka y÷kajhs'
² ialkaO$ialkaO" ialkaO$mrsud yd ujq,$mßud weiqßka yd m%ldYs; ixhq;s w;r
in|;d u;= lrhs'
² ialkaO$ialkaO" ialkaO$mßud" ujq,$mrsud yd ujq,$ialkaO weiqßka ixhq;sh
.Kkh lr m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sY; ixhq;s okakd úg wdkqNúl iq;%h o" wdkqNúl iQ;%h yd idfmalaI wKql
ialkaOh okakd úg wKql iQ;%h o ks¾Kh lrhs'

² wej.dâfrda ksh;h ^L&
hk iólrKh u`.ska fokq ,efí'

fuys N - wxY= ixLHdj
n - øjH ûjq,& m%udKh
wej.dâfrda ksh;h ^L& } 6'022×1023 mol-1
² *erfâ ksh;h ^F&

fm%df
a gdakfha ujq,l
s wdfrdamKh f,i *erfâ ksh;h w¾: oelafõ'^14'5 n,kak&
F = eL
L - wej.dâfrda ksh;h
e - bf,lafg%dakfha wdfrdamKh
*erfâ ksh;h F = 96500 C mol-1
² ixhq;sh m%ldY l< yels úúO wdldr we;' tajd kï ;

ialkaO Nd.h
mßud Nd.h
ujq, Nd.h
ialkaO$mßud
ujq,$mßud
34
² ujq,$mßud weiqßka m%ldYs; ixhq;sh idkaøKh f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
² ñY%Khl ixhq;sh Nd.hla f,i m%ldY l< yels h'
² A yd B ñY%Khl oS
A ialkaOh
A j, ialkaO Nd.h }
A ialkaOh + B ialkaOh
A mßudj
A j, mßud Nd.h } A yd B ñY%Kfha uq`M mßudj
A ujq, .Kk
A ujq, Nd.h }
A ujq, .Kk + B uq`M ujq, .Kk
² fldgia ñ,shkhlska fldgia .Kkla (ppm) f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;hs } Nd.h×106
² fldgia ì,shkhlska fldgia .Kkla (ppb) f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;sh } Nd.h×109
ksoiqk ( hï ødjKhl 20'000 g la ;=< ødjHh 0'020 g la wvx.= fõ'
Î& øjHfha ialkaO Nd.h }
tys w.h fldgia ñ,shkhlg fldgia .Kkla (ppm) f,i
² b;d l=vd m%udKj,ska mj;sk øjHj, ixhq;sh idukHfhka ñ,shkhg fldgia

(ppm) fyda ì,shkg fldgia (ppb) jYfhka m%ldY flf¾'
² c,fha >k;ajh } 1000 g dm-3 fõ'

;kql c,Sh ødjKhl >k;ajh 1000 g dm-3 f,i ie,lsh yels h' t neúka
ødjK 1 dm3 ialkaOh } 1 kg } 1000 g } 1000000 mg
t jeks úgl ialkaO$mßud wkqmd;hla jqj o ppm f,i m%ldY l< yels h'
ialkaO Nd.hla f,i
1ppm hkq fldgia 1000000 mg l fldgia 1 mg wvx.= fõ hkak hs' t neúka
;kql ødjK i|yd
1ppm = 1 mg kg -1 = 1 mg dm-3
= 1 g g -1 = 1 g cm-3
ksoiqk ( ødjKhl Fe3+ ixhq;sh 1'5 ppm f,i m%ldY lr we;' tu ixhq;sh
>k fvis ógrhg ujq,j,ska m%ldY lrkak'
1'5 ppm = 1'5 mg dm-3
35
² m%;sY; ixhq;sh
ksoiqka ( KMnO4 158.04 g j, K, 39.10 g o, Mn/ 54.94 g o O/ 64.00 g o wka;¾.; fõ'
K j, ialkaO m%;sY;h }
Mn j, ialkaO m%;sY;h }
O j, ialkaO m%;sY;h }
wdkqNúl iQ;%h ( ixfhda.hl ixhq;sh yd tl`. jk mßos jQ ta ta mrudKq ixLHd w;r ir,
u mQ¾K ixLHd;aul wkqmd;h fmkakqï lrk iQ;%h tys wdkqNúl iQ;%h
kï fõ'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wdkqNúl iQ;%h CH fõ'
wKql iQ;%h ( ixfhda.hl wKqjl we;s ta ta uQ,øjH mrudKq ixLHdj kshu jYfhka
fmkakqï lrk iQ;%h wKql iQ;%h fõ'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wKql iQ;%h C6H6 fõ'
ixfhda.hl idfmalI a wKql ialkaOh yd idfmalI
a wdkqNúl iQ;% ialkaOh
w;r wkqmd;h mQ¾K ixLHdjla fõ'
idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh
}n
idfmalaI wdkqNúl iQ;% ialkaOh
wKql iQ;%h } ^wdkqNúl iQ;%h&n
ksoiqk (
ldnksl ixfhda.hl ialkaOh wkqj C- 48.12 % la o H - 8.32 % la o N- 21.20 %
la o wvx.= fõ' b;sßh Tlaiscka fõ'
I& ixfhda.fha wdkqNúl iq;%h ks¾Kh lrkak'
ÎI& idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh 155 kï ixfhda.fha wKql iQ;%h ks¾Kh
lrkak'
H = 1.01, C = 12.00, N = 14.00, O = 16.00
C, Hiy N ialkaO m%;sY;j, tl;=j = 48.12+ 8.32+21.20 = 77.64%
t neúka O ys ialkaO m%;sY;h = 100 - 77.64
= 22.36%
ixfhda.h 100 g ie,elSfuka
C H N O
ialkaO wkqmd;h 48'12 ( 8'32 ( 21'20 ( 22'36
ujq, wkqmd;h 48'12 ( 8'32 ( 21'20 ( 22'36
12'00 1'01 14'00 16'00
4'01 ( 8'32 ( 1'51 ( 1'40
ujq, w;r ir, 4'01 ( 8'32 ( 1'51 ( 1'40
wkqmd;h 1'40 1'40 1'40 1'40
^l=vd u ixLHdfjka fnoSfuka&
2'9 ( 5'9 ( 1'1 ( 1
ujq, w;r ir,
mQ¾K ixLHd;aul 3 ( 6 ( 1 ( 1
wkqmd;h
36
wdkqNúl iQ;%h C3H6NO
idfmalaI wdkqNúl iQ;% ialkaOh = 3(C) + 6(H) + 1(N) + 1(O)
= 3(12) + 6(1) + 1(14) + 1(16)
= 72
ixfhda.fha idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh = 155
tu ksid n = 155/72
= 2.15
n hkq mQ¾K ixLHdjla jk neúka n } 2
tu ksid wKql iQ;%h = (C3H6NO)n
= (C3H6NO)2
= C 6H 12N 2O 2
² isik
q a lKavdhïj,g fnod wej.dâfrda ksh;h yd merfâ ksh;h ms<n
s | f;dr;=re
idlÉPd lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
² tajd wdY%s; ir, .eg¨ bosßm;a lrñka isiqkag wNHdi lsÍug i,iajkak'
² moaO;sj, wvx.= oE ms<sn| m%udKd;aul f;dr;=re úúO wdldrj,ska isiq
lKavdhïj,g bosßm;a lrkak'
² ialkaO Nd.h" mßud Nd.h fyda ujq, Nd.h WÑ; mßos fhdod f.k tu moaO;sj,
ixhq;s m%ldY lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
² pph, ppt, ppm wdosh WÑ; mßos f;dard .ksñka ixhq;sh m%ldY lsÍug fhduq
lrkak'
² m%;sY; ixhq;s ,nd oS we;s úfgl ixfhda.j, wdkqNúl iQ;% yd wKql iQ;%
ksjeros j ,nd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
² ixhq;sh .Kkh lsrSu yd iïnkaO .eg¨ isiq lKavdhïj,g ,nd fokak'
37
ksmK
q ;dj 3 ( ridhksl .Kkh lsßïj, fhfohs'
ksmqK;dj uÜgu 3'2 ( ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK wdYs%; .Kkh lsßïj, fhfohs'
ld,Éfþo ( 09 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ialkaO iy wdfrdamK ixia:s;sh ie,els,a,g .ksñka" ridhksl iólrKhl
;=,s;;dj mÍlaId lrhs'
² § we;s kHIaál m%;sls%hd ;=,kh lrhs'
² fidaÈis l%uh yd TlaislrK$TlaisyrK w¾O m%;sl%shd weiqßka iólrK ;=,kh
lrhs'
² Ndrñ;sl l%uh iïnkaO .eg¨ úi|hs'
² i,af*aÜ whk ødjKhl idkaøKh Ba2+ whk Ndú;fhka mßlaIKd;aul j
;SrKh lrhs'

² ridhksl iólrKhla u`.ska m%udKd;aul f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug tys mrudKq
yd iuia; wdfrdamK ;=<s; úh hq;= h'
²
by; iólrKfhys mrudKq yd wdfrdamK ;=,kh ù we;'
² my; § we;s wdldrfha ir, kHIaál m%;sls%hd ;=,kh lsÍu wfmalaId flf¾'
² fidaÈis l%uh (Inspection Method)

m%;l
s h
%s l iy M,j, tla tla mrudKq ixLHd ;=,kh lsÍfï l%ufhka iólrKh
;=,kh lsÍu fidaÈis l%uh f,i ye¢kaúh yels h'
² TlaislrK wxlj, fjki mÍlaId lsÍfuka frfvdlaia m%;sls%hd ;=,s; lsßu'
ksoiqka : Cu ;kql HNO3 iu`. m%;sls%hd lr Cu(NO3)2, NO iy H2O idohs'

(i) TlaislrK wjia:dj, fjkia ùï fidhd .kak'
(ii) bf,lafg%dk
a yqjudrej ;=,;
s jk mßÈ wod< mrudKq bÈßfhka ix.=Kl fhdokak'
(iii) b;sß mrudKq ;=,kh lrkak'
(ol=Kq mi we;s NO3- whk yh yd ;=,kh jk mßÈ jï mig wu;r HNO3

wKq yhla tl;= lrkak.)
38
² TlaislrK$TlaisyrK w¾O m%;sls%hd weiqßka m%;sl%shd ;=,kh lsÍu
ksoiqka : Cu ;kql HNO3 iu`. m%;sls%hd lr Cu(NO3)2, NO iy H2O idohs'
TlaisyrK w¾O m%;sls%hdj
TlaislrK w¾O m%;sls%hdj
;=,s; whksl iólrKh
;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh
fhdað; bf.kqï b.ekaùï ls%hdldrï (

² TlaislrK wxlh y÷kajd § úúO ixfhda.j, § uQ,øjHj, TlaislrK wxl
fiùug fhduq lrkak'
² Ndrñ;sl l%u wkqidrfhka .eg¨ úi£ug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² p f.dkqj yd d f.dkqj wdYs%; b.ekaùï ld¾hhfha § yuq jk iólrK ;=,kh
i|yd bÈßm;a lrkak'
² isiqkag fidaÈis l%uh yd TlaislrK-TlaisyrK l%uh wdYs%; j iólrK ;=,kh
lsÍu i|yd lKavdhï mejereula fokak'
39
ksmqK;dj 4' 0 ( mod¾:fha jdhq wjia:dfõ yeisÍu úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'1 ( mod¾:j,g wdfõKsl ,dlaIKsl úia;r lsÍu i|yd mod¾:fha
m%Odk wjia:d ;=fkys wxY= ieleiS we;s wdldrh fhdod .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 01 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² mod¾:fha m%Odk wjia:d jk >k" øj yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau úu¾Ykh lrhs'
² wxY= ieleiau weiqßka >k" øj yd jdhqj, mßudj" >k;ajh" yevh iy iïmSvH;dj
hk .=K ixikaokh lrhs'
>k øj jdhq
mrsudj ksYÑ
a ; hs' ksYÑ
a ; hs' wka;¾.; n÷fka
mßudj w;a lr .kshs'
yevh ksYÑ
a ; hs' wka;¾.; n÷fka wka;¾.; n÷fka
yev w;a lr .kshs' uq`M mßudj w;a lr
tfy;a n÷fka uq`M .ksh's
mßudj mqrd jHdma;
fkd fõ'
iïmSvkhg ,la iïmSvkh iïmSvkh lsÍu úYd, jYfhka

lsÍfï yelshdj lsÍu b;d u wmyiq h' b;du wmyiq h' iïmSvkhg ,la
l< yels h'
>k;ajh by< w.hla .ksh's by< w.hla .ksh's my< w.hla .ksh's

² WÑ; ksoiqka weiqfrka mod¾:fha wika;;sl iajNdjh ms<sn| idlaIH u;=
lrkak'
² >k" øj yd jdhq mod¾:j, wxY= ieleiau ms<sn| isiqka f.a fmr oekqu isysm;a
lrkak'
² mod¾:fha wika;;sl iajNdjhg idlaIH ir, ls%hdldrlï lSmhla u`.ska úoyd
olajkak'
² >k" øj yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau úia;r lr oS ta weiqßka mßudj" yevh
iïmSvkhg ,la lsÍfï yelshdj yd idfmalaI >k;ajh hk .=K ieie|Sug
isiqka fhduq lrkak'
40
ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'2 ( ;d;a;aúl jdhqj, yeisÍï rgd úia;r lsÍu i|yd mßmQ¾K
jdhq ms<sn| wdlD;sh fhdod .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² mrsmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh m%ldY lr tys mo y÷kajhs'
² mrsmQ¾K jdhqjla úia;r lrhs'
² fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dâfrda kshu m%ldY lrhs'
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqfrka fndhs,"a pd,aia yd wej.dâfrda kshu jHq;m
a kak
lrhs'
² jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj mÍCIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lr jd¾;d lrhs'
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh wdY%s; .eg¨ úi|hs'

² jdhqjl WIaK;ajh" mSvkh" mßudj yd øjH ûjq,& m%udKh hk idOl jdhqfõ
yeisÍu flfrys n,mdhs' jdhqjla ms<sn| by; i|yka rdYs y;r we;=<;a
iïnkaO;djla f,i mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh ye¢kaúh yels h'
PV = nRT id¾j;% jdhq ksh;h

R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
² fok ,o ´kE u WIaK;ajhla yd mSvkhla hgf;a § by; iïnkaO;dj ms<smÈk
´kE u jdhqjla mßmQ¾K jdhqjla f,i oelafõ'
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqfrka fndhs,a kshuh jHq;amkak lsÍu'

PV = nRT
ksh; WIaK;ajhl § ksh; jdhq ialkaOhla i|yd nT .=Ks;h ksh; fõ'
R ksh; ksid nRT= k ksh;hls'
PV = k (fyda fyda )
t kï ksh; WIaK;ajhl mj;sk ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mSvkh" jdhqfõ

mßudjg m%;sf,dau j iudkqmd;sl fõ' ^fndhs,a kshuh&
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqfrka pd,aia kshuh jHq;amkak lsÍu'
ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mSvkh ksh; úg ksh;hls'
41
^fyda V = kT fyda V αT &
t kï ksh; mSsvkhla hgf;a mj;sk ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mßudj" jdhqfõ
ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajhg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl fõ' ^pd,aia kshuh&
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqfrka wej.dâfrda kshuh jHq;amkak lsÍu
fuys N yd L hkq ms<sfj<ska jdhq wKq .Kk yd wej.dâfrda ksh;h fõ'

tl u WIaK;ajfha yd mSvkfha mj;sk A yd B jdhqj, iudk mßud i|yd by;
iïnkaO fh§fuka
t kï tl u WIaK;ajfha yd mSvkfha mj;sk úúO jdhqj, iudk mßud ;=<

iudk wKq .Kkla wka;¾.; fõ' ^wej.dâfrda kshuh&
² ujq,sl mßudj
jdhqjl ujq,sl mrsudj hkq jdhqfõ ujq, tll mßudj hs' jdhqjl ujq,sl
mßudj WIaK;ajh yd mSvkh hk fN!;sl rdYs fol u u; úp,kh fõ' ta
wkqj 0 0C yd 1'0 atm ;;a;aj hgf;a ´kE u jdhq ujq,hl mßudj iïu;
WIaK;ajfha yd mSvkfha § tu jdhqfõ ujq,sl mßudj f,i w¾: olajhs'

² iïu; WIaK;ajfha oS yd mSvkfha oS mßmQ¾K jdhq ujq,hla iïnkaOfhka
f;dr;=re wdfoaY lr jdhq ksh;fha w.h ,nd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
² ksrfmaCI WIaK;ajh y÷kajd fokak'
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh iy tys úl,am wdldr weiqßka .eg¨ úi£ug isiqka
fhduq lrjkak' ( ).
² fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dâfrda kshu i|yka lr tajd mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh

weiqßka jHq;amkak lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
42
ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'3 ( ;d;a;aúl jdhqj, yeisrSu úia;r lrkq msKsi jdhq ms<sn|
pd,l wKql jdoh fhdod .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² jdhq ms<sn| wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk i|yka lrhs'
² wKql pd,l iólrKh m%ldY lr tys mo y÷kajhs'
² jdhqj, úirKh i|yd n,mdk idOl úia;r lrhs'
² uelaiafj,a-fnda,Üiaudka jl% uÕska jdhq ms<sn| bosßm;a lr we;s f;dr;=re
úia;r lrhs'

² wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk (
² jdhqjl wKq ish¨ u ÈYdj,g" úúO fõ.j,ska" ir, f¾Çh j wLKav wyUq
p,s;hl fhfoñka mj;S'
² wyUq p,s;fha fhfok jdhq wKq tlsfkl iu`. yd wka;¾.; Ndckfha
ì;a;s u; .efÜ' tu .egqï mQ¾K m%;Hdia: fõ'
² wKq w;r wdl¾IK n, fyda úl¾IK n, ke;'
² wKqj, mßudj wKq w;r ÿr iu`. ieie£fï § fkd i,ld yeßh yels h'
² wKq tlsfkl .eà fmd,d mekSfï oS moaO;sfha iuia; pd,l Yla;sh ksh;
j mj;S'
² jdhq mSvkh we;s jkafka jdhq wKq" wka;¾.; n÷fka ì;a;s u; .eàu
fya;=fjks'
² wKql pd,l iólrKh
P= mSvkh
V= jdhqfõ mßudj
m= jdhq wxY=jl$wKqjl ialkaOh
N= uq`M jdhq wxY=$wKq ixLHdj
= j¾. uOHkH fõ.h
1" 2"'''''''' N olajd jdhq wxY=j, fõ. ms<sfj<ska c1, c2, ......, cN kï
j¾. uOHkH uQ, fõ.h }
uOHkH fõ.h }
43
² hï j¾.hl wKq" fjk;a j¾.hl wKq wka;¾.; jQ wjldYhla mqrd jHdma; ùu
úirKh f,i ye|skafõ'
ksoiqka ( .kaOhlska hq;a øjHhla ldurhl ;enQ úg tu .kaOh ldurh mqrd
taldldr j jHdma; jk f;la úirKh ùu isÿ fõ'
úirKh ùfï YS>%;dj - >k < øj < jdhq
úúO jdhq fjkia YS>%;dj,ska úirKh jk nj mÍlaIKd;aul j

fidhd f.k we;' wefudakshd iy yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wKq jd;h
;=<ska úirKh ù wefudakshï laf,darhsâ ksmoùu my; wegejqu
u`.k
s a wdo¾Ykh l< yels h' idfmalI
a wKql ialkaOh wvq wefudakh
s d
wKqj, úirK YS>%;dj yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wKqj,g jvd jeä nj
ñka meyeos,s fõ'
yhsâfrdlaf,daßla idkaø wefudakshd

wï,h ødjKh
² hï jdhqjl úirK YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl

ujq,ls ialkaOh" j¾. M,h" idkaøK wkqlu
% Kh iy WIaK;ajh muKla i|yka
lsÍu m%udKj;a h'
² jdhqjl uOHkH fõ.h WIaK;ajh iu`. úp,kh jk wkaou my; uelaiafj,a
fnda,aÜiaudka jl%j,ska oelafõ'
hï Yla;shlska hq;a
wKql Nd.h
fõ.h$ m s-1

² wKql pd,l iólrKh y÷kajd oS wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk ms<sn|
idlÉPd lrkak'
² uelaiafj,a-fnda,aÜiaudka jl% bosßm;a lr tajd Ndú;fhka jdhq yeisÍu ms<sn|
,efnk f;dr;=re idlÉPd lsÍug isiq lKavdhï fhduq lrkak'
² m%;sldrl fnda;,hlg øj fn%daóka ìxÿjla oud ixjD; lr isiqkag ksÍlaIKh
lsÍug ie,eiaùfuka úirKh wdo¾Ykh lrkak'
44
ksmqK;dj 4'0 ( mod¾:fha jdhq wjia:dfõ yeisÍu úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'4 ( jdhq ñY%Khl yeisÍu ú.%y lsÍug fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl
mSvk kshuh Ndú; lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 03 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² wdxYsl mSvkh hkak y÷kajd" fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqßka fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak
lrhs'
² fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh wdY%s; .eg¨ úi|hs'

² jdhq ñY%Khl uq`M mSvkh flfrys ix>gl jdhq u`.ska odhl jk m%udKh
tajdfha wdxYsl mSvk f,i ye|skafõ'
² jdhq ñY%Khl ix>gl jdhqjla" ñY%Kh wka;¾.; n÷fkys ;ks j wvx.= lr
;sfnk úg we;s lrkq ,nk mSvkh tu ix>gl jdhqfõ wdxYsl mSvkh fõ'
² fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh
tlsfkl iu`. m%;sls%hd fkd lrk jdhq ñY%Khl uq`M mSvkh tla tla ix>gl
jdhqfõ wdxYsl mSvkj, tl;=jg iudk fõ'
² A, B yd C jdhq wka;¾.; ñY%Khl oS tla tla jdhqfõ wdxYsl mSvk ms<sfj<ska
PA, PB yd PC fõ kï"
ñY%Kfha uq`M mSvkh Pt } PA+ PB + PC
² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqßka fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak
lsÍu
A yd B jdhq ñY%Khl ms<sfj<ska tla tla jdhq ujq, nA yd nB wvx.= fõ'
PV = nRT
A jdhqj i|yd
B jdhqj i|yd
jdhq ñY%Kh i|yd
45
² jdhqf.da,h úúO jdhqj, ñY%Khla nj isysm;a lr jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh flfrys
tla tla ix>gl jdhqfõ odhl;ajh fl n÷ o hkak ms<sn| nqoaê l,ïnk
idlÉPdjla fufyhjkak'
² mka;sh lKavdhï lr my; i|yka wdldrfha ir, .eg¨ úie|Sug fhduq
lrkak'
² jdhq ñY%Khl tla tla ix>gl jdhqfõ wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s úg jdhq ñY%Kfha
ixhq;sh yd uq`M mSvkh ks¾Kh lsÍu
² jdhq ñY%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd ixhq;sh oS we;s úg tla tla jdhqfõ wdxYsl
mSvk ks¾Kh lsÍu
² jdhq ñY%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s úg ixhq;sh ks¾Kh
lsÍu'
^ PA = A jdhqfõ ujq, Nd.h x P total &
46
ksmqK;dj 4'0 ( mod¾:fha jdhq wjia:dfõ yeisÍu úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'5 ( ;d;a;aúl jdhq i|yd fhÈh yels jk fia mßmQ¾K jdhq
iólrKh i|yd isÿ l< ixfYdaOk úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 02 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iïmSvH;d idOlh w¾: olajd ;d;aúl yd mßmQ¾K jdhq iïnkaO j tu w.h
úp,kh jk wkaou m%ia;dßl j bosßm;a lrhs'
² ;d;a;aúl jdhq" mßmQ¾K jdhq yeisÍfuka wm.ukh ùug fya;= pd,l wKql
jdofha Wml,amk Wmqgd olajñka úia;r lrhs'
² ;d;a;aúl jdhq mßmQ¾K yeisÍfuka olajk wm.uk i|yd ixfYdaOk we;=<;a
lr ilia l< iólrKhla f,i jeka v' jd,aia iólrKh bosßm;a lrhs'
z hkq iïmSvH;d idOlh fõ' mßmQ¾K jdhq i|yd z } 1 fõ' tfy;a ;d;a;aúl
jdhq i|yd fuu w.h ksh;hla fkd jk nj mÍlaIKd;aul f;dr;=re u`.ska
fy<s ù we;'
² WIaK;ajh 273 K ys oS úúO jdhq i|yd PV .=Ks;hg tosß j P ys m%ia;drh
mßmQ¾K jdhq
² wvq mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;d;a;aúl jdhq" mßmQ¾K yeisÍug <`.d jk nj fuu
m%ia;drhg wkqj meyeos,s fõ'
² úúO WIaK;ajj, oS yhsârcka jdhq ujq,hla i|yd Pg tÈß j PV/RT w.h i|yd
47
m%ia;drh
PV/RT
203 K
1.8 293 K
1.4 673 K
1.0 mßmQ¾K jdhqj
200 400 600 800 P/atm
² by< WIaK;ajj, oS ;d;a;aúl jdhq mßmQ¾K yeisÍug <`.d jk nj by;

m%ia;drj,g wkqj meyeos,s fõ'
² jeka v' jd,aia iólrKh
P } mSvkh
V } mßudj
n } øjH ûjq,& m%udKh
R } id¾j;% jdhq ksh;h
T } ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh
a yd b hkq ;d;a;aúl jdhq i|yd ksh;h^jeka v' jd,aaia ksh;& fõ'
hkq jeka v' jd,aaia wdl¾IK fya;=fjka isÿ jk mSvkfha wvq ùu

i|yd ixfYdaOkh hs' nb hkq jdhq wKqj, mßudj i|yd isÿ lrk
ixfYdaOkh hs'
² jeka v' jd,aaia iólrKh weiqßka .Kkh lsÍï wkjYH hs'
² iïmSvH;d idOlh ;d;a;aúl jdhq iïnkaOfhka fjkia jk wkaou m%ia;dr

weiqßka wOHhkhg bv fokak'
² ;d;a;aúl jdhq mßmQ¾K;ajfhka wm.ukh ùug fya;= yd mßmQ¾K yeisÍug
<`.d jk ;;a;aj idlÉPd lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² ;d;a;aúl jdhq i|yd fhosh yels jk fia jeka v' jd,aia iólrKhg ixfYdaOk
we;=<;a lr we;s wdldr idlÉPd lrkak'
48
ksmqK;dj 5'0 ( tka;e,ams fjkia ùï yd tkafg%dms fjkia ùï úu¾Ykh
lrñka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd úm¾hdi isÿ ùug
we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hSï lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'1 ( tka;e,ams yd iïnkaO ixl,am úuid n,hs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² moaO;sh" mßirh" udhsu" ixjD; moaO;sh" újD; moaO;sh yd tal,s; moaO;sh w¾:
olajhs'
² tka;e,amsh iy tkafg%dmsh wjia:d Y%s; f,i yd ;dm.;sl .=K f,i y÷kajhs'
² j.=.; l< tka;e,ams o;a; weiqfrka" m%;sl%shd wdY%s; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh
lrhs'

² úYajfhka wOHhkh i|yd f;dard .;a fldgi moaO;sh f,i ye|skafõ'
² wOHhkh i|yd úYajfhka f;dard .;a fldgi yereKq fldg b;sß ish,a,
mßirh kï fõ'
² moaO;sh yd mßirh fjka flfrk mDIaGh udhsu f,i ye|skafõ'
moaO;sh mßirh
udhsu
² udhsu yryd Yla;sh mod¾:h yd ld¾hh yqjudre jk moaO;s újD; moaO;s kï
fõ'
Yla ; s h " mod¾: iy

ld¾hh
² udhsu yryd Yla;sh yd ld¾hh muKla yqjudre jk moaO;s ixjD; moaO;s fõ'
ûdhsu" mod¾:h i|yd wmdr.uH fõ'&
Yla;sh yd ld¾hh
² udhsu yryd Yla;sh fyda mod¾: fyda ld¾hh fyda yqjudre fkd jk moaO;s
tal,s; moaO;s kï fõ'
² mod¾: m%udKh u; r|d mj;sk .=K ú;a;s .=K kï fõ'
ksoiqka ( ialkaOh" mßudj" ;dm Odß;dj
² mod¾: m%udKh u; r|d fkd mj;sk .=K >gkd .=K kï fõ'
ksoiqka ( WIaK;ajh" mSvkh" >k;ajh" ÿiai%dú;dj" ujq,sl mßudj" ujq,sl
;dmOdß;dj
² moaO;shl WIaK;ajh mSvkh iy ixhq;h
s wdosh ms<n
s | úia;rh moaO;shl wjia:dj
f,i ye|skafõ' hï moaO;shla i|yd fuu f;dr;=re iqúfYaIS fõ'
49
² moaO;shla mj;sk wjia:djg iqúfYaIS w.hla iys; .=K wjia:d Y%s; hkqfjka
ye|skafõ' fuu .=K moaO;sfha b;sydih u; r|d fkd mj;shs'
² wjia:d Y%s;hl isÿ jk fjkia ùfï m%udKh tys wdrïNl wjia:dj yd wjidk
wjia:dj u; muKla r|hs' fjki isÿ lrkq ,nk ud¾.fhka iajdh;a; fõ'
² mßudj" WIaK;ajh" >k;ajh" j¾;kdxlh tka;e,amsh yd tkafg%dmsh wdosh
wjia:d Y%s; i|yd ksoiqka fõ'
² ksh; mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS" moaO;shlg imhkq ,nk fyda moaO;shlska msg
lrkq ,nk fyda ;dm m%udKh tka;e,ams fjki ^∆H& jYfhka ye|skafõ' fuh
;dm .;sl .=Khls' wjia:dfõ Y%s;hls'
² m%;sl%shdjla wdY%s; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi ^∆H&" M,j, yd m%;sl%shlj, tka;e,ams
fjkiska ,efí'
∆H = HM, - Hm%;sl%shl
² m%;sl%shdjla wdY%s; tka;e,ams úm¾hdih
∆H < 0 kï m%;sl%shdj ;dmodhl fõ'
∆H > 0 kï m%;sl%shdj ;dmjfYdaIl fõ'
² IUPAC iïuq;shg wkqj m%;sls%hdj, tka;e,ams úm¾hdi jd¾;d lrkafka
m%;sl%shdj isÿ ù we;s tall m%udKh Ûnit Extent of Reaction& wkqj h' t úg
tallh kJ mol-1 fõ' IUPAC iïuq;sh Ndú;d lsÍug fuys § ks¾foaY flf¾'
² úúO m%;sl%shd wdY%s; m%;sl%shl yd M, i;= iïu; tka;e,ams w.h ^t kï tu

øjHj, iïu; W;amdok tka;e,ams w.h& isiq lKavdhïj,g ,nd oS tu m%;sl%shd
wdY%;
s tka;e,ams úm¾hdi ∆H = HM, - Hm%;sl%shl weiqßka .Kkh lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
50
ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'2 ( wdY%s; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi úYaf,aIKh lrñka mßj¾;k isÿ
ùug we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hSï lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 14 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úIh ks¾foaYhg we;=<;a tka;e,ams úm¾hdi iy iïu; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi
w¾: olajhs'
² tka;e,ams rEmigyka yd ;dm ridhksl pl% Ndú;fhka úúO l%shdj,s wdY%s;
tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lrhs'
² úúO ix>glj, ødjK tka;e,ams mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lr jd¾;d lrhs'
² wï,j, yd Niauj, WodiSklrK tka;e,ams mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lr
jd¾;d lrhs'
² m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shdjl tka;e,ams úm¾hdi mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lr jd¾;d
lrhs'
² fyia kshufha j,x.=;dj iqÿiq mÍlaIKhla weiqßka mÍlaId lr jd¾;d lrhs'

² m%;sls%hdjl mSvkh iu`. fjkia fõ' w.h ixikaokh lrkq msKsi tu
ld¾hh i|yd fhdod .kq ,enQ mSvkh l=ula oe hs oek isàu jeo.;a fõ' iïuq;sh
jkqfha SI fkd jk tallj,ska 1 atm o SI tallj,ska 101.325 kPa o iïu; mSvkh
f,i fhdod .ekSu hs' iïu; mSvkh hgf;a ukskq ,nk ^fyda tu ;;a;aj
fh§u i|yd ksje/È lrk ,o& tka;e,ams úm¾hdih iïu; tka;e,ams úm¾hdih
kï fõ' iïu; tka;e,ams úm¾hdih i|yd úfYaI ixfla;h fhdokq ,nhs'
² iïu; W;amdok tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s ixfhda. ujq, tlla iïu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s tys
ix>gl uQ,øjHj,ska W;amdokh lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
ksoiqka ( H2O(l) ys W;amdokfha iïu; tka;e,amsh -286 kJ mol-1 fõ'
th fu fia oelaúh yels h'
² iïu; oyk tka;e,amsh ^ &

iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s uQ,øjHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fyda ujq,hla jeäuk;a
Tlaiscka ;=< mQ¾K oykh lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
51
² iïu; nkaOk ú>gk tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s jdhquh m%fNaohl nkaOk ujq,hla ì| jdhquh ;;a;ja fha
ix>gl njg m;a lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs' ^fuh úfYaIs; l<
uQ,øjHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fyda úfYaIs; l< nkaOkhla iïnkaOfhka m%ldY
flf¾'&
by; w.hj, idudkH w.h CH4 ys C - H nkaOkhl iïu; uOHkH nkaOk

ú>gk tka;e,amsh f,i ye|skafõ'
² iïu; WodiSklrK tka;e,amsh ^ &

iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s c,Sh H whk ujq,hla iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s c,Sh
+
ødjKhl we;s OH- whk ujq,hla iu`. m%;sl%shd lr c,h ujq,hla iEoSfï oS
isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
θ
∆H hyd
² iïu; c,SlrK tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s jdhquh whk ujq,hla jeäuk;a c,h m%udKhla iu`.
ødjK ;;a;ajhg m;a ùfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
Na+(g) + (aq) Na+(aq) ;
² iïu; ødjK tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ we;s hï øjH ujq,hla jeäuk;a ødjlhl osh lr ødjKhla
iEoSfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
ksoiqk (-
NaCl(s) + (aq) NaCl(aq) ; = 1 kJ mol-1
² fyia kshuh
m%;sls%hl yd M,j, wod< ;;a;aj hgf;a" ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl oS isÿ jk
tka;e,ams úm¾hdih" m%;sl%shdj l=uk ud¾.h Tiafia isÿ l< o" ksh; w.hla
.kshs' ^m%;sls%hdfõ ud¾.fhka iajdh;a; fõ'&
∆Η2 ∆Η3
52
fyia kshuhg wkqj"
∆H1= ∆ H2+∆H3
;dm ridhksl pl%h
tka;e,ams igyk
tka;e,ams /kJ mol-1

-184 kJ mol-1
-277 kJ mol-1
-93 kJ mol-1
² ;dmodhl m%;sl%shdjla yd ;dmdjfYdaIl m%;sl%shdjla wdo¾Ykh lrkak'

² fhdað; m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlï isÿ lrkak'
² ;dm-ridhksl pl% yd tka;e,ams rEmigyka Ndú; lr lKavdhï jYfhka
.eg¨ úi|Sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
53
ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'3 ( fndaka-ydn¾ pl% fhdod .ksñka whksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj
ms<sn| fm/hSï lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² whksl ixfhda.j, W;amdok tka;e,amsh ks¾Kh lsÍfï oS fhdod .efkk ^úIh
ks¾foaYhg we;=<;a& tka;e,ams úm¾hdi w¾: olajhs'
² whksl ixfhda.hla W;amdokh lsÍu yd iïnkaO fndak-a ydn¾ ^Born-Haber& pl%h
f.dvkxjhs'
² fndaka-ydn¾ pl%h wdOdrfhka whksl ixfhda.hl iïu; oe,si tka;e,amsh
.Kkh lrhs'

² iïu; W!¾èjmd;k tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk >k uQ,øjHhl ujq,hla fyda >k ixfhda.hl
ujq,hla fyda iïmQ¾Kfhka jdhquh wjia:djg m;a lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams
úm¾hdih hs'
Ca(s) → Ca(g)
² iïu; jdIamSlrK tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk øj ixfhda.$uQ,øjH ujq,hla jdhquh ixfhda.$
uQ,øjH ujq,hla njg m;a lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
Br2(l) → Br2(g)
² iïu; ú,hk tka;e,amsh ^ &
iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk >k ixfhda.$uQ,øjH ujq,hla" øj ixfhda.$uQ,øjH
ujq,hla njg m;a lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
² iïu; ;+lrK tka;e,amsh îïu; mrudKqlrK tka;e,amsh& ^ &

iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk uQ,øjHhla jdhquh wjia:dfõ we;s mrudKq ujq,hla
njg m;a lsÍfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
θ
² m<uq jk whkSlrK iïu; tka;e,amsh ^ ∆H IE 1 &
iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk uQ,øjH mrudKq ujq,hlska kHIaáhg ,sys,a j u ne|S
we;s bf,lafg%dakh ne.ska bj;a lr jdhquh tal Ok whk ujq,hla iEoSfï oS
isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
54
² bf,lafg%dak ,nd .ekSfï iïu; tka;e,amsh
iïu; wjia:dfõ jdhquh ;;a;ajfha mj;sk mrudKq ujq,hlg bf,lafg%dak
,nd oS jdhquh ;;a;ajfha mj;sk tal RK whk ujq,hla iEoSfï oS isÿ jk
tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
² whksl ixfhda.hl iïu; oe,sia tka;e,amsh

iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk jdhquh Ok whk iy RK whkj,ska >k wjia:dfõ
we;s whksl ixfhda.hl ujq, tlla iEoSfï oS isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih hs'
² fndaka-ydn¾ pl%h
whksl ixfhda.hl oe,si tka;e,amsh fiùu i|yd f.dvk`.k ;dm ridhksl
pl%h fndaka-ydn¾ pl%h f,i y÷kajhs'
>
tka;e,ams/kJ mol-1
-349
(Na+Cl-)(s) = -411
Na+Cl-(s)
>k NaCl ys W;amdokh iïnkaO fndaka-ydn¾ pl%h

² wod< tka;e,ams úm¾hdi w¾: olajkak'
² úúO whksl ixfhda. isiq lKavdhïj,g mjrd tajdfha oe,si tka;e,ams fiùug
wod< tka;e,ams w.h imhkak'
² fndaka-ydn¾ pl%h weiqßka" mjrk ,o whksl ixfhda.fha W;amdok tka;e,amsh
.Kkh lsÍug isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
55
ksmqK;dj 5'0 ( tka;e,ams fjkia ùï yd wyUq;dfõ fjkia ùï úu¾Ykh
ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'4 ( ridhksl úm¾hdij, iajhxisoaO;dj ms<sn| fm/hSï lrhs'

ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² tkafg%dmsh(S) yd .síia Yla;sh(G) hk mo úia;r lrhs'
² S yd G hkq wjia:d Ys%; nj jgyd .kshs'
² ∆G yd ∆H u`.ska jd¾;d lrkafka m%;l s h
%s djl unit extent i|yd nj m%ldY lrhs'
-1 -1 -1
∆G (kJ mol ), ∆S (kJ mol K )
² ∆G, ∆H yd ∆S w;r iïnkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'
² lsishï m%;sl%shdjl fyda isoaêhl fyda iajhxisoaO;dj ms<sn| ∆G wdOdrfhka
fm/hSï lrhs'

² moaO;shl tkafg%dmsh hkq moaO;sfha wyUq;dj ms<sn| ñkquls'
² tkafg%dmsh wjia:d Y%s;hls' th moaO;sfha wdrïNl yd wjidk wjia:dj u;
muKla r|d mj;sk w;r fjkia ùï isÿ jk ud¾.h u; r|d fkd mj;S'
² tkafg%dmsh o fN!;sl yd ridhksl fjkia ùï flfrys n,mdk idOlhls'
² tal,s; moaO;shl isÿ jk iajhxisoO
a fjkia ùï tkafg%dmsfha jeä ùu fya;f = jka
isÿ fõ'
² lsihs ï moaO;shla yd iïnkaO tkafg%dmsh wjia:d Y%;
s hla ksid" tkafg%dms fjki
wjidk tkafg%dms w.fhka wdrïNl tkafg%dms w.h wvq lsÍfuka .Kkh l<
yels h'
² ∆S = Swjidk - SwdrïNl
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjla i|yd

∆S = S M, - S m%;sl%shl
fuu fjki iïu; ;;a;aj hgf;a uek we;s úg
∆Sθ = SθM, - Sθm%;sl%shl
² úm¾hdihla flfrys ∆H iy ∆S j, iuia; n,mEu ∆G kï .síia Yla;s

fjki u`.ska ,nd fohs' ksh; WIaK;ajfha^T& oS fïjd w;r iïnkaO;dj my;
wdldrh fjhs'
∆G = ∆H - T∆S
ksh; WIaK;ajfha § yd mSvkfha §"
iajhxisoaO j isÿ jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd ∆G<0
iajhxisoaO j isÿ fkd jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd ∆G>0
iu;=,s; m%;sl%shdjla i|yd ∆G = 0
² ksh; tkafg%dms moaO;shl ^∆S = 0& iajhxisoaO;dj ∆H u`.ska ;SrKh jk w;r

ksh; tka;e,amsh hgf;a ^∆H = 0& isÿ jk úm¾hdihl iajhxisoaO;dj ∆S u`.ska
;SrKh fõ'
56
² m%;sl%shdjl iajhxisoaO;dj fyda oS we;s ;;a;ajhla hgf;a th isÿ fkd ùu fyda
;SrKh flfrk idOlh tka;e,ams fjki muKla fkd jk nj fmkaúh yels
WodyrK imhkak'
ksoiqka (
m%;sl%shdjl ∆ H > 0 úg oS bfí isÿ jk wjia:d
m%;sl%shdjl ∆ H < 0 úg oS bfí isÿ fkd jk wjia:d
² m%;sl%shdjla fyda ls%hdj,shla ùu$fkd ùu fyda ta wdY%s; moaO;sfhys wyUq;d

fjkia ùu u; o r|d mj;akd nj m%ldY lrkak'
² wyUq;dj iy th m%udKd;aul j oelaùug Ndú; lrk 'tkafg%dmsh' m%udKd;aul
j meyeos,s lrkak'
² ∆ H > 0 uq;a iajhxisoaO j isÿ jk ridhksl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka olajd
wyUq;dj tys oS jeä ù we;s wdldrh fmkajkak'
² uQ,øjHj, iy ixfhda.j, wyUq;dj m%udKd;aul j ks¾Kh lr j.= .; lr
we;s nj fmkajkak'
² ∆S, ∆ H yd ∆ G w.h imhd oS we;s m%;sl%shdjla iajhxisoaO j isÿ fõ o fkd fõ
o hk j. ;SrKh lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
wjYH úgl oS ∆G = ∆H - T∆S iólrKh Ndú;hg o isiqka fhduq lrkak'
57
ksmqK;dj 6'0 ( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K
y÷kd .ekSu i|yd tajd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'1 ( s f.dkqjg wh;a uQ,øjHj, ridhksl .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH ^yhsârcka yd ys,Shï yer& jd;h$O2" c,h" ;kql wï," N2
yd H2 iu`. isÿ lrk m%;sl%shd ixikaokh lrhs'
² jd;h$O2" c,h" ;kql wï, N2 yd H2 iu`." m<uq jk yd fo jk ldKavj,
uQ,øjH isÿ lrk m%;sl%shdj, iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'
² m<uq jk yd fo jk ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,øjH jd;h$O2" c,h" ;kql wï,"
N2 yd H2 iu`. isÿ lrk m%;ls h
s% d ;=,;
s ridhksl iólrK weiqßka m%ldY lrhs'
² ksfhdað; uQ,øjH f,i fidaähï yd ue.akSishï jd;h$O2" c,h yd wï, iu`.
olajk m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh lrhs'
² s f.dkqfõ f,day ixfhdackfha § ,sys,a j ne÷Kq bf,lafg%dak msg lrñka WÉp
jdhq úkHdih iys; ia:dhS legdhk idoñka Tlaisydrl f,i ls%hd lrk nj
meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² c,h iu`.
² m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day ish,a, u c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr H2 msg lrñka
yhsâfrdlaihsv njg m;a fõ'
ksoiqka( Na c,h iu`. fõ.fhka m%;sls%hd lrñka yhsârcka msg lrhs'
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

² l=vd K lene,a,la c,hg tl;= l< úg .sks .ksñka m%;sl%shd lrhs' Naj,g
jvd fõ.fhka K c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk neúka ldKavfha my<g h;a u
c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd Ys>%;dj jeä jk nj ks.ukh l< yels h'
² msßisÿ lrk ,o Mg lene,a,la ixY=oaO c,hg tl;= l< úg m%;sl%shd lrk
njla olakg fkd ,efí' Mg iys; c,h WKqiqï l< úg fiñka m%;sl%shd jk
nj olakg ,efí'
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
² Na j,g idfmalaI j Mg c,h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shdldÍ;ajh wvq neúka m<uq

jk ldKavfha f,dayj,g idfmalaI j fo jk ldKavfha f,day c,h iu`. wvq
m%;sl%shdldÍ;ajhla olajk nj lsj yels h' Be c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd fkd lrhs'
Ca, Sr iy Ba c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr H2 msg lrñka yhsâfrdlaihsv idohs'
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
² Be yd Mg yqud,h iu`. m%;sl%shd fldg f,day Tlaihsv idohs'

Be(s) + H2O(g) → BeO(s) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
58
² jd;h$O2 iu`.
² m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day jd;h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd lsysmhls'
ksoiqka (
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
2Na(s) + jeämqr O2(g) Na2O2(s)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(g) → 2NaOH(s) + H2(g)
K, Rb, Cs myiqfjka iqm¾ Tlaihsv idoñka m%;sl%shd lrhs'

K(s) + jeämqr O2(g) KO2(s)
² m<uq jk ldKavfha Li muKla jd;fha r;a l< úg khsÜrcka iu`. m%;sl%shd
lrhs'
6Li(s) + N2(g) 2Li3N(s)
² msßisÿ lrk ,o ue.akSishï má lene,a,la yd l=vdjg lmd .;a fidaähï
lene,a,la jd;hg újD; j ;nd ál fõ,djlska ksÍCIKh l< úg ue.aki S h
s ï
máhg jvd flá ld,hl oS fidaähï lene,af,a È,siSu wvq jk nj olakg
,efí' fï wkqj jd;h iu`. ue.akSishïj, m%;sl%shdldÍ;ajh fidaähï
j,g jvd wvq nj meyeÈ,s fõ'
² t neúka m<uq jk ldKavfha f,dayj,g idfmaCIj fo jk ldKavfha f,day
jd;h iu`. m%;sl%shdldÍ;ajh wvq h'
² fo jk ldKavfha f,day jd;fha r;a l< úg Tlaihsv iy khsÜrhsv idoñka
oykh fõ'
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Be m%;sl%shd lsÍu i|yd b;d by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a l< hq;= hs'
² wï, iu`.
² m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day wï, iu`. m%;sl%shd lrñka úYd, ;dm m%udKhla
uqod yßk neúka iafMdagkhla isÿ fõ' t neúka tu mÍlaIdj fkd l<
hq;= h'
² fo jk ldKavfha f,day ;kql wï, iu`. m%;sl%shd lr fõ.fhka H2 msg

lrhs'
² fo jk ldKavfha f,day idkaø wï, iu`. m%;sl%shd lrúh yels h'
59
• N2 iu`.
,s;shï iy fo jk ldKavfha uQ,øjH N2 jdhqj iu`. fyda N2 wvx.=
jd;h iu`. fyda m%;sls%hd lr f,day khsÜrhsv idohs'
• H2 iu`.
s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH H2 jdhqj iu`. m%;sls%hd lr f,day yhsârhsv idohs'
• s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH myiqfjka ish bf,lafg%dak bj;a lr legdhk idok

neúka tajd fyd| Tlaisydrl f,i i,lkq ,efí'
• ldKavh Tiafia my<g h;a u mrudKql wrh jeä jk ksid kHIaál
wdl¾IKh wvq fõ' uQ,øjHj, Tlaisydrl yelshdj jeä ùu tys m%;sM,hls'

² *sfkda,ama;,ska ìxÿjla tl;= lrk ,o c, îlrhlg l=vd fidaähï lene,a,la
tl;= lr ,efnk ksÍlaIK idlÉPd lrkak'
² *sfkda,ama;,ska ìxÿjla tl;= lrk ,o c,h wvx.= lelEreï k<hlg msßisÿ
lrk ,o Mg má lene,a,la oud ksÍlaIKh lrkak' miq j tu ødjKh r;a lr
ksÍlaIKh lrjkak'
60
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'2 ( s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a ixfhda.j, .=K yd tajdfha úp,k

rgd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² s f.dkqfõ ,jKj, c,fha ødjH;dj ixikaokh lrhs'
² s f.dkqfõ khsÜf¾gj," ldnfkagj, yd nhsldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj
ixikaokh lrhs'
² s yd p f.dkq j , fya , hs v " Tla i hs v " yhs â rhs v yd yhs â frdla i hs v j,
wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS iajNdjh wdj¾; Tiafia bosßhg yd ldKav Tiafia
my<g úp,kh jk wkaou m%ldY lrhs'
Cl- Br- I- OH- NO -2

Na+ ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH
K+ ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH
Be2+ ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH wødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH
Mg2+ ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH wødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH w,am ødjH
ødjH
Ca2+ ødjH ødjH ødjH w,am wødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH ødjH
ødjH
Sr2+ ødjH ødjH ødjH w,am wødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH wødjH
ødjH
Ba2+
ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH ødjH wødjH wødjH
² ldKavhla Tiafia my<g i,af*ag yd yhsfv%dlaihsvj, ødjH;dfõ úp,kh oe,si

tka;e,ams yd c,SlrK tka;e,ams w.h weiqßka meyeÈ,s l< yels h'
² ldKavh Tiafia my<g s f.dkqfõ ldnfkagj," nhsldnfkagj, yd khsÜf¾gj,
ødjH;dfõ úp,kh uQ,øjHj, úoHq;a iDK;d w.h yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, whksl
iajNdjh weiqßka meyeÈ,s l< yels h' wod< ;=,s; iólrK wjYH fõ'
61
² 3 jk wdj¾;fha uQ , øjH idok fya , hs v j, ^ks o iq k a - la f ,da r hs v &
wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl5 SCl2/S2Cl2

WodiSk b;d ÿn, wdï,sl wdï,sl wdï,sl wdï,sl
wdï,sl
² 3 jk wdj¾;fha uQ,øjH idok Tlaihsvj, wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
Na 2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P 2O 5 SO2/SO3 Cl2O7

m%n, Ndiañl WNh.=KS b;d ÿn, ÿn, wdï,sl b;d m%n,
Ndiañl wdï,sl wdï,sl wdï,sl
² 15 ldKavfha my<g Tlaihsvj, iajNdjh

N2O 3 - wdï,sl
P 2O 3 - ÿn, wdï,sl
As2O3 -
WNh.=Ks
Sb2O3 -
WNh.=Ks
Bi2O3 - Ndiañl
² 3 jk wdj¾;fha uQ,øjHj, yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Si(OH)4 P(OH)5 S(OH)6 Cl(OH)7
-H2O -H2O -2H2O -3H2O
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 H2SiO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO4

m%n, Ndiañl WNh.=KS b;d ÿn, ÿn, m%n, b;d m%n,
Ndiañl wdï,sl wdï,sl wdï,sl wdï,sl
² 3 jk wdj¾;fha yhsv%hsvj, wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl

m%n, ÿn, WNh.=KS b;d ÿn, b;d ÿn, ÿn, b;d m%n,
Ndiañl Ndiañl wdï,sl Ndiañl wdï,sl wdï,sl

² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok ,jKj, ødjH;d mÍlaId lsÍug isiq lKavdhïj,g
wjia:dj fokak'
² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok khsÜf¾g" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj, ;dm ia:dhS;dj
mÍlaId lsÍug fhduq lrkak'
² úoHq;a iDK;d fjki yd c, úÉfþok yelshdj weiqßka Tlaihsv" fya,hsv"
yhsv%hsv yd yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wdï,sl Ndiañl WNh.+Ks iajNdjh idlÉPd
lrkak'
62
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'3 ( p f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH yd ixfhda. úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 16 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we¨ñkshïj, m%;sls%hd yd AlCl3 j, bf,lafg%dak W!K iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'
² Tlaiscka" i,a*¾ yd ldnkaj, nyqrEmS wdldr ms<sn| f;dr;=re bosßm;a lrhs'
² ldnka" khsg%cka i,a*¾ yd laf,daÍka idok Tlafid wï,j, jHqy bosßm;a
lrhs'
² H2O2 , H2S iy SO2 Tlaisldrl yd Tlaisydrl f,i yeisfrk wjia:d i|yd
ksoiqka" ;=<s; ridhksl iólrK weiqfrka bosßm;a lrhs'
² wefudakshï ,jKj, ;dm úfhdackh meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² c,Sh udOHfha oS yhsârcka fya,hsvj, wdï,sl;dj" laf,darhsvj, c,
úÉfþokh" laf,daÍka yd laf,daf¾Ü(I) whkj, oaúOdlrKh yd ye,ckj,
idfmalaI Tlaisldrl m%n,;d WÑ; ksoiqka f.k yer olajñka úia;r lrhs'
² WÉp jdhqj, .=K i|yka lr tajd idok ixfhda. i|yd ksoiqka bosßm;a lrhs'
² ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'3 hgf;a fhdað; m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIK isÿ lr jd¾;d lrhs'

² we¨ñkshï
we¿ñkshï WNh.=Ks f,dayhls' th wï, yd m%n, Niau iu. m%;sls%hd lrhs'
fyda
fyda
AlCl3 bf,lafg%dak W!K ixfhda.hla jk w;r ks¾c, ;;a;ajfha § by<

iyixhqc iajNdjhla fmkakqï lrhs'
AlCl3 oaúwjhúlhla jYfhka mj;sk w;r ta wkqj bf,lafg%dak wIagl
imqrd .kshs'
Al2Cl6 oaúwjhjlh
63
• ldnka
ldnka wf,dayhls' ñksrka" Èhuka;s" C60(*q,Íka) jeks nyqrEmS wdldrj,ska
ldnka mj;S' nyqrEmS wdlrj, jHqy i|yd 2'4 mßYS,kh lrkak'
• ldnkaj, Tlaihsv
CO hkq wj¾K" WodiSk" úI iys; jdhqjls' CO ld¾ñl bkaOkhla jYfhka
Ndú; lrhs' CO ¨úia wï,hls'
CO j, ¨úia jHqyh
•• ••
O- O C-
••
C O+
••
C+
••
••
••
••
••
..
CO2 hkq wj¾K" wdï,sl jdhqjls' CO2 ks¾O%eùh wKqjls' >k CO2j,
^úhe<s whsia& wmlsrK n, mj;S' wdydr l¾udka;fha § wêYS;ldrlhla
f,i o" lD;%su jeis we;s lsÍu i|yd o" úhe<s whsia Ndú; fõ'
• ldfndksla wï,h (H2CO3)

ldfndksla wï,h ÿ¾j, oaúfm%daál wï,hls' ldfndksla wï,fhka
jHq;amkak jQ ,jK folls'
CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + HCO3- (aq) (K1 = 4.5 x10-7)

HCO3- (aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) (K2 = 4.7 x10-11)
• khsÜrka
Ν2 wj¾K jdhqjls' tys 1.09 0A l flá nkaOk È.lska hq;a ;s%;aj
nkaOkhla we;' thg 946 kJ mol-1 l by< nkaOk ú>gk Yla;shla we;s
w;r wl%sh jdhqjla fõ' øj N2 (;dmdxlh -196 0C) YS;ldrlhla f,i Ndú;
fõ' N2jdhqj wefudakh
s d ksIm
a dokfha § Ndú; fõ' ^15 .2 mßYS,kh lrkak).
khsÜrcka úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d fmkajhs'

-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
kso(- NH3 N2H4 NH2OH N2 N2O NO N2O3 N2O4 N2O5
• khsg%ckaj, Tlafid wï,

;kql ødjKj, § yer khsÜßla(III) wï,h (HNO2 ) wia:dhS fõ' f,day
khsÜrhsg iu`. wï, m%;sls%hd lsÍfï § HNO2 wï,h iEfoa'
64
khsÜrla(V) wï,h (ΗΝΟ3) ;dmdxlh 86 0C jk wj¾K øjhls' ΗΝΟ3 ia:dhS
m%n, wï,hla fuka u m%n, Tlaisldrlhla o fõ' idkaø ΗΝΟ3 wï,h
idudkHfhka ly meye;s h' wdf,dalh we;s úg th khsÜrcka vfhdlaihsâ
iy Tlaiscka njg úfhdackh fõ'
khsÜßla(V) wï,h ksmoùu 15. 2 hgf;a idlÉPd flf¾'
• wefudakshd iy wefudakshï ,jK

ΝΗ3 wj¾K" úI iys;" lgql .kaOhlska hq;a Ndiañl jdhqjls' th myiqfjka
c,fha Èhe fjk w;r Ndiañl ødjKhla idohs' ΝΗ3 ksIamdokh 15.2 hgf;a
idlÉPd flf¾'
• wefudakshdj, m%;sls%hd
ΝΗ3 Tlaisldrlhla fuka u wï,hla f,i o ls%hd lrhs'
ΝΗ3 ÿn, Tlaisydrlhla f,i o ls%hd lrhs'
ΝΗ3 Niauhla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
• wefudakshï ,jK
wefudakshï ,jK r;a lsÍfï § b;d myiqfjka úfhdackh fõ'
65
• Tlaiscka
.kaOhla rys; wj¾K jdhqjls' nyqrEms wdldr follska mj;S'
• Tlaisckaj, nyqrEmS wdldr

²² ²²
+O
²²
²² O+
²O² O ²² ²² ²²
²²
²²
²O O ²O O
²²
²²
² ²² ² ²²
Tlaiscka O2 ´fidaka O3
² i,a*¾
² i,a*¾ wdf,dayhla jk w;r úúO TlaislrK wjia:d fmkakqï lrhs'
+ VI - SO3, H2SO4
+ IV - SO2, H2SO3
+ II - SCl2
0 - S8
−ΙΙ - H2S
• i,a*¾j, m%;sls%hd
² i,a*¾j, nyqrEmS wdldr

² i,a*¾j, nyqrEmS wdldr iaMálrEmS iy wiaMálrEmS hkqfjka m%Odk wdldr
folls' ish¨ u iaMálrEmS i,a*¾ S8 wKqj,ska iukaú; fõ'
S8 wKqj
66
² iaMálrEmS i,a*¾
frdïniSh i,a*¾ taldk;s i,a*¾

úksúo fmfkk ly meye;s iaMál fõ' ÿUqre meye;s boslgq jeks iaMál fõ'
Tm = 113 0C Tm = 119 0C
² wiaMálrEmS i,a*¾
iqúld¾h i,a*¾ yd l,s, i,a*¾ fï i|yd ksoiqka h'
² i,a*¾j, Tlafid wï,
O O
² ²
S S S
HO O HO O S OH
OH OH OH
H2SO4 H2SO3 H2S 2O 3
H2SO4 j, .=K
• ;kql wï,h wdï,sl .=K fmkajhs'
Wod -
• idkaø wï,h Tlaisldrl .=K fmkajhs'
Wod -
• idkaø wï,h úc,ldrl .=K o fmkajhs'
Wod -
² yhsârcka fmfrdlaihsâ (H2O2)

H2O2 hkq wka;¾ wKql yhsârcka nkaOk iys; øiai%dù øjhls' H2O2j,
øjdxlh yd ;dmdxlh ms<sfj<ska 0.43 0C yd 150 0C fõ'
67
O
1.48 0A
H 97 0
O
H
94 0
øj yhsârcka fmfrdlaihsâj, jHqyh
² H2O2 Tlaisydrhla f,i
² H2O2 Tlaisldrhla f,i
² c,h - H2O
²²
²²
O
H 105 0 H
c,h WNhfm%daál fõ' tu ksid thg wï,hla f,i fuka u Niauhla f,i o
ls%hd l< yels h'
² i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ ^SO2 &

wj¾K jdhqjls' jd;hg jvd >k;ajhlska hqla; jk w;r lgql .kaOhla we;'
c,fha fyd|ska osh fõ'
² SO2 c,fha osh ù i,amshqßlaÎV& wï,h idohs' th ÿn, wï,hls'

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
² SO2 Tlaisldrlhla f,i

2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)
3Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + MgS(s)
68
² SO2 Tlaisydrlhla f,i
SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4H+(aq) + (aq) +2e
(i) H+/KMnO4iu`.
5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2KMnO4 (aq)→ K2SO4(aq)+2MnSO4(aq)+2H2SO4(aq)
(ii) H+/K2Cr2O7iu`.
K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 3SO2(g) → K2SO4(aq) + Cr2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) FeCl3 (aq) iu`.

FeCl3(aq) + SO2(g)+ 2H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) + FeCl2(aq) +2HCl(aq)
(iv) ye,ck iu`.

SO2(g)+Cl2(g)+2H2O(l)→H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
(v) H2O2iu`.
H2O2(aq) + SO2 (g)→H2SO4(aq)
² úrxck ldrlhla f,i

SO2(g) +H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) -------------------(1)
H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2H ----------(2)
2H 2H+ + 2e ---------------------------------(3)
(1) + (2) + (3);
SO2(g) +2H2O(l) →H2SO4(aq)+2H+(aq) + 2e
X + nH+ + ne → XHn
j¾Kj;a wj¾K
idhu ixfhda.h
² i,a*¾ g%fhdlaihsâ (SO3)

SO3 m%n, wdï,sl Tlaihsvhls' t ksid f;;a jd;h iu`. ÿudrhla we;s lrk
w;r c,h iu`. msmsreula iys; m%;sls%hd lr i,a*shqßla wï,h idohs' i,a*shqßla
wï, ksIamdokh 15'2 mßYS,kh lrkak'
;dmodhl m%;s%lshdjls'
² yhsârcka i,a*hsâ (H2S)

wj¾K jdhqjla jk w;r" c,fha u| jYfhka osh fõ' l=Kq ì;a;r .kaOhla
we;' H2S c,Sh ødjKh ;rula wdï,sl fõ'
H2S(aq) H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
HS-(aq) H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
² wdï,sl iajNdjh i|yd idlaIs

(i) fidaähï iu`. m%;sl%shdj
jeämqr 2H2S(g) + 2Na(s) → 2NaHS(s) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + H2S(g) → Na2S(s) + H2(g)
69
(ii) fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ iu`. m%;sl%shdj
jeämqr 2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g)→Na2S(s) + 2H2O(l)
jeämqr H2S(g) + NaOH(aq)→NaHS(s) + H2O(l)
² Cu2+, Hg2+, Sn2+, Sb3+, Cd2+, Bi2+, Pb2+ jeks f,day whk fndfyduhla iu`.
H2S m%;sl%shd lr i,a*hsv ,nd fohs' fuh f,day whk y÷kd .ekSfï mÍlaIdjla
f,i fhdod .efka'
Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) → PbS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g) → CuS(s) + 2H+(aq)
² H2S Tlaisydrlhla f,i

(i) 2KMnO4(aq)+3H2SO4(aq)+5H2S(g)→K2SO4(aq)+5S(s)+2MnSO4(aq)+8H2O(l)
(ii) K2Cr2O7(aq)+4H2SO4(aq)+3H2S(g)→K2SO4(aq)+Cr2(SO4)3(aq)+3S(s)+7H2O(l)
(iii) 2 (aq) + 12H+(aq) + 2H2S(g)→2S(s) + 2As3+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
óg wu;r j c,Sh S2- whk iu`. As3+ m%;sl%shd lr ly meye;s wjlafIamhla
idohs'
2As3+(aq) + 3S2-(aq) → As2S3(s)
² H2S Tlaisldrlhla f,i

Cu(s)+H2S(g) CuS(s)+H2(g)
² SO2 yd H2S jdhq fjka lr y÷kd .ekSu

^1& c,Sh H+/K2Cr2O7 ;=<ska fuu jdhq nqnq,kh l< úg ;eô,s mdg ødjKh
fld< meyehg yefrk kuq;a l,s, S we;s ùu ksid H2S nqnq,kh l<
ødjKh wmeyeos,s fõ'
^2& c,Sh Pb(CH3COO)2j,ska fm`.jQ fmryka lvodishla jdhqjg we,aÆ úg
H2S jdhqj u`.ska fmryka lvodish u; l`M mdgla we;s flf¾'
^3& c,Sh H+/KMnO4 ;=<ska fuu jdhq fjka fjka j nqnq,kh l< úg oïmdg
wj¾K jk w;r H2S nqnq,kh l< ødjKh l,s, S we;s ùfuka wmeyeos,s
fõ'
^4& SO2 j,ska u,afm;s úrxckh isÿ jk w;r H2S j,ska t fia fkd fõ'
² ye,ck
F2 - ,d ly mdg úI jdhqjls'
Cl2 - ,d fld, mdgg yqre ly mdg úI jdhqjls'
Br2 - r;= ÿUqre øjhls'
I2 - os,sfik l`M mdg >khls' W!¾èjmd;kh ù oï meye;s jdIamhla idohs'
At - úlsrKYS,S uQ,øjHhls'
70
² laf,daÍkaj, m%;sls%hd
(i) Tlaisldrl .=K
ldKav Tiafia my<g ye,ckj, Tlaisldrl yelshdj wvq fõ'
(ii) úrxck .=Kh
(iii) oaúOdlrK .=Kh

ldur WIaK;ajh fyda Bg my< WIaK;ajhl mj;sk NaOH ødjKhl
laf,daÍka jdhqj Èh lsÍfuka by< ixY=oaO;djlska hq;a NaOCl yd NaCl
ødjKhla ,efí'
WKq NaOH iu`.
fl fia fj;;a WKq ødjKhl § (80 0C) NaOCl iS>%fhka oaúOdlrKhg ,la
ù NaClO3 by< m,odjla ,nd foa'
² laf,daÍkaj, Tlafid wï,

O Cl Cl
H Cl HO O HO O O
HOCl HClO2 HClO3
O
HOCl< HClO2<HClO3<HClO4
Cl
TlaislrK wxlh yd wdï,sl;dj
HO O O
jeä fõ' tu ksid Tlaisldrl
HClO4 yelshdj o jeä fõ'
71
yhsârcka fya,hsv ^HX&&
iïu; W;amdok iïu; nkaOk ú>gk
tka;e,amh
s tka;e,amh
s
/kJ mol-1 /kJ mol-1
HF -273 562 nkaOk os. jeä fõ'
HCl -92 431 nkaOkh ÿ¾j, fõ'
HBr -36 366 ia:dhS;dj wvq fõ'
HI 27 299 wdï,sl .=Kh jeä fõ'
² c,Sh ødjKhl § yhsârcka fya,hsvj, wdï,sl;dj
úhe<s ;;a;aj hgf;a jdhquh yhsârcka fya,hsv u`.ska whk yg fkd .kS'
fl fia fj;;a c,Sh ødjKj, § tajd wdï,sl fõ'
yhsârcka *a¨fjdarhsâ ys m%n, HF nkaOkh fya;=fjka c,Sh yhsârcka

*a¨fjdarhsâ ÿn, wï,hla fõ' wfkla yhsârcka fya,hsâ ish,a, m%n, wï,
fõ'
² 14 yd 15 ldKavj, laf,darhsvj, c,úÉfþokh

CCl4 c, úÉfþokh fkd fõ'
² WÉp jdhq iy tajdfha ixfhda.

He
ksIal%sh hs' Ne ldur WIaK;ajfha oS wj¾K jdhq fõ'
Ar ;ks mrudKq f,i mj;S'
Tlaiscka iy Kr
*a¨fjdÍka wvx.= Xe
ixfhda. idohs' Rn - úlsrKYS,S fõ'
72
;dmdxl b;d my< w.hla .kS' mrudKql l%udxlh jeä j;a u ;dmdxlh by< hhs'
úYd, mrudKqj, O%ejKYS,;dj olakg ,efí' *a¨fjdÍka iy Tlaiscka iu`.
fifkdka ixfhda. idohs'
Wod - XeF2, XeF4, XeF6, XeO3
ixfhda. iE§fï yelshdj fya;=fjka WÉp jdhq i|yd o úoHq;a iDK;d w.h ,nd
§ we;'
² i,a*¾ idok Tlafid wï,j, jHqy we| kï lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² yhs â rcka fmfrdla i hs â " i,a * ¾ vfhdla i hs â yd yhs â rcka i,a * hs â
Tlaisydrlhla iy Tlaisldrlhla f,i l%shd lrk m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrK
imhkak'
² khsÜßla" i,a*shqßla wï,j, Tlaisldrl yelshdj fmkaùug ;=,s; iólrK
,shkak'
² Tlaihsv wdldr y;r i|yd ksoiqka imhkak'
73
ksmqK;dj 6'0 ( s, p yd d f.dkqj, uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K y÷kd
.ekSu i|yd tajd úu¾Ykh lr n,hs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'4 ( d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, .=K yd wdj¾;hla Tiafia tajdfha

úp,kh úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² isõ jk wdj¾;fha msysá d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH fmkajk úp,H TlaislrK
wjia:d i|yka lrñka úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d mej;Sfï .=Kh s yd p
f.dkqj, uQ,øjH iu`. ii|hs'
² isõ jk wdj¾;hg wh;a d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, úoHq;a RK;dj" m%:u whkSlrK
Yla;sh yd whksl wrh wdj¾; Tiafia bÈßhg úp,kh jk rgdj s yd p
f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjH iu`. ii|hs'
² WÑ; WodyrK bÈßm;a lrñka d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH yd ixfhda.j, W;afm%arl
f,i lghq;= lsÍfï yelshdj yd j¾Kj;a ixfhda. iE§fï .=Kh úia;r lrhs'

m<uq jk whkS l rK Yla ; s h
mrudKq l l% u dxlh
H isg Cs olajd uQ,øjHj, m<uq jk whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;drh
74
Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,øjHj, f,dayl wrh" úoHq;a RK;dj yd whkSlrK Yla;sj, úp,kh
w.h .kS' t neúka ish¨ uQ,øjH ner f,day jYfhka i,lkq ,efí' f,dayl ^mrudKql& wrh/nm
fok ,o o;a; wkqj d uQ,øjHj, >k;ajh s uQ,øjHj,g idfmalaI j by<
úoHq;a RK;dj^f.da,Sh mßudk h&
m<uq jk whkSlrK Yla;sh / kJ mol-1
fo jk whkSlrK Yla;sh / kJ mol-1
;=ka jk whkSlrK Yla;sh/ kJ mol-1
75
s- f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH wdka;ßl uQ,øjH
uQ,øjHh
mrudKql wrh/nm
øjdxlh/0C
;dmdxlh/0C
>k;ajh/g cm-3
whksl wrh/nm
K isg Zn olajd uQ,øjHj, fN!;sl .=K

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
iq,n Sc2O3 Ti2O3 V2O3 Cr2O3 MnO FeO CoO NiO Cu2O ZnO
Tlaihsv TiO2 V2O5 CrO3 MnO2 Fe2O3 Co2O3 CuO
Mn2O7
iq,n ScCl3 TiCl3 VCl3 CrCl2 MnCl2 FeCl2 CoCl2 NiCl2 CuCl ZnCl2
laf,darhsv TiCl4 CrCl3 MnCl3 Fe2Cl6 CuCl2
(I) I
ixfhda.j, II II II II II II II II II
oS III III III III III III III III III
fmkakqï IV IV IV IV IV IV IV
lrk V V V V V
TlaislrK VI VI VI
wxl VII
Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,øjHj, TlaislrK wxl îq,n TlaislrK wxl ;o l`M

wl=ßka olajd we;'&
d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH yd tajdfha ixfhda. l¾udka;j, oS W;afm%arl f,i fhdod

.kakd wjia:d
d f.dkqfõ W;afm%arl f,i W;afm%arKh flfrk m%;sl%shdj

uQ,øjHh fhdok øjH
H H
Ti TiCl3/Al2(C2H5)6 nC2H4 →
) )
H H
C C
n
taf;aka nyq wjhùlrKh
V V2O5 fyda jefkafâÜ (VO3-) 2SO2 + O2⇌ 2SO3
iam¾Y l%uh
Fe Fe fyda Fe2O3 N2+ 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

fyan¾ l%uh
Ni Ni RCH = CH2+H2→RCH2CH3
udcÍka ksIamdokh
Cu CuCl iEkaâ fïh¾ m%;sls%hdj ^11'3 n,kak&
Pt Pt 4NH3 + 5O2→ NO + 6H2O

NO → NO2→ HNO3
wefudakshdj,ska khsá%la wï,h
ksmoùu ^15'2 n,kak&
76
² j¾Kj;a ixfhda. ksmoùu
d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj,ska ksmofjk wdka;ßl whk i;=j w¾O jYfhka msreKq d
ldlaIsl mj;S' fuu whk u`.ska iqÿ wdf,dalhg wh;a f;dard .;a ;rx. wdhdu
wjfYdaIKh lr W;af;að; wjia:djg m;a ù wkqmQrl j¾K fmkajhs'
Sc3+ - wj¾K Co2+ - frdai

Ti4+ - wj¾K Ni2+ - fld<
Ti3+ - oï (Purple) Cu2+ - ks,a
V3+ - fld< Cu+ - wj¾K
V2+ - oï (Violet) Zn2+ - wj¾K
Cr3+ - oï (Purple)
Mn3+ - oï (Violet)
Mn2+ - ,d frdai
Fe3+ - ÿUqre ly
Fe2+ - ,d fld<
iuyr Tlafid whkj, j¾K

- oï (Purple/Violet)
- fld<
- ly
- ;eô,s
² d f.dkqfõ j¾Kj;a ixfhda. lsysmhla yd tajdfha c,Sh ødjK lsysmhla mka;shg

m%o¾Ykh lrkak'
² úúO j¾Kj,ska hq;a ixfhda. iE§u yd tu ixfhda.j, § f,dayj,g úúO TlaislrK
wjia:d meje;Su wjOdrKh lrkak'
² wod< m%ia;dßl yd j.= .; l< f;dr;=re isiq lKavdhïj,g § mjrk ,o ,CIKhla
Sc isg Zn olajd úp,kh jk wkaou .fõIKhg fhduq lrkak'
² mjrk ,o ,CIKh;a" s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjHj, tu ,CIKh;a" ieie£ug
isiq lKavdhï fufyhjkak'
77
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'5 ( d f.dkqfõ ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² jefkaähï" fl%dañhï yd ueka.kSiaj, Tlaihsvj, wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh.=KS
iajNdjh m%ldY lrhs'
² fl%dañhï yd ueka.kSiaj, Tlafid wekdhk Tlaisldrl f,i l%shd lrk
m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka bosßm;a lrhs'

uex.kSiaj, Tlaihsv
Tlaihsvh TlaislrK wxlh Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
MnO +II Ndiañl
Mn2O3 +III ÿn, Ndiañl
MnO2 +IV WNh.=KS
MnO3 +VI ÿn, wdï,sl
Mn2O7 +VII wdï,sl
fl%dañhïj, Tlaihsv
Tlaihsvh TlaislrK wxlh Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
CrO +II ÿn, Ndiañl
Cr2O3 +III WNh.=KS
CrO2 +IV ÿn, wdï,sl
CrO3 +VI wdï,sl
jefkaähïj, Tlaihsv
iQ;%h TlaislrK wxlh wdï,sl-Ndiañl
iajNdjh
VO +II Ndiañl
V 2O3 +III Ndiañl
VO2 +1V WNh.=KS
V 2O5 +V wdï,sl
² by; lS Tlaihsv j¾. wï,j, § yd Niauj, § fmkajk ødjH;dj weiqßka

wdï,sl" Ndiañl fyda WNh.=KS f,i j¾. l< yels h'
78
² wdï,sl udOHfha § MnO4- Tlaisldrlhla f,i SO2, H2S, Fe3+, I- yd Br- iu`.
m%;sl%shdj
Wod - SO2 iu`.
MnO4-(aq) + 5e + 8H+ (aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(+VII) (+II)

SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → SO42- (aq) + 2e + 4H+(aq)
(+IV) (+VI)
;=,s; whksl m%;sls%hdj

2MnO4-(aq) + 5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 5SO42-(aq) +4H+ (aq)
(+VII) (+IV) (+11) (+VI)
² Ndiañl udOHfha § MnO4- Tlaisldrlhla f,i SO2 iu`. m%;sl%shdj

MnO4-(aq) + 3e + 2H2O(l) → MnO2 + 4(OH)- (aq)
(+VII) (+IV)
SO2(g) + 4(OH)-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e
(+IV) (+VI)
;=,s; whksl iólrKh
2MnO4-(aq) + 3SO2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 2MnO2 + 3 SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(+IV) (+IV) (+IV) (+VI)
wdï,sl udOHfha § Cr2O72- Tlaisldrlhla f,i ls%hd lsÍu'

CrO42-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 4H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2e
Cr2O72-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 3SO2(g) → 2Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l) + 3SO42-(aq)

² fmkakqï lrk úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d wkqj V, Cr yd Mn i|yd meje;sh
yels Tlaihsvj, iQ;% úuikak'
² úúO Tlaisydrl j¾. iu`. (SO2, H2S jeks) CrO42-, Cr2O72-, MnO4- wdï,sl yd
Ndiañl udOHj, § olajk m%;sl%shd i|yd fjk fjk u w¾O whksl m%;sl%shd
Ndú; lr whksl iólrK f.dvke`.Sug wjia:dj i,ikak'
79
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'6 ( d f.dkqfõ ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10
bf.kqï M, (
² Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni yd Cu hk uQ,øjH H2O, NH3 yd Cl- hk ,s.k ^nkaO& iu`.
idok ixlS¾Kj, iQ;% yd j¾K m%ldY lrhs'
² uOH mrudKqj" Tlail s rK wxlh yd ,s.k moaO;sh ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, j¾Kh
flfrys n,mdk wkaou WÑ; ksoiqka weiqßka f.k yer olajhs'
² Copper(II) yd Cobalt(II) ,jK yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï,h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd
ksÍCIKh lr jd¾;d lrhs'
² uex.kSij
a , +II, +IV, +VI iy +VII Tlail
s rK wjia:dj,g wod< j¾K ksÍCIKh
lr jd¾;d lrhs'

² Cr, Mn, Fe, Co yd Cu hk uQ,øjH H2O, NH3 yd Cl- hk ,s.k iu`. idok
ixlS¾K
,s.k uOH f,day whkh

moaO;sh Cr3+ Mn2+ Fe3+ Co2+ Cu2+ Ni2-
H2O [Cr(H2O)6]3+ [Mn(H2O)6]2+ [Fe(H2O)6]3+ [Co(H2O)6]2+ [Cu(H2O)6]2+ [NiH2O6]2+
ks,a-oï ,d frdai ly ÿUqre frdai ,d ks,a fld<
ixlS¾K whk ixlS¾K whk
NH3 [Cr(NH3)6] 3+
fkd idohs'
[Co(NH3)6] 2+
[Cu(NH3)4] [Ni(NH3)6]2+
2+
fkd idohs'
ly ta fjkqjg ta fjkqjg
^øj NH3j, § yhsâfrdlaihsv yhsâfrdlaihsv
idohs'& idohs idohs ly ÿUqre ks,a ks,a
Cl- [CrCl4]- [MnCl4]2- [FeCl4]- [CoCl4]2- [CuCl4]2- [NiCl4]2-
ks,a-oï fld< meye;s ly ks,a ly ly
ly
-
² d f.dkqfõ legdhk lsysmhla yd OH ,s.khla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
ksoiqka' ic, Fe3+ whk c,úÉfþokfhka we;s jk [Fe(H2O)5OH]2+
fl fia fj;;a fndfyduhla f,day whk yhsâfrdlafid ixlSrK
fkd j NaOH fyda NH3 iu`. c,fha wødjH yhsâfrdlaihsv idohs'
ksoiqka ( Cr(OH)3 - fld<" Fe(OH)3 - r;= ÿUqre" - Fe(OH)2 - w÷re fld<

Cu(OH)2 - ks,a" Mn(OH)2 - ly meye;s iqÿ
² uOH f,day mrudKqj wkqj ixlS¾Kfha j¾Kh fjkia fõ'

ksoiqka' [Cr(H2O)6]3+ - ks,a oï" [Fe(H2O)6]3+ - ly ÿUqre
80
² uOH f,day mrudKqfõ TlaislrK wjia:dj wkqj ixlS¾Kfha j¾Kh fjkia
fõ'
ksoiqka' [Fe(H2O)6]2+ - ,d fld< [Fe(H2O)6]3+ - ly - ÿUqre
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ - ,d frdai [Mn(H2O)6]3+ - oï
² ,s.kh fjkia ùu wkqj o j¾Kh fjkia fõ'

ksoiqka ( [Co(H2O)6]2+ frdai meyeh" [Co(NH3)6]2+ - ly ÿUqre meyeh
² yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï,h iu`. Cu2+(aq) olajk m%;sl%shdj

Cu2+(aq) + 4HCl(aq) → [Cu(Cl)4]2-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
ks,a ly
² yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï,h iu`. Co2+(aq) olajk m%;sl%shdj
Co2+(aq) + 4HCl(aq) → [Co(Cl)4]2-(aq) + 4H+(aq)

frdai ks,a
² Cr j, Tlafid wekdhk iy tajdfha mßj¾;k
ly ;eô,s
;eô,s ly
² NH3 ,s.khla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
,d ks,a ;o ks,a
frdai ly ÿUqre
fld< ks,a

² uOH mrudKqj" TlaislrK wjia:dj iy ,s.k moaO;sh wkqj j¾K fjkiA
ùïj,g ksoiqka jk ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, ksheÈ isiqkag m%o¾Ykh lrkak'
² fok ,o m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlïj, lKavdhï jYfhka ksr; ùug isiqkg
wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
² uex.kSiaj, úúO TlaislrK wjia:dj, § fmkakqï lrk j¾K ksÍlaIKh
lsÍug wjia:dj i,ikak'
81
ksmqK;dj 6'0 ( s, p yd d f.dkqj, uQ, øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K y÷kd
.ekSug tajd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'7 ( ir, wldnksl ixfhda. yd d f.dkqfõ ixlS¾K ixfhda.

kdulrKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04
bf.kqï M, (
² ir, wldnksl ixfhda. kï lrhs'
² IUPAC kdulrKfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'
² ir, legdhk yd ixlS¾K wekdhk iys; ixfhda. iy ixlS¾K legdhk yd
ir, wekdhk iys; ixlS¾K ixfhda. IUPAC l%uhg kï lrhs'
² ixfhda.fha IUPAC ku § we;s úg tajdfha jHqy bÈßm;a lrhs'

ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, IUPAC kdulrKh
² fuys § ixlS¾K ixfhda.hl IUPAC ku f.dvke`.Sug fuka u IUPAC ku § we;s
úg ixfhda.fha jHqy iQ;%h ,sùu wfmalaId flf¾' d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok
ixlS¾K ixfhda. muKla i,ld ne,Su m%udKj;a h'
ixlS¾K ixfhda. ir, j fldgia folla hgf;a i,ld n,kq ,efí'
(i) legdhk ir, jk w;r wekdhk ixlS¾K jk ixfhda.'
(ii) legdhk ixlS¾Kjk w;r wekdhk ir, jk ixfhda.'
l=uk ixlS¾K ixfhda. wdldrh ie,l=j o kdulrKh Wfoid fmdÿ kS;s

ud,djla mshjfrka mshjr wkq.ukh l< hq;= fõ'
ixlS¾K ixfhda.hl kduh ,sùu

^1& ir, wldnksl ixfhda.hl § fuka u fuys § o" legdhkh m<uq j;a"
wekdhkh Bg miq j;a" kï lrkq ,efí' legdhkfha ku yd wekdhkfha
ku w;r ysoeila ;eìh hq;= h'
^2& ixfhda.fha wvx.= ixlS¾K whk fldgi y÷kd .ekSu jeo.;a u mshjr
fõ' uq,ska i|yka l< mßÈ fuh Ok wdfrdams; fyda RK wdfrdams; fyda
úh yels h'
^3& ,s.k o" RK wdfrdams; fyda l,d;=frlska Ok wdfrdams; fyda WodiSk
fyda úh yels h' ,s.kfha wdfrdamKh wkqj Ndú; kduh fjkia fõ'
(i) WodiSk ,s.k^nkaO& kduh ,shk úg tu mohg úfYaIs; wjika

m%;Hhla fkd fhfoa'
(ii) WodiSk ,s.k i|yd úfYaIs; kï we;'
ksoiqka :-
H2O - aqua
NH3 - ammine
CO - carbonyl
NO - nitrosyl
82
(iii) RK wdfrdams; nkaOj, bx.%Sis kdu zoZ m%;Hfhka wjika fõ'
ksoiqka :-
Cl- - chlorido
-
CN - cyanido
NO 2 - -
nitrito
OH- - hydroxido
SCN - -
thiocyanato
H- - hydrido
2-
O - oxido
(iv) Ok wdfrdams; nkaO ldKavj, bx.%Sis kfuys w.g ziumZ

hk m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,efí'
ksoiqka :-
+
NH3-NH2 - hydrazinium
(4) uOH f,day mrudKqj jgd we;s nkaO ie,elSfï § tl u j¾.hlg

wh;a nkaO tllg jvd jeä .Kkla we;s wjia:dj, tu nkaO ixLHdj
fmkakqï lsÍu i|yd nkaOfha kug fmr" nkaO ixLHdjg wod< kduh
fmr wE÷ula (prefix) f,i fhdokq ,efí'
tlu j¾.fha ldKav 2" 3" 4" 5 iy 6 la we;s úg ms<sfj<ska vhs (di)"
g%hs (tri)" fgÜrd (tetra)" fmkagd (penta) iy fylaid (hexa) hk fmr wE÷ï
Ndú; lrkq ,efí'
ie'hq (- ldnksl ,s.k i,ld ne,Su wjYH ke;'
(5) ixlS¾K whkhg nkaO j¾. lsysmhla iïnkaO ù we;s wjia:dj,

tajdfha kdu bx.%Sis fydaäfha wldrd§ ms<sfj< (alphabetical order) wkqj
i|yka l< hq;= h'
igyk (- ,s.k kduj, bx.S%is fydaäfha wldrd§ ms<sfj< ie,elSfï §
,s.k .Kk oelaùug fhdok fmr wE÷ï mofha wCIr ie,els,a,g fkd
.efka'
,s.k kdu w;r ysia ;eka ;nkq fkd ,efí'
ksoiqka :- [Fe(CN)2 (NH3)4]+
by; ixfhd.fha ,s.k kduh tetraamminedicyanido f,i oelafõ'
(6) ixlS¾K whkh kï lsÍfï § m<uq j nkaO ldKav o" fo jkq j f,dayh
o" kï lrkq ,efí' f,day mrudKqfõ TlaislrK wxlh f,day kduh
wjidkfha frdau lemsg,a wxl fhdod ir, jryka ;=< olajkq ,efí' t
fia u ku ,sùfï § tu jpk w;r bv fkd ;eîug j. n,d .; hq;= h'
ksoiqka :-
[Co(NH3)6]3+ - hexaamminecobalt(III) ion
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ - hexaaquairon(II) ion
[Cu(NH3)4] -
2+
tetraamminecopper(II) ion
(7) ixlS¾Kh Ok f,i wdfrdams; fyda RK f,i wdfrdams; fyda WodiSk

fyda úh yels h' ta wkqj fhfok kduh o fjkia fõ'
(i) ixlS¾K fldgi Ok f,i wdfrdams; fyda WodiSk fyda jk
wjia:dj, § tys wvx.= f,dayfha kdufhka ku wjika flf¾'
83
fuys § o f,dayfha TlaislrK wxlh ir, jrykla ;=< lemsg,a
frdau b,lalñka oelaùu w;HjYH h' ,s.k kdu w;r;a" jryka
;=< i|yka TlaislrK wxlh w;r;a ysia ;eka fkd ;eìh hq;= h'
ksoiqka :-
[Fe(CN)3 (NH3)4]
fuh WodiSk h' t úg fuys kduh my; mßÈ fõ'
triamminetricyanidoiron(III)
[Cu(H2O)6 ]2+
fuh Ok wdfrdams; h' fuys ku jkqfha hexaaquacopper(II) ion
(ii) ixlS¾K whk fldgi RK wdfrdamKhla .kakd wjia:dj, § tys

wvx.= f,dayfha ku w.g 'ate' hk m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,efí' fuys
§ o f,dayfha TlaislrK wxlh ir, jrykla ;=< lemsg,a frdau
b,lalñka oelaúh hq;= h' ,s.k kdu w;r;a" jryka ;=< i|yka
TlaislrK wxlh w;r;a" ysia ;eka fkd ;eìh hq;= h'
ksoiqka :-
[CoCl4]2- tetrachloridocobaltate(II) ion
[Co(CN)6]3- hexacyanidocobaltate(III) ion
[CuCl4]2- tetrachloridocuprate(II) ion
[Fe(CN)6]4- hexacayanidoferrate(II) ion
[Fe(CN)6]3- hexacayanidoferrate(III) ion
[Ag(CN)2]- dicyanidoargentate(I) ion
[Cr(Br)6]3- hexabromidochromate(III) ion
fu f;la bf.k .;a kS;s l%udkql+, j ms<sme§fuka ixfhda.hl

IUPAC kduh f.dvk`.d .; yels h'
(8) ix.; ixfhda.hl kduh ,sùfï § Ok wdfrdams; fldgi iy RK

wdfrdams; fldgi w;r bvla ;eìh hq;= h'
ksoiqka :-
• ir, legdhk yd ixlS¾K wekdhk
K3[Fe(CN)5 NO] potassium pentacyanidonitrosylferrate(II)
Na2[ZnCl4] sodium tetrachloridozincate(II)
• ixlS¾K legdhk yd ir, wekdhk
[Ag(NH3)2]Cl2 diamminesilver(I) chloride
[Fe(OH)2(H2O)4]Br tetraaquadihydoxidoiron(III) bromide
[CoCl(NH3)5](NO3)2 pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) nitrate
[CoCl(NH3)5](NO2)2 pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) nitrite
ixlS¾K ixfhda.hl kduh § we;s úfgl § tys jHqy iQ;%h f.dvk`.d .kakd
wdldrh
1' Ok wdfrdams; úfYaIh m<uqj o" RK wdfrdams; úfYaIh Bg miq j o"
oelaúh hq;= h' tu úfYaI fol w;r ysoeila fkd ;eìh hq;= h'
2' iEu úg u ixfhda.fha we;s ixlS¾K whk fldgi fldgq jrykla ;=<
,súh hq;= h'
84
3' ixlS¾K whk fldgfiys jHqy iQ;%h ,sùfï § m<uq j f,dayh o" Bg
miq ,s.k o ,shd oelaúh hq;= h' ,s.k ,sùfï § tajdfha wdfrdamK fkd
ie,efla' tla tla ,s.kfha odhl nkaOkhg yjq,a jk mrudKqfõ kdufhys
uq,a wl=r bx.S%is fydaäfha wldrd§ ms<sfj< wkqj ,s.k olajkq ,efí'
igyk ( nyq mrudKql ,s.k oelaùfï § nkaOkh jk mrudKqj

uq,ska o" wfkla mrudKq miq j o" oelaùu ks¾foaY flf¾'
ksoiqk - c,h H2O f,i fkd j OH2 f,i oelaùu ñka woyia flf¾'
ksoiqk 1 (- Pentacyanidonitridosylferrate(II) ion ys ridhksl iQ;%h ,shkak'
1 mshjr( - fuh RK wdfrdam;s ixlS¾K wekdhkhls' m<uq j f,dayfha

ixfla;h Fe ,shkq ,efí'
2 mshjr( - ,s.k wkqms<sfj< ;SrKh lrkak' tajdfha ixfla;$iQ;%

,sùfï § tla tla j¾.fha ,s.k ixLHdj olajkak' wk;=re
j f,dayfha ixfla;hg miq ,s.kj, ixfla;$iQ;% ,shkak'
,s.k f,i CN- ôdhl nkaOkhg iïnkaO mrudKqj C&

yd NO ôdhl nkaOkhg iïnkaO mrudKqj N& jk w;r
wkqms<sfj< jkqfha CN- j,g miq j NO ,sùu hs' ,s.k fol
u nyq mrudKql ,s.k jryka ;=< olajkq ,efí' CN- ,s.kfha
ixfla;hg miq j Wm b,lalula (subscript) f,i ol=Kq mi
my<ska wrdì b,lalñka tla tla j¾.fha ,s.k ixLHdj
oelafõ' jryka mj;S kï fuu wxlh mr;rhla fkd ;nñka
jrykska msg; ol=Kq mi my< Wm b,lalula f,i olajkq
,efí' nyq mrudKql ,s.kj, yels iEu úg u odhl nkaOkhg
iïnkaO jk mrudKqj m<uq j o ,s.kfha fiiq mrudKq fo
jkq j o olajkq ,efí'
3 mshjr( - f,dayfha ixfla;h yd ,s.kj, iQ;% fldgq jryka ;=< we;=<;a

lr ixlS¾Kfha wdfrdamKh olajkak'
f,dayfha TlaislrK wxl +II fõ'
ixlS¾K whkfha uq`M wdfrdamKh -5 +2 = -3
tu ksid iQ;%h [Fe(CN)5NO]3- fõ'
ksoiqk 2 (- pentaamminechlorido cobalt(III) ion ys ridhksl iQ;%h ,shkak'
1 mshjr( - f,dayfha ixfla;h ,shkak' CO
2 mshjr( - ,s.kj, wKqms<sfj< ;SrKh lrkak' tajdfha ixfla;$iQ;%

,sùfï § tla tla ,s.kfha ixLHdj we;=<;a lrkak' wk;=re
j f,dayfha ixfla;hg miq ,s.kj, ixfla; iQ;% ,shkak'
85
Cl- yd NH3 ,s.k fõ' Cl- nkaOkh jk mrudKqj Cl o"
NH3 ys nkaOkh jk mrudKqj N o" fõ' nkaOkh jk
mrudKqj, bx.S%is fydaäfha wldrd§ ms<sfj< wkqj Cl- uq,ska
o" NH3 miqj o" ,súh hq;= h' NH3 nyq mrudKql neúka th
jryka ;=< ,shkq ,nk w;r tys ixLHdj jk 5 ol=Kq mi
my<ska olajkq ,efí'
CoCl(NH3)5
3 mshjr( - f,dayfha yd ,s.kj, ixfla;$iQ;% fldgq jryka ;=< ,shd

ixlS¾Kfha wdfrdamKh olajkq ,efí'
f,dayfha TlaislrK wjia:dj +III fõ'

t neúka ixlS¾K iuia; wdfrdamKh -3 + (-1) = +2
tu ksid ridhksl iQ;%h [CoCl (NH3)5]2+ fõ'
ksoiqk 3 (- Potassium pentacyanidonitrosylferrate(II)

m<uq jk ksoiqk wkqj ixlS¾K wekdhkfha jHqyh [Fe(CN)5NO]3- fõ'
ixfhda.hla iEoSfï oS wdfrdamK WodiSk úh hq;= h' ixlS¾K ixfhda.fha
-3 wdfrdamKh WodiSk ùu i|yd K+ whk ;=kla iïnkaO úh hq;= h' tu
ksid iQ;%h K3[Fe(CN)5NO]
ksoiqk 4 (-Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) bromide

fo jk ksoiqkg wkqj ixlS¾K whkfha iQ;%h [CoCl(NH3)5]2+ fõ' fuu
whk WodiSk lsÍu i|yd Br- whk folla ;sìh hq;= fõ' tu ksid iQ;%h
[CoCl(NH3)5]Br2
² NaCl, AlH3, Mg3N2, wd§ ir, ixfhda. ksoiqka f,i f.k tajd kï lrkak'
² mka;sh lKavdhïj,g fnod ir, wekdhk iu`. we;s ixlS¾K legdhk iy

ir, legdhk iu`. we;s ixlS¾K wekdhk iys; ixfhda. oS tajd kdulrKh
lrk f,i isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
86
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'8 ( .=Kd;aul úYaf,aIKh u`.ska legdhk y÷kd .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² myka is`M mÍlaIdfjka legdhk y÷kd .kshs'
² wkqrEm úfudapk j¾Kdj,sh Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka oe,af,a j¾Kh meyeos,s
lrhs'
² wjlafIamK l%uj,ska yd iEfok wjlafIam úúO m%;sldrlj, øjKh ùu
wkqidrfhka legdhk y÷kd .kshs'
² laIdrhl ødjKhla tl;= lsÍfuka wefudakshï whk ^NH4+& y÷kd .kshs'
² legdhkj,ska iEfok whksl ixfhda.j, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mokï lr .ksñka
,ehsia;= .; legdhk ldKav mylg fjka lrhs'

myka is`M mÍlaIdj
² myka is`M mÍlaIdfõ oS iEu legdhkhlska u mdfya mrudKq we;s fõ' oe,a,g
,nd fok j¾Kh ta ta uQ,øjHj, wvq Yla;s mr;rhg iïnkaO h'
M* W;af;acs; mrudKqj
M N+ñ wjia:dfõ mrudKqj
wjlafIamKfhka y÷kd .; yels legdhk

² d7,d8, d9 yd d10 bf,lafg%dksl úkHdi we;s legdhkj,ska iEfok wjlafIam"
jeämqr wefudakshdj, Èh ù ia:dhS ixlS¾K whk idohs'
M2+(aq) + X2- (aq) MX(s)
(d7) [Co(NH3)6]2+ - ly ÿUqre (d10) [Zn(NH3)4]2+ - wj¾K
(d8) [Ni(NH3)6]2+ - ;o ks,a (d10) [Ag(NH3)2]+ - wj¾K
(d9) [Cu(NH3)4]2+ - ;o ks,a (d10) [Cd(NH3)4]2+ - wj¾K
NH4+whk y÷kd .ekSu

² wefudakshï ,jK laIdr ødjK ^NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 wdoS& iu`. wefudakshd
ldur WIaK;ajfha § jdhqj ksoyia lrhs'
Wod ( ^l&
87
ksl=;a jk wefudakshd jdhqj fkia,¾ m%;sldrlfhka fyda f;;a r;= ,sÜuia
m;%hlska fyda mÍlaId lr y÷kd .; yels h'
NH3 (g) + fkia,¾ m%;sldrh ÿUqre meyels wjlafIamh$j¾Kh
legdhk ñY%Khla fjka lsÍfï l%shd ms<sfj< ^13'4 mßYS,kh lrkak'&

² legdhk ñY%Khl .=Kd;aul úYaf,aIKfha oS tajd ldKav mylg fjka flf¾'
.=Kd;aul úYaf,aIK mámdáhg mokï ù we;af;a jrKSh wjlafIamK uQ,O¾uh
hs' jrlg tlla ne.ska ødjKhl we;s legdhk wjlafIam lsÍu jrK
wjlafIamKh hs'
I ldKavh
² legdhk ñY%Kfha ødjK fldgilg isis,a ;kql yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï,h
jeämqr tl;= flf¾' Ag+" Pb2+ yd Hg22+ whk wef;d;a wødjH laf,darhsv f,i
wjlafIam fõ'
II ldKavh
² I ldKavfha wødjH laf,darhsv fjka lsÍfuka miq ,efnk fmrkh wdï,sl h'
fuh yryd H2S heùfï oS b;d wvq Ksp w.hlska hq;a i,a*hsv muKla wjlafIam
fõ'
Pb2+(aq) PbS(s) ^l`M& Sn2+(aq) SnS(s) ^ÿUqre&
Cu (aq) CuS(s) ^l`M&
2+
Sn4+(aq) SnS2(s) ^ly&
Hg (aq) HgS(s) ^l`M&
2+ 3+
Sb (aq) Sb2S3(s) ^;eô,s&
3+
Bi (aq) Bi2S3(s) ^l`M& 3+
As (aq) As2S3(s) ^ly&
Cd (aq) CdS(s) ^ly&
2+
² H+ whkj, by< idkaøKh fya;=fjka i,a*hsâ whk idkaøKh idfmalaI

jYfhka wvq h' wod< i,a*hsvj, by< Ksp w.hla we;s Mn2+" Zn2+" Co2+" Ni2+
jeks legdhk ødjKfha mj;S'
III ldKavh
² ødú; H2S bj;a lrkq msKsi II ldKavfha fmrkh úkdä lsysmhla kgjkq
,efí' bkamiq fmrkfha Fe2+ whk fjf;d;a tajd Fe3+ njg TlaislrKh lrkq
msKsi idkaø HNO3 iu`. úkdä lsysmhla kgjkq ,efí' miq j ødjKhg
NH4Cl yd NH4OH tl;= flf¾'
Fe3+(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) ^r;=-ÿUqre&

Al3+(aq) Al(OH)3(s) îqÿ fc,àkh&
Cr3+(aq) Cr(OH)3(s) ^fld<&
IV ldKavh
² III ldKavfha fmrkfhys OH- whk jeämqr wvx.= ksid th laIdÍh fõ' OH-
whk iys; fï udOHhg H2S hefõ' H2S j,ska iemefhk H+ whk úiska OH-
whk WodiSk flfrhs'
88
² fuhska by; iu;=,;
s ;dj ol=Kg nr jk w;r th ødjKfha S2- whk idkaøKh
jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ'
Zn2+(aq) ZnS (s)

îqÿq&
2+
Mn (aq) MnS(s)
^frdai&
Co2+(aq) CoS (s)
^l`M&
Ni2+(aq) NiS(s)
^l`M&
V ldKavh
² IV ldKavfha fmrkh kgjd H2S bj;a lr" NH4Cl iaj,amhla yd jeämqr
NH4OH tl;= flf¾' ødjKh kgjd (NH4)2CO3 tl;= flf¾' Ca2+, Sr2+ yd
Ba2+ whk" ldnfkag f,i wjlafIam fõ'
(iqÿ)
(iqÿ)
(iqÿ)
ie'hq' ødjH;d .=Ks;fha Ndú; 13'4 hgf;a úia;rd;aul j idlÉPd flf¾'
² myka is`M mÍlaIdj Ndú; lr" fok ,o ñY%Khl we;s legdhk y÷kd .ekSug
isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'
² fok ,o ksheoshl we;s legdhk y÷kd .ekSug isiqkg mjrkak'
89
ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'9 ( wekdhk .=Kd;aul j y÷kd .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² wjlafIamK l%uh fyda fjk;a l%u Ndú;fhka wekdhk y÷kd .kshs'
² wekdhkj, iajNdjh mokï lr .ksñka wjlafIam" wï,j, øjKh ùu meyeos,s
lrhs'
² legdhk" wefudakshd iu`. ixlS¾K iEoSu fya;=fjka isÿ jk wjlafIamj,
øjKh ùu meyeos,s lrhs'

² iqúfYaI mÍlaId u`.ska Cl-, Br-, I-, S2-, SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, CO32-, NO2-, NO3-
yd PO43- hk legdhk y÷kd .; yels h'
Cl-, Br-yd I- whk i|yd mÍlaId

² fya,hsv whk ødjKhg ;kql khsÜßla wï,h yd is,aj¾ khsÜf¾Ü ødjKh
tl;= flf¾' is,aj¾ fya,hsvh wjlafIam fõ' fya,hsâ whkh y÷kd .ekSu
i|yd wefudakshd ødjKhl wjlafIamfha ødjH;dj Ndú; l< yels h'
whkh foñka
iqÿ iïmQ¾Kfhka
Èh fõ'
whkh foñka
,d ly iïmQ¾Kfhka
Èh fõ'
wødjH h'
ly
² oaú;aj ia;r mÍlaIdj ^Cl2 Èhr iu`. fya,hsv&
yd whk i|yd mÍlaId

² by; wekdhk i|yd my; mÍlaId bÈßm;a flf¾'
l`M wjlafIamh
;eô,s meyeh" fld< meyehg yef¾'
90
;eô,s fld<
² lsß meye;s wjlafIamhla we;s ù wLKav

j CO2 jdhqj heùfï oS wj¾K fõ'
iqÿ
² ^r;= ÿUre meye;s ÿudrhla yg .kS'&
yd whk i|yd mÍlaId

² fuu whk wka;¾.; ødjKhlg fíßhï laf,darhsâ tl;= lsÍfï § iqÿ
wjlafIamhla we;s fõ' wï,hl § ^;' HCl yd HNO3& fuu wjlafIamj, ødjH;dj
tajd y\qkd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .; yels h'
ødjH fõ'
fuys oS whk H+ whk u`.ska bj;a flf¾' ÿn, wï,hla iE§u fuhg
fya;=j hs'
² wødjH fõ'
BaSO4 ⇌ Ba2+ (aq) + (aq)

fuys § m%n, wï,hla yg .efkk neúka H+ whk úiska whk bj;a fkd
flf¾'
² S2O32- whk i|yd mÍlaId

lsß meye;s wjlafIamhla yd lgql
iqÿ .kaOhla we;s fõ'
91
whk i|yd mÍlaId
² ÿUqre j,h mÍlaIdj - khsÜf¾Ü whk ødjKhlg isis,a f*ria i,af*aÜ ødjKh
iaj,amhla tl;= lr" wk;=re j idkaø i,a*shqßla wï, ìxÿ lsysmhla mÍlaId
k<fha ì;a;sh osf.a fifuka tl;= lrkq ,efí' t úg" khsÜf¾Ü ødjK ia;rh
yd i,a*shqßla wï, ia;rh fjka jk ikaêfhys ÿUqre meye;s j,hla olakg
,efí'
² wefudakshd mÍlaIdj - khsÜf¾Ü ødjKh" we¨ñkshï l=vq yd fidaähï

yhsâfrdlaihsâ ødjKh iu`. r;a lsÍfï oS wefudakshd njg TlaisyrKh fõ'
whk i|yd mÍlaId

² f*diaf*aÜ ødjKhlg idkaø khsÜßla wï,h iaj,amhla yd jeämqr wefudakshï
fud,sífâÜ ødjKh tl;= lr WKqiqï flf¾' ly meye;s wjlafIamhla ,efí'
² wjlafIamK l%uh Ndú;fhka oS we;s ksheoshl we;=<;a wekdhk y÷kd .ekSug

isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'
² ksÍlaIs; úm¾hdi i|yd ;=,s; iólrK ,sùu isiqkg mjrkak'
² wekdhkj, iajNdjh mokï lr .ksñka wï,j, wjlafIam Èh ùu meyeos,s
lrkak'
92
ksmqK;dj 7'0 ( ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh úuid n,hs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'1 ( ridhk úoHdfõ úfYa I la f Ia ; % h la f,i ldnks l

ridhkfha jeo.;alu úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 02 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ldnka m%Odk ix>gl uQ,øjHh f,i wka;¾.; iajdNdúl yd lD;%su ixfhda.
úYd, ixLHdjla mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² wod< lreKq f.k yer olajñka úYd, ixfhda. ixLHdjla iEoSug ldnka i;=
yelshdj úia;r lrhs'
² úúO lafIa;%j,ska ksoiqka f.k yer olajñka ffoksl Ôú;fha § ldnksl
ridhkh jeo.;a jk wkaou fmkajd fohs'

² ldnksl ixfhda. rdYshla we;s ùug odhl jk ldnka i;= .=Kdx. lsysmhla
my; oelafõ'
² ldnka mrudKq folla w;r m%n, tal nkaOk" oaú;aj nkaOk yd ;%s;aj nkaOk
iEosh yels h' ldnka wh;a y;r jk ldKavfha mj;sk is,slkaj,g idfmalaI
j ldnka idok C - C, C = C, C C yd C - H nkaOk" jvd by< nkaOk
Yla;sj,ska hqla; jk nj ksÍlaIKh lr we;' wod< f;dr;=re my; j.=fõ
oelafõ'
nkaOk Yla;sh
nkaOkh
$kJ mol-1
C-C 346
C=C 610
C ≡C 835
C- H 413
Si - Si 226
Si - H 318
² ldnkaj,g mrudKq oyia .Kklska hq;a odu yd úúO m%udKfha pl% iEÈh
yelsh'
² ldnka mrudKqjlg iy-ixhqc nkaOk y;rla iEosh yels h' fï wkqj fmkS
hkafka ldnka oduhlg úúO ldKav rdYshla iïnkaO úh yels nj;a" úYd,
úúO;ajhlska hq;= ixfhda. mej;Sug tu .=Kh odhl jk nj;a h'
² ldnka" fjk;a ldnka mrudKq yd yhsârcka mrudKq iu`. fuka u" O, S, P, N
yd ye,ck jeks fjk;a wf,day iu`. o Yla;su;a iy-ixhqc nkaOk idohs'
93
² wdydr" bkaOk" T!IO" ;Ska;" ma,diaála" frosms<s" idhï wdosfha wvx.= uQ,sl ix>gl
uQ,øjH .ek isiqka f.ka úuikak' ta wkqj ldnksl ixfhda. y÷kajd fokak'
² isiqka lKavdhï lsysmhlg fnokak' tosfkod Ôú;fha oS úúO lafIa;% ;=< Ndú;hg
.efkk ldnksl ixfhda.j,g WodyrK yd tajdfha jeo.;alu idlÉPd lsÍug isiq
lKavdhïj,g mjrkak'
94
ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'2 ( l%shdldÍ ldKav weiqfrka ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh

úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úIh ks¾foaYhg we;=<;a l%shdldÍ ldKavj, kdu iy ixfla; y÷kd .kshs'
² ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh mj;akd l%shdldÍ ldKav weiqfrka y÷kd
.ksh's
² tla tla l%shdldÍ ldKavh iys; ixfhda. ioDYH fY%aKs kï lr ksoiqka bosßm;a
lrhs'

² iuyr ldnksl ixfhda.j, C yd H muKla ix>gl uQ,øjH f,i wvx.= fõ'
tajd yhsâfrdldnk f,i ye|skafõ'
² jHqyh mokï lr f.k yhsâfrdldnk we,s*eál yd wefrdaueál f,i uQ,sl
j¾. follg fnfoa'
² újD; ldnka oduj,ska muKla iukaú; yhsâfrdldnk l=,lh wplSh % we,s*eál
yhsâfrdldnk kï fõ'
² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk jYfhka we,s*eál yhsâfrdldnk ixfhda.
j¾. lrkq ,efí'
² pl%Sh j úia:dk.;(delocalized) jQ bf,lafg%dak j,djla idoñka ia:dhS ù
we;s pl%Sh ldnksl ixfhda. wefrdaueál ixfhda. jYfhka ye|skafõ'
² C6H6 wKql iQ;%fhka oelafjk fnkaiSka" wefrdaueál yhsâfrdldnk ixfhda.
l=,lfha ir, u ixfhda.h fõ'
² we,s*eál yhsâfrdldnkaj, H mrudKqjla fjkqjg ye,ck mrudKqjla ne÷Kq
úg tajd we,als,a fya,hsv f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
² fnkaiSka j,fha H mrudKqjla fjkqjg ye,ck mrudKqjla ne÷Kq úg tajd
weß,a fya,hsv f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
² fndfyda ldnksl ixfhda.j, ldnka oduhg khsÜrcka" Tlaiscka jeks úIu-
mrudKq iïnkaO ùfï oS ldnka yd iïnkaO jQ mrudKq w;r úoHq;a-RK;d
fjki fya;=fjka tu mrudKq ldKavh úiska ixfhda.hg ,dlaIKsl jQ
m%;sl%shdldÍ;ajhla ,nd foa' t jeks mrudKq ldKavhla l%shdldÍ ldKavhla
(functional group) f,i ye|skafõ' ixfhda. wKqjl mj;sk l%shdldÍ ldKav
wkqj tajd j¾. lrkq ,efí'
² iq,n ls%hdldÍ ldKav yd tajdg wkqrEm idoDY fYa%Ks kdu my; oelafõ'
95
l%shdldÍ ldKavh ioDY fY%aKsfha ku WodyrK
OH Alcohol CH3CH2OH Ethanol
O
C
H Aldehyde CH3CHO Ethanal
O
C
Ketone CH3COCH3 Propanone
O
C Carboxylic acid CH3COOH Ethanoic acid
OH
O
C Acid chloride CH3COCl Ethanoyl chloride
Cl
O
C Ester CH3COOCH3Methyl ethanoate
O R
NH2 Amine CH3CH2 NH2 Ethylamine
O
C Amide CH3CONH2 Ethanamide
NH 2
C NH 2
Amino acid CH3CHNH2COOH
COOH
2-Aminopropanoic acid
x we,als,a fya,hsv* CH3CH2Cl Chloroethane
* IUPAC kdulrKfha oS ye,ck ldKavh l%shdldÍ ldKavhla f,i fkd ie,efla'

² úúO l%shdldÍ ldKav wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqy iQ;% isiqkag bÈßm;a lr tajd
y÷kd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
² ridhksl ixfhda. ,ehsia;=jla isiq lKavdhïj,g oS tajd w;=ßka tla ioDY fY%aKshlg
wh;a jk ixfhda. f;dard j.= .; lsÍug yd wod< ioDY fY%aKs f.dvkexùug wjia:dj
,nd fokak'
96
ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'3 ( we,s*eál ldnksl ixfhda. kdulrKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iq,n ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHjydßl kdu m%ldY lrñka iïu; kdulrKhl
wjYH;dj y÷kd .kshs'
² IUPAC kS;s fhdod .ksñka úIh ks¾foaYfha i|yka jHqyuh iSudjg we;=<;a
fok ,o ldnksl ixfhda. kdulrKh lrhs'
² ixfhda.hl IUPAC kduh m%ldY l< úg jHqy iQ;%h we| olajhs'

² Y=oO
a yd jHjydr ridhk úoHdj ms<n s | wka;¾cd;sl ix.uh úiska (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry - IUPAC) ldnksl ixfhda. kï lsÍfï
l%udkql+, l%uhla bosßm;a lrk ,oS'
² IUPAC kdulrKhg wkqj ixfhda.hla i|yd fhdokq ,nk kduh fldgia
lsysmhlska iukaú; fõ'
1' jHqyfhys m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavh oelaùug fhdokq ,nk m%;Hh
2' ixfhda.fha m%Odk ldnka oduh y÷kd .ekSug fhdokq ,nk iels,af,a
kduh
3' wdfoaY ldKav oelaùug fhdokq ,nk Wmi¾.
4' wdfoaY ldKav" w;sf¾l ldKav iy m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavh oduhg
iïnkaO ù ;sfnk ia:dkh oelaùug fhdokq ,nk wxl
² we,s*eál ixfhda. kdulrKfha oS my; oelafjk mshjr wkqm< s f
s j<g wkq.ukh
lsÍfuka myiqfjka ixfhda.fha IUPAC kduh f.dvk`.d .; yels h'
1' m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavh y÷kd .ekSu
2' m%Odk oduh f;aÍu
3' m%Odk oduhg fhdok kdu uQ,h f;aÍu
4' m%Odk odufha wvx.= oaú;aj$;s%;aj nkaOk oelafjk m%;H" odufhys
kduhg tl;= lsÍu
5' m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavh oelaùug fhdok m%;Hh odufhys kduhg tl;=
lsÍu
6' wdfoaY ldKav kï lsÍu
7' wdfoaY ldKavj, kdu odufha kug tl;= lsÍu
8' ldnka oduh wxlkh lsÍu
9' m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavfha yd wdfoaY ldKavj, msysgqu oelaùug fhdok
wxl tu ldKav bosßfhka ,sùu
97
1 j.=j - l%shdldÍ ldKavj, m%uqL;dj wvq jk ms<sfj<g ilia lrk ,o fY%aKsh
ldKavh m%Odk l%shdldÍ wdfoaY ldKavh
ldKavh jYfhka kduh jYfhka kduh
- oic acid
- oate
- amide carbamoyl
nitrile cyano
- al formyl
O
C one oxo
- ol hydroxy
- amine amino
yne yne
X ene ene
------------------------------------------------------------------------
- halo
-NO2 - nitro
2- j.=j - m%Odk odufha mj;sk ldnka mrudKq ixLHdj wkqj ixfhda.fha

kug fhfok kdu uQ,h yd wkqrEm yhsâfrdldnkfha ku
ldnka mrudKq kdu uQ,h wkqrEm yhsâfrdldnkfha ku

.Kk
1 meth Methane
2 eth Ethane
3 prop Propane
4 but Butane
5 pent Pentane
6 hex Hexane
98
² IUPAC kdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.fha jHqy iQ;%h we|Su
IUPAC kdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.hl jHqy iQ;%h we|Su my; oelafjk
mshjr wkq.ukh lsÍfuka l< yels fõ'
1. oduh y÷kd f.k tu kduh wkqj oduh we|Su
2. oduh wxlkh lsÍu
3. oS we;s IUPAC kduh wkqj m%Odk l%shdldÍ ldKavh yd wjfYaI ldKav y÷kd
f.k tu ldKavj, kug fmr ;sfnk wxlh wkqj tu ldKav odufha ksjeros
ia:dkj,g iïnkaO lsÍu
4. ieu ldnka mrudKqjl u ixhqc;dj y;r jk mßos yhsârcka mrudKq
odufha jHqyhg fhoSu

² úIh ks¾foaYfha i|yka iSudj,g hg;a j" ixfhda. lsysmhl jHqy § tajd IUPAC
l%uhg kï lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² úIh ks¾foaYfha i|yka iSudj,g hg;a j hï ixfhda.hl IUPAC kduh ÿka úg thg
wod< jHqyh ,sùug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² Wla; mejreï lKavdhï ls%hdldrlï f,i bÈßm;a lrkak'
² ta ta ldnksl ixfhda. ms<sn| j idlÉPd lsÍfï § iq,n ixfhda.j, jHjydßl kdu
y\qkajd fokak'
99
ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'4 ( tl u wKql iQ;%h iys; wKqj, mrudKq ilia ù meje;sh yels
úúO wdldr úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ish¨ u jHqy iQ;% w|shs'
² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd w|sk ,o ish¨ u jHqy iQ;%" jHqy iudjhúl yd
;%sudk iudjhúl f,i j¾. lrhs'
² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels iudúhúl w;=ßka úfYaIs; l<
,laIK iys; iudjhúlj, jHqy w|shs'

² tlu wKql iQ;%h we;s kuq;a mrudKqj, ieleiau tlsfklg fjkia ixfhda.
meje;Sfï ixisoaêh iudjhúl;dj f,i ye|skafõ'
² ixfhda.hl iudjhúl tlsfklg fjkia fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K fmkaúh
yels h'
² ldnksl ixfhda.j, iudjhúl;dj my; wdldrhg j¾. l< yels hs'
iudjhúl;dj
jHqy iudjhúl;dj ;%sudk iudjhúl;dj
odu ia:dk^msyg
s ï
q & l%shdldÍ ldKav mdr;%sudk m%;r
s Emwjhj
iudjhúl;dj iudjhúl;dj iudjhúl;dj iudjhúl;dj iudjhúl;dj
• jHqy iudjhúl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;h
% we;s tfy;a tlsfklg fjkia jHqy iQ;% ^nkaOkj, wjldYfha
osYdk; ùu fkd i,ld yer& we;s ixfhda. mej;Sfï ixisoaêh hs'
• odu iudjhúl;dj
tl u ioDY fY%aKshg wh;a" tl u wKql iQ;%h i|yd ldnka odufha iajrEmh
fjkia ùfuka odu iudjhúl ,efí'
CH3
ksoiqka( CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 yd CH3 CH CH3
ìhqfÜka (Butane) 2-fu;s,afm%dfmaka (2-Methylpropane)
• ia:dk iudjhúl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;%h" tl u l%shdldÍ ldKavh$wdfoaYs; ldKavh iy tl u ldnka
iels,a, mej;sh o l%shdldÍ ldKavh$wdfoaYs; ldKavh iïnkaO j we;s ldnka
mrudKqj fyda l%shdldÍ ia:dkfha msysàu fyda fjkia ùfuka ia:dk iudjhúl
,efí'
100
ksoiqka (
OH
î& CH3 CH CH3
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol
îi&
But-1-yne But-2-yne
Cl Cl
îii& Cl
O O
Cl
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene
• l%shdldÍ ldKav iudjhúl;dj

tl u wKql iQ;%h i|yd fjkia l%shdldÍ ldKav we;s jHqy mej;Su l%shdldÍ
ldKav iudjhúl;dj f,i y÷kajhs'
ksoiqka(
O O
î& CH 3 C
CH 3CH 2 C
H CH 3
Propanal Propanone
O O
îi& CH 3CH 2 C CH 3 C
OH
O CH3
Propanoic acid Methyl ethanoate
• ;%sudk iudjhúl;dj
;%sudk wjldYfha nkaOkj, osYdk; ùu u; muKla tlsfklska fjkia jHqy
iys; ixfhda. mej;Su ^tkï tajdg tl u wKql iQ;% yd jHqy iQ;% we;'& ;s%udk
iudjhúl;dj kï fõ' ;s%udk jHqyh tlsfklys o¾mK m%;sìïn jk ;s%udk
iudjhúl hq.,la tlsfkflys m%;srEm wjhj iudjhúl kï fõ' ;s%udk jHqy
tlsfkflys o¾mK m%;sìïn fkd jk ;s%udk iudjhúl hq.,a tlsfkflys
mdr;s%udk iudjhúl fõ'
• mdr;%sudk iudjhúl;dj
cHdñ;sl iudjhúl;dj mdr;%sudk iudjhúl;dj fmkakqï lrk tla
wjia:djls' C } C oaú;aj nkaOkhl oS nkaOkhg wu;r j mj;sk
nkaOkh ksid tu ldnka mrudKqj,g nkaOkh jgd ksoyfia N%uK ùug
fkd yels h' fï fya;=j ksid wvx.= mrudKq tl u wdldrhg nkaOkh ù we;s
kuq;a tajdfha ;%sudkfha msysàu fya;= fldg f.k fjkia úkHdi meje;sh yels
h' ldnka - ldnka nkaOk wCIh jgd N%uKh lsÍfuka tlla wfkl njg m;a
fkd jk jHqy cHdñ;sl iudjhúl f,i y÷kajkq ,efí' cHdñ;sl iudjhúl
meje;Su i|yd oaú;aj nkaOkh fomi tla tla ldnka mrudKq u;g iïnkaê;
ldKav hq., iudk fkd úh hq;= h'
101
ksoiqka -
a p a q
C C yd C C iudjhúl fõ ^jHqy tlla wfkl u;
b q b p iumd; l< fkdyel&'
(i) (ii)
tfy;a
a p a q
C C C C
yd tl u jHqyh fõ'
a q a p
oaú;aj nkaOkhl fomi msysá ldnka mrudKq u;g ne÷Kq ldKav folla cHdñ;sl
iïnkaO;dj oelaùug cis yd trans hk jpk Ndú; fõ' wKqfjys ;,hg wNs,ïn j
oaú;aj nkaOkfha ldnka - ldnka wlaIh Tiafia mj;sk ;,hg idfmalaI j ldKav
fol tl u miska msysghs kï" t lS iïnkaO;dj cis jYfhka ye¢kafõ' ldKav fol
;,fha fo miska msysghs kï iïnkaO;dj trans fõ' ksoiqkla f,i jHqyh (i) ys a yd
p tlsfklg cis wdldrfhka o a yd q tlsfklg trans wdldrfhka o msysghs' t neúka
But-2-ene ys cHdñ;sl iudúhl my; mrsÈ kï lrkq ,efí'
'
ksoiqka : But-2-ene
CH3 CH3 CH3 H

C C C C
H H H CH3
cis iudjhúlh trans iudjhúlh
a, b, p yd q ldKav y;r u wiudk jk úg t jeks iudjhúl cis yd transa

f,i kï l< fkd yels h'
• m%;srEmwjhj iudjhúl;dj
tlla wfkflys o¾mK m%;sìïnh jk iudjhúl m%;srEmwjhj f,i ye|skafõ'
tlsfklg fjkia ldKav y;rla iïnkaO ldnka mrudKqjla iys; ixfhda.
m%;srEmwjhj iudjhúl;dj olajhs' t jeks ldnka mrudKqjla wiuñ;sl fyda
lhs/,a ldnka mrudKqjla f,i ye¢kafõ' tla m%;r
s Emwjhjhla muKla wvx.= ødjKhla
yryd ;,O%eú; wdf,dalh hejQ úg O%ejK ;,h N%uKh fõ' tla m%;srEmwjhjhla
u`.ska O%ejK ;,h tla osYdjlg o wfkla m%;srEmwjhjh u`.ska Bg m%;súreoaO osYdjg
o N%uKh flfrhs' m%;srEmwjhj iudjhúl u`.ska O%ejK ;,h N%uKh lrk ksid
tajd m%ldY il%sh iudjhúl f,i o ye|skafõ'
(Bromochlorofluoromethane)
m%;srEmwjhj iudjhúl
o¾mKh
102
fhdað; bf.kqï - b.ekaùï l%shdldrlï (
• C4 H8 yd C5 H12 wKql iQ;%j,g we|sh yels ish¨ u jHQy iQ;% bosßm;a lrk f,i
isiqkag lshd" iudjhúl;dj" jHqy iudjhúl;dj iy ;%sudk iudjhúl;dj hk mo
y÷kajd fokak'
• mka;sh lKavdhïj,g fnod iudjhúl ms<sn| úIh ks¾foaYfha wka;¾.; ish¨ u
me;s wkdjrKh jk fia wKql iQ;% isiqkag fokak' tu wKql iq;%j,g we|sh yels
ish¨ u jHqy iQ;% bosßm;a lr tajd j¾.SlrKh lrk f,i isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
• WÑ; øjH fhdod .ksñka wKqj, cHdñ;sl yevj, wdlD;s ;kd tajdfha úúO;ajh
y÷kd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
103
ksmqK;dj 8'0 ( yhsâfrdldnkj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'1 ( we,s*eál yhsâfrdldnkj, jHqyh" fN!;sl .=K yd nkaOk

iajNdjh úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,aflak" we,alSk iy we,alhskj, nkaOk iajNdjh WÑ; WodyrK weiqfrka
úia;r lrhs'
² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk ioDY fY%aKs Tiafia tajdfha fN!;sl .=K
úp,kh jk wkaou ixikaokd;aul j újrKh lrhs'
² ir, we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, cHdñ;sl yevh iuÕ ldnka
mrudKqj, uqyqïlrKh iïnkaO lr olajhs'

² wkqhd; idudðlhska fofokl= fjkia jkafka CH2 tallhlska muKla kï
t jeks ixfhda. fY%aKshla ioDY fY%aKshla f,i ye|skafõ'
² we,aflak wKqjla ks¾O%eùh fyda b;d ÿn, f,i O%eùh fyda fõ' ks¾O%eùh wKq
folla w;r wdl¾IK n, f,i we;af;a ÿn, wmlsrK n, hs' fY%aKsfha uq,a
idudðlhska ldur WIaK;ajfha oS jdhq jk w;r by< idudðlhska øj iy >k
ixfhda. fõ' mDIaÁh j¾.M,h jeä ùu fya;=fjka fYa%Ksfha my<g h;a u
wmlsrK n, o jeä fõ'
² ldnka oduh w;= fnoSu;a iu`. wKqfõ mDIaÁh j¾.M,h wvq jk w;r ta
fya;f
= jka wmlsrK n, ÿn, ù ;dmdxlh wvq fõ' ldnka myla we;s we,aflakj,
;dmxl my; § we;'
ixfhda.h ;dmdxlh$0 C
Pentane 36
2- Methylbutane 28
2,2-Dimethylpropane 9
² we,alSkj, fN!;sl .=K o fndfyda ÿrg we,aflakj, fN!;sl .=Kj,g iudk

hs'
² we,alhskj, o O%eùh;dj wvq neúka fN!;sl .=K w;ska tajd o wkqrEm we,aflak
yd we,alSkj,g fndfyda ÿrg iudk fõ'
² ldnka - ldnka nkaOk ieoSfï oS C mrudKq sp, sp2 yd sp3 f,i uqyqïlrKhg
Ndck fõ' WodyrK lsysmhla my; oelafõ'
104
uqyï
q lrKh WodyrKh ldnka mrudKqj jgd
nkaOkj, ÈYdk;sh
sp f¾Çh
H H
sp 2 C=C ;,Sh ;s%fldaKdldr
H H
H
sp 3
H C H p;=ia;,Sh
H
² ldnkaj, N+ñ wjia:dfõ bf,lafg%dak úkHdih - 1s2 2s2 2p2 fõ'

ldnkaj, N+ñ wjia:dfõ bf,lafg%dak úkHdihg wkqj ldnka mrudKqjl we;af;a
úhq.au bf,lafg%dak folla muKs'
² kuq;a ldnka mrudKqjla CH 4 idok úg i¾jiu nkaOk y;rla idohs' fuh jgyd
.ekSu i|yd ldnka mrudKqfõ bf,lafg%dak W;af;að; wjia:djg m;a ù bka miq
uqyqïlrK l%shdj,shg wj;S¾K jk nj ie,lsh yels h'
² fuys oS ldnka ys 2s Wm Ylaa;s uÜgfuys we;s bf,lafg%dakhla 2p ysia ldlaIslhlg
ixl%uKh ùfuka miq uqyqïlrKh isÿ fõ'
C −≡
=CC
² W;af;að; bf,lafg%dak iys; ldnka mrudKqj sp3 fyda sp2 fyda sp uqyqïlrKj,g
Ndck ùfuka ms<sfj<ska tal nkaOk" oaú;aj nkaOk iy ;%s;aj
nkaOk idok wdldrh úia;r l< yels h'
² N+ñ wjia:dfõ" W;af;að; wjia:dfõ iy uqyqïlrKh jQ ldnka mrudKqj, ixhqc;d
ljpfha we;s úúO ldlaIslj, Yla;s fjki ixikaokd;aul j my; oelafõ'
E
2p 2p 2p
sp3
2s 2s 2s
N+ñ wjia:dj W;af;að; wjia:dj sp3 uqyqïlrKh
E
2p 2p 2p
sp2
2s 2s 2s
N+ñ wjia:dj W;af;að; wjia:dj sp2 uq y q ï lrKh
105
E
2p 2p 2p
sp
2s 2s 2s
N+ñ wjia:dj W;af;að; wjia:dj sp uqyqïlrKh
CH4 wKqj - ldnka mrudKqfõ uqyqïlrKh sp3 fõ'

H
H
H
C2H4 wKqj - ldnka mrudKqj, uqyqïlrKh sp2 fõ'
nkaOk
nkaOk
C2H2 wKqj - ldnka mrudKqj, uqyqïlrKh sp fõ'
nkaOk
nkaOk
² uqyqï ldlaIslhl s ,dlaIKsl m%;sY;h" nkaOk Yla;sh flfrys n,mdhs'

ksoiqka my; oelafõ'
uqyï
q lrKh C- H nkaOk ÿr ^0A& nkaOk Yla;sh$kJ mol-1
sp3 1.112 436

sp2 1.103 445
sp 1.079 508
106
² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, fmdÿ iQ;% isiqkag y÷kajd fokak' tla tla fmdÿ
iQ;%hg wod< ixfhda.h ne.ska ,sùug isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak' ta w;=ßka ir,
we,aflakhl" we,alSkhl yd we,alhskhl jHQyh" Tjqka fï jk úg;a bf.k f.k
we;s uqyqïlrK weiqßka meyeos,s lrkak'
² mka;sh lKavdhï ;=klg fnod methane, ethene yd ethyne j, ldnka mrudKqj,
uqyqïlrK wdldrh" cHdñ;sl yev yd fN!;sl .=K ;¾ldkql+, j f.dvk`.d bosßm;a
lsÍug wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
² myiqfjka fidhd .; yels øjH Wmfhda.S lr f.k wdlD;s idod wKqj, yev úia;r
lsÍug wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
107
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'2 ( fnkaiSkaj, nkaOk iajNdjh úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² fnkaiSka i|yd uq,ska u fll=f,a úiska bosßm;a l< jHqyh u`.ska fnkaiSkaj,
ish¨ .=K úia;r fkd ùug fya;= bosßm;a lrhs'

² idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a wix;Dma;;dj ms<sn| mÍlaIKj,g fnkaiSka ms<s;=re
fkd foa' t neúka fnkaiSka i|yd ir, we,alSk fyda we,alhsk i;= wdldrfha
jHqyhla meje;sh fkd yels h'
² fll=f,a fhdackd l< jHqyh u.ska fnkaiSka wKqfõ oaú;aj nkaOk ;=kla yd
tal nkaOk ;=kla oelajQj;a fnkaiSka ys ´kE u hdno ldnka mrudKq folla
w;r nkaOk È. tl iudk fõ'
² fnka i S k a j , ldnka - ldnka nka O k È. oa ú ;a j nka O khl os .
^ m) yd tal nkaOkhl os. ^ m & w;r ueÈ w.hla
jk 1.39 x 10-10 m fõ'
² C − Chqla; jHqyj, uqyqula f,i oelaúh yels
fï ksid fnkaiSkays jHqyh my; iïm%
h'
H H
H C C
H H H
C C C C
C C C C
H H H H
C C
H H
fnkaiSkaj, iïm%hqla; jHqy
² hk fo ysia B;,fhka oelafjkafka fnkaiSka by; jHqy fol w;r udre

jk nj fyda iu;=,s; j mj;sk nj fyda fkd fõ' tajdhska oelafjkqfha
iïm%hqla;;dj hs'
² iy w;r fjki meyeos,s lr fokak'
² wKql ldlaIsl jdoh u`.ska fnkaiSkaj, jHqyh meyeos,s l< yels h' tys ish¨
u ldnka mrudKq sp2 uqyqïlrKhg ,la ù we;' tla tla ldnka mrudKqj ish
fo miska msyá
s kquyq ï
q p ldlaIl
s iu`. w;sÉPdokh úh yels kquy
q ï
q p ldlaIl
s h
ne.ska ord isáhs'
108
² fuhska pl%Sh úia:dk.; bf,lafg%dak j,djla ìys fjhs'
² fï ksid fnkaiSkays i;H jHqyh fll=f,a jHqy foflys uqyqula f,i
i,lkq ,efí'
² úia:dk.; bf,lafg%dak iys; fnkaiSkays i;H jHqyh" oaú;aj nkaOk ;=kla
iys; fll=f,a jHqyhlg jvd ia:dhS fõ'
² fnkaiSka wKqjl ia:dhS;dj meyeos,s lsÍug iïu; yhsârckSlrK tka;e,ams
o;a; o bjy,a fõ'
tfy;a fnkaiSka oaú;aj nkaOk ;=klska iukaú; jQfha kï" tys iïu;
yhsârckSlrK tka;e,amsh t kï" úh hq;= h'
tkï ^360-208& } m%udKhlska fnkaiSka tys fll=f,a jHqyj,g
jvd ia:dhS j mj;sk nj meyeos,s h'
>
+ 3H2(g)
fll=f,a jHqyh
-1
iïm%hqla;;d Yla;sh = - 152 kJmol
mol-1
-1
-- 208 kJ mol
360 kJ
Yla;sh $kJ mol-1
+ 3H2(g)
>
>

² C6H6 wKql iQ;%hg wod< j ;sìh yels újD; odu jHqyhla we|Sug isiqkag mjikak'
tu jHqyj, oaú;aj nkaOk" ;%s;aj nkaOk fyda tu nkaOk fo j¾.h u fyda mj;sk
nj;a" ta wkqj tajd wix;Dma;;d mÍlaIdj,g ms<s;=re Èh hq;= nj;a Tjqkag wjOdrKh
lrkak'
² fnkaiSkaj, i;H jHqyh fll=f,a jHqyhlska ksrEmKh fkd jk kuq;a m%;sls%hd
hka;%K ,sùfï § fll=f,a jHqy Ndú; lrk nj isiqkg wjOdrKh lrkak'
109
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'3 ( we,aflak" we,alSk iy we,alhskj, jHqyh weiqfrka

tajdfha m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykfha yd ixikaokfha fhfohs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk isÿ lrk ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHqyh
iu`. iïnkaO lrhs'
² fuf;aka laf,daßkSlrKh" t;Skaj,g fn%daóka yd yhsârcka fya,hsâ wdl,kh
hk m%;sl%shdj, hka;%Kh meyeos,s lrhs'

² we,aflakj, ish¨ u nkaOk C - C fyda C - H nkaOk fõ' fuu C - C yd
C - H nkaOkj, O%eùh;dj wvq h' tu ksid tajd iq,n O%eùh m%;sldrl ^Wod -
OH-, CN-, H+ ) iu. idudkH ;;aa;aj hgf;a m%;sls%hd fkd lrhs'
fuf;aka laf,daßkSlrKfha hka;%Kh

² myiqfjka iuúÉfþokh isÿ ù uqla; LKavl iEÈh yels Cl2, Br2 wdosh iu`.
muKla we,aflak m%;sl%shd lrhs' fuf;ka laf,daßkSlrKfha hka;%Kh my; §
we;'
² wdrïNl mshjr
' '
Cl Cl Cl + Cl
² odu m%pdrK mshjr

m<uq mshjfrka ckkh jk laf,darSka uqla; LKavlh u`.ska óf;aka wKqfõ
C - H nkaOkhla iuúÉfþokh lrñka H mrudKqjla .,jd .kshs'
' '
Cl H CH3 HCl + CH3
iEfok uqla; LKavlh wk;=re j Cl2 wKqjla yd m%;sls%hd lr CH3Cl

idoñka odu m%;sls%hdj bÈßhg f.k hd yels ;j;a uqla; LKavlhla ckkh
lrhs'
. '
CH 3 Cl Cl CH3Cl + Cl
110
² odu wjidk mshjr
m%;sls%hd ñY%Kfha mj;sk uqla; LKavl folla tl;= ùfuka ia:dhS wKq iE§fï
m%;sM,hla f,i fuu m%;sls%hdj k;r fõ'
' '
Cl Cl Cl Cl
' '
H 3C CH3 CH3CH3
we,alSkj, m%;sls%hd
² t;Ska wKqfõ ;,fha by<ska yd my<ska mj;sk ,sys,a j ne÷Kq bf,lafg%dak
j,dj bf,lafg%d*s,sl m%;sldrl wdl¾IKh lr .ekSug iu;a fõ'
² bf,lafg%d*hs,hla hkq tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la m%;s.%yKh lrk wKqjla
fyda whkhls'
yhsv%cka fya,hsv wdl,kh
² fuys oS HBr wKqfõ bf,lafg%dak W!k w.%h jk yhsârcka bf,lafg%d*hs,h

f,i l%shd lrñka oaú;aj nkaOkhg myr fohs' fuu bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k
m%;sl%shdj, oS w;rueos ldfndlegdhk iEfoa'
π〉
² ldfndlegdhkj, ia:dhS;dj my; mámdáh wkqj fjkia fõ'
R R H
+ + +
R C R C R C
R H H
;D;shl
s oaú;shl
s m%d:ñl
ldfndalegdhk ldfndalegdhk ldfndalegdhk
² ldfndlegdhkfha + wdfrdams; C mrudKqjg we,als,a ldKav iïnkaO j we;s

úg legdhkfha ia:dhS;dj jeä fõ' thg fya;=j jkafka we,als,a ldKav u`.ska
tajd iïnkaO j we;s Ok wdfrdams; ldnka mrudKqj foig ldnka - ldnka
nkaOk Tiafia bf,lafg%dak uqod yeÍu hs' fuys oS isÿ jkafka Ok wdfrdamKh
iïmQ¾K whkh mqrd úisÍ f.dia whkh ia:dhS ùu hs'
² yhsârcka fya,hsv iu`. wiuñ;sl we,alk

S hl isÿ jk bf,lafg%d*s,l
s wdl,k
m%;sl%shdj, oS bf,lafg%d*hs,h ne|Sfuka miq fjkia ldfndlegdhk folla
iEosh yels h' ñka jvd ia:dhS ldfndlegdhk jvd;a myiqfjka iEfohs'
111
+
C u;2 CH3 CH2 CH2
fm%dafgdakSslrKh m%d:ñl ldfndlegdhkh
3 2 1
CH3 CH CH2
1
C u;
fm%dafgdakSslrKh CH3 +CH CH3
oaú;shsl ldfndlegdhkh
^jvd;a ia:dhS h&
² jvd ia:dhs ldfndlegdhkh ,efnkafka oaú;aj nkaOkh fomi ldnka mrudKq

fol w;ßka yhsârcka mrudKq jeä .Kkla iïnkaO ù we;s ldnka mrudKqjg
bf,lafg%d*hs,h iïnkaO ùfuks'
² fuu ksÍlaIKh" we,alSk úYd, ixLHdjl m%;sl%shd wOHhkh lsÍfuka miq
udfldaksfld*a kshuh f,i idudkHlrKh lr we;'
hka;K
% h
² m%;sl%shd udOHfha fmfrdlaihsv we;s úg yhsârcka fn%dauhsâ óg m%;súreoaO

osYdjg iïnkaO fõ' fuhg fya;=j fmfrdlaihsv yuqfõ yhsârcka fn%dauhsâ
iy we,alSk w;r m%;sl%shdj uqla; LKavl hka;%Khla yryd isÿ ùu hs' ^fuu
hka;%Kh isiqkg meyeÈ,s lr §u wjYH ke;'&
Wod (
fmfrdlaihsv
² fuu wdl,k ÈYdfõ fjki ^m%;sudfldksfld*a wdl,kh& wfkla

yhsârcka fya,hsv úiska fmkakqï fkd flf¾'
we,alSkj,g fn%daóka wdl,kh
112
hka;K
% h
² we,alSk wKqjl bf,lafg%dak j,dj fj; Br2 wKqjla <`.d ùfï § th
f,i O%eùlrKhg ,la fõ' m%;sls%hdfõ § Br+ whkhla imhk
^Br-Br nkaOkh úIu úÉfþokhg ,la ùfuka& oaú O%ejfha Ok w.%h pl%Sh
fn%dafudakshï whkhla idoñka we,alSkh iu`. m%;sls%hd lrhs'
² fo jk mshjf¾ § Br- whkh kshqla,sfhda*hs,hla f,i ls%hdlrñka Br+g

iïnkaO ldnka mrudKq foflka tllg nef|a' fuys § tu ldnka mrudKqj
yd Br+ w;r nkaOkh ì£ h<s újD; jHqyhla we;s fõ'
we,alSkj,g i,a*shqßla wï,h wdl,kh yd ,efnk M,fha c, úÉfþokh
² fuys § fm%dafgdakh bf,lafg%da*hs,hla f,i;a" whkh

kshqla,sfhda*hs,hla f,i;a ls%hd π
lrhs'-
HSO 4
H
idkaø
CH 2 CH2 + H2SO4 CH3 C H
OSO3H
CH3CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3CH2OH + H2SO4
isis,a CIdÍh KMnO4 iu. we,alSkj, m%;sl%shdj
CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH2
OH OH
W;afm%aß; yhsârckSlrKh
² ishqï f,i l=vq lrk ,o Pt fyda Pd fyda Ni fyda jeks f,day W;afm%arl yuqfõ
oS we,alSk yhsârcka iu`. m%;sl%shd lr wkqrEm we,aflak idohs'
Wod (
l=vq
113
we,alhskj, m%;sls%hd
² we,alhskj, tlsfklska iajdh;a; j m%;sls%hd l< yels nkaOk folla
mj;sk w;r we,alSk iu`. m%;sls%hd lrk m%;sldrl iu`. bf,lafg%d*s,sl
wdl,k m%;sls%hdj,g Ndck fõ'
fn%daóka wdl,kh
Br Br
Br Br
yhsv%cka fya,hsâ wdl,kh
c,h wdl,kh
² Hg2+ whk iy ;kql i,a*shqßla wï,h we;s úg we,alhskj,g tla c, wKqjla

wdl,kh fõ'
H H O
π
H2 O
CH CH H C C OH CH'3 C H
Bfkda,h
² Bfkda,h" we,aäyhsvh njg laIKsl j m%;sixúOdkh jkafka C=O ys
by< ia:dhS;dj fya;=fjks'
W;afm%aß; yhsârckSlrKh
² ishqï f,i l=vq lrk ,o Pt fyda Pd fyda Ni fyda jeks f,day W;afm%arl yuqfõ oS
we,alhsk yhsârcka iu`. m%;sl%shd ù wkqrEm we,aflak idohs' laúfkd,Skaj,ska
úI lrk ,o Pd/BaSO4 W;afm%ra lh fh§fuka m%;ls h%s dj w;rueÈ we,alk
S wjia:dfõ
§ kej;sh yels h'
d CH3-CH3
/2P
H
CH CH H
Q 2 /Pd
ui /B
no a
lin SO
e 4/ H H
C=C
H H
114
² yd hk we,alhskj, ;%s;aj nkaOkh idok C
g iïnkaO H ^w.%ia: yhsârcka& wdï,sl .=K olajhs'
fuu we,alhskj, wdï,sl H f,day u`.ska úia:dmkh l< yels h'
Na(l)
CH3 C C H CH 3 C C-Na+ + H2
NaNH2
CH3 C C H CH 3 C C -Na + + NH3
NH3/Cu2Cl2
CH3 C C H CH 3 C C Cu
NH3/AgNO3
CH3 C C H CH 3 C C Ag

² CH4 " C2H4 iy C2H2 wKqj, wdo¾Y wdlD;s isik
q g
a fmkajd" uqyï
q lrKh wkqidrfhka
ldnka-ldnka nkaOkj, ia:dhS;dj meyeos,s lrkak'
² isiqka lKavdhï ;=klg fnokak' ta tla tla lKavdhug ms<sfj<ska we,aflak"
we,alSk iy we,alhsk iïnkaO úIh ks¾foaYfha olajd we;s m%;sl%shd wOHhkh lr
jd¾;d lsÍug mjrkak'
² hka;%Kh" iu úÉfþokh" úIu úÉfþokh" uqla; LKavl" odu m%;sls%hd hk mo
y÷kajd § fïjd ms<sn| idlÉPd lrñka by; m%;sls%hd hka;%Kh úia;r lrkak'
² we,alSkj, wika;Dma;;dj fmkakqï flfrk mÍCIdj,g we,alhsk o ms<s;=re fok
nj fmkajd fokak'
115
lrhs'
ksmqK;dj uÜgu 8'4 ( fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd weiqfrka tys ia:dhS;dj

úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 07 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² fnkaiSka wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g jvd wdfoaY m%;sl%shd flfrys olajk keUqrej
WÑ; WodyrK weiqßka fmkajd fohs'
² khsÜfrdlrKfha" we,al,
s l
a rKfha" weis,l
a rKfha yd ye,ckSlrKfha hka;K
%
weiqßka fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd f,i bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd
úia;r lrhs'
² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk isÿ lrk m%;sl%shd iu`. fnkaiSka isÿ lrk
m%;sl%shd ii|hs'

fnkaiSkaj, bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd
² ;,Sh fnkaiSka wKqfjys uqyqK;a foflys u ,sys,a j ne÷Kq bf,lafg%dak
j,djla fõ' fï ksid we,alSk fia u fnkaiSka o bf,lafg%d*hs, flfrys
E m%;sls%hdYS,S fõ' fï m%;sls%hdfjys m<uq jk mshjr jkafka bf,lafg%d*hs,h
Ê+&" fnkaiSka j,fhys ldnka mrudKqjla iu`. nkaOkhla iE§u hs'
² fu fia iEfok w;rueÈ ldfndlegdhkfha Ok wdfrdamKh" nkaOk fol

iu`. isÿ lrk ixhq.u
a kh u`.k
s a úia:dk.; ùu fya;f
= jka whkh ia:dhSlrKh
fõ' fuh iïm%hqla; jHqy u`.ska fmkakqï l< yels h'
² fl fia jqj o fnkaiSkaj,ska ldfndlegdhkhg udre ùfï § bf,lafg%dakj,

plS%h úia:dk.; ùu ì| jefgk w;r wefrdaueál ia:dhSlrK Yla;sh neyer
fõ' fï ksid we,alSk fuka kshqla,sfhda*hs,hla iu`. m%;sls%hd lr wdl,k
M,hla iE§ug jvd fnkaiSka keUqre jkafka fm%dafgdakhla neyer lr plS%h
f,i úia:dk.; jQ bf,lafg%dak j,dj ^6& kej; ia:dms; lr .ekSug h'
² fu fia iEfok w;rueÈ ldfndlegdhkfha Ok wdfrdamKh" nkaOk fol

iu`. isÿ lrk ixhq.u
a kh u.ska úia:dk.; ùu lrKfldg whkh ia:dhSlrKh
fõ' fuh iïm%hqla; jHqy u`.ska fmkakqï l< yels h'
116
(i) khsÜfrdlrKh
idkaø HNO3 iy idkaø H2SO4j,ska ieos khsÜfrdlrK ñY%Kh yuqfõ oS
fnkaiSkaj,g khsÜfrd ldKavhla wdfoaY ù khsÜfrdfnkaiSka ksmofõ'
NO 2
Conc.HNO3/Conc. H2SO4
50 0C
fuys bf,lafg%d*hs,h jkafka khsÜßla wï,h" i,a*shqßla wï,fhka úc,kh

ùfuka iEfok +NO2 whkh hs'
wjika mshjf¾ § fm%dafgdakh .%yKh lr .kakd Niauh fõ'
(ii) *S%â,a-l%d*aÜ we,als,alrKh

ks¾c,Sh AlCl3 jeks ¨úia wï,hla yuqfõ oS we,als,a fya,hsv iu`. fnkaiSka"
m%;sl%shd lsÍfï § thg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaaY fõ'
R
anhydrous. AlCl3/R-Cl
fuys § bf,lafg%d*hs,h R+ fõ'
R+ b;d ia:dhS fkd jk úfgl ^ksoiqka +CH3 & fnkaiSka wKqj iu`. m%;sls%hd
lrkq ,nk m%fNaoh úh yelafla ix.; nkaOkhlska AlCl3 g ne`§ O%eùlrKhg
,la jQ R-Cl wKqjls' tys R-Cl ì£fuka m%;sls%hdfõ § R+ LKavhla fnkaiSka
wKqjg imhkq ,efí'
117
(iii) *S%â,a-l%d*aÜ weis,alrKh

ks¾c,Sh AlCl3 jeks ¨úia wï,hla yuqfõ oS wï, laf,darhsv iu`. fnkaiSka"
m%;sl%shd lsÍfï § thg weis,a ldKavhla wdfoaaY fõ'
fuys § iM, bf,lafg%d*hs,h jkqfha R-C+ =O whkh hs'
(iv) ye,ckSlrKh
¨úia wï,hla we;s úg (FeCl3, AlCl3 jeks & fnkaiSka ye,ck iu`. ^Cl2 fyda
AlCl-4
Br2 & m%;sl%shd lsÍfuka fnkaiSka j,hg ye,ck ldKavhla wdfoaY fõ'
fuys § iM, bf,la f g% d *hs , h jkq f ha R-C+ =O whkh hs ' fuu Cl+
bf,lafg%d*hs,h m%;sls%hdj w;rueo § idok ixlS¾Kfhka ì£ fnkaiSka j,h
fj; udre fõ'
Tlail
s rKh
jeks idudkH Tlaisldrl u`.ska fnkaiSka TlaislrKh fkd
fõ'
t fia jqj;a fnkaiSka j,hg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka ixfhda.
u`.ska TlaislrKh ù fnkafidhsla wï,h idohs' fnkaiSka j,fha
118
ia:dhS;dj fya;=fjka th myiqfjka TlaislrKh fkd fõ' fuu m%;sl%shdjg H+/K2Cr2O7
Ndú;d l< yels h'
CH 3 COOH
H +/KMnO 4
² m%d:ñl iy oaú;shsl we,als,a ldKav TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;D;shsl

we,als,a ldKav TlaislrKh fkd fõ'
;D;shl
s we,al,s a ldKav Tlail
s rKh jk by< m%;l
s h
s% d ;;a;j
a hgf;a fnkaik
S a
j,h o ì£ fjk;a M, we;s úh yels h'
W;afm%aß; yhsârcka wdl,kh
² fnkaiSka bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sls%hdj,g ,la fkd jqj o we,alSk fuka

tajd o WÑ; W;afm%arl yuqfõ yhsârka wdl,kh lrkq ,nhs' fuys § we,alSk
i|yd fhdok WIaK;ajj,g jvd by< WIaK;aj imhkq ,efí'

² fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd fl n÷ fõ oe hs fya;= iys; j m%ldY lsÍug isiqka
fhduq lrkak'
² isiqka lKavdhï ;=klg fnod my; i|yka tla hka;%Khla ms<sn| mka;sh bÈßfha
úia;r lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
• khsfg%dlrKh yd tys hka;%Kh
• we,als,alrKh yd tys hka;%Kh
• weis,alrKh yd tys hka;%Kh
• FeX3 yuqfõ ye,ckSlrK yd tys hka;%Kh
119
ksmqK;dj 8'0 ( yhsfv%dldnkj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'5 ( tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKavfha osYdNsuqL

lsÍfï yelshdj úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 01 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKav ´f;d fyda merd fyda fugd fyda
ÈYdNsuqL ldKav f,i y÷kd .kshs'
² tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj,g fo jk wdfoaYs; ldKavhla iïnkaO jk ia:dkh
m<uq jk wdfoaYs; ldKavfha ÈYdNsuqL lsÍfï .=Kh wkqj m%ldY lrhs'

² tla l%shdldÍ ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka" fo jk bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY
m%;sl%shdjlg Ndck jqj fyd;a" fo jk wdfoaYs; ldKavh iïnkaO jk ia:dkh
;SrKh jkafka m<uq jk wdfoaYs; ldKavfha .=K wkqjhs'
² wdfoaYs; ldKav m%Odk jYfhka j¾. follg fjka l< yels h'
1' ´f;d" merd fhduqldrl ldKav

H
Wod ( " ye,ck
ye,ck yereKq úg ´f;d merd fhduqldrl ldKav fnkaik

s a j,fha bf,lafg%dk
a
>k;ajh jeä lrk w;r th bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaYh flfrys jvd il%sh
lrhs'
2' fugd kshdul ldKav
Wod ( - NO2, - CHO, - COR, - COOH, - COOR
fugd kshdul ldKav j,fhka bj;g bf,lafg%dak wdl¾IKh lrk w;r

bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaYh flfrys j,h il%sh lrhs'
120
² isiqka lKavdhï follg fnokak'
² wdfoaY ldKav ,ehsia;=jla oS tla lKavdhula ´f;d" merd fhduqldrl ldKavj,;a"
wfkla lKavdhu fugd fhduqldrl ldKavj,;a iqúfYaIS jQ ,CIK u;= lr .ekSug
fhduq lrkak'
121
ksmqK;dj 9'0 ( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'1 ( we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHqyh" C - X nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh

iy m%;sls%hd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 11 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,als,a fya,hsv" m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;shsl f,i j¾. lrhs'
² C - X nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh iu. we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl
wdfoaY m%;sls%hd flfrys olajk keUqre;dj iïnkaO lr olajhs'
² kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd flfrys laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd jhskhs,a
laf,darhsâ m%;sl%shd fkd oelaùug fya;= olajhs'
² .S%kdâ m%;sldrlh ms<sfh< lrk wkaou iy th olajk m%;l s h
%s d meyeos,s lrhs'

² ye,cka mrudKqj ord isák ldnka mrudKqjg iïnkaO yhsârcka mrudKq
ixLHdj wkqj we,als,a fya,hsv" m%d:ñl" oaú;Sshsl fyda ;D;Sshsl f,i kï
flf¾'
H R R
R C X R C X R C X
m%d:ñl oaú;shls ;D;shl
s
H we,al,
s a fya,hsv H we,al,s a fya,hsv R we,al, s a fya,hsv
² we,als,a fya,hsv O%eùh ixfhda. fõ'

² we,als,a fya,hsv O%eùh ixfhda. jqj o we,als,a fya,hsvj, c,fha ødjH;dj
b;d wvq h' fuhg tla fya;=jla jkafka tajd c,h iu`. yhsârcka nkaOk
fkd iEoSu hs'
² ldnkaj,g idfmalaI j ye,cka mrudKqfõ wêl úoHq;a RK;dj fya;=fjka
C - X nkaOkh O%eùlrKh fõ' fï fya;f = jka tu ldnka mrudKqfõ bf,lafg%dk a
W!k;djla mj;S ' t neúka ks h q l a , s f hd*hs , tu ia : dkhg myr fohs '
kshl q ,
a f
s hd*hs, hkq ldnka kHIaáj,g myr oSug keUqre;djla olajk" Ndiañl
jQ;a" bf,lafg%dakj,ska fmdfydi;a jQ;a" m%;sldrl fõ' kshqla,sfhd*hs, úiska
ldnka iu`. nkaOkhla idok bf,lafg%dak hq.,la /f.k tkq ,nhs'
kso(
² we,als,a fya,hsvj,g ,dlaIKsl jkafka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd hs'

fuys oS ldnka mrudKqj kshqla,sfhd*hs,h iu`. kj nkaOkhla idok w;r
ye,cka mrudKqj fya,hsv whkhla f,i bj;a fjhs'
kso( ² ² ² ²
Nu- + Nu + X
-
² ²
Nu- hkq kshqla,sfhd*hs,h hs'
122
² tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la we;s ksid ´kE u kshqla,sfhd*hs,hlg H+ whkhla
iu`. nkaOkhla idoñka Niauhla f,i o l%shd l< yels h' t neúka :OH-
jeks m%;l
s drlhla iu`. we,al,
s f
a ya,hsvhla m%;l
s h
%s d lsÍfï § thg my; oelafjk
hka;%Kfha mßÈ bj;a ùfï m%;sls%hdjlg o n÷ka úh yels h'
H
- C C X C=C + H2O + X-
+
-
² fuys § OH kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i m%;sls%hd lsÍu fjkqjg Niauhla f,i
lsh
% d lrkq ,nk w;r ye,ckh ork ldnka mrudKqjg hdno ldnka mrudKqfjka
H+ whkhla bj;a lrkq ,efí' C - X nkaOkfha O%eùlrKh fya;=fjka ye,cka
mrudKqj ork ldnka mrudKqjg hdno ldnka u; msysá yhsârcka mrudKqj,
iq¿ wdï,sl;djla we;' t neúka wdfoaY m%;sls%hd yd bj;a ùfï m%;sls%hd we,als,a
fya,hsvj, ;r.ldÍ m%;sls%hd fõ'
² we,al, s a fya,hsv úhe<s B;¾ udOHfha § Mg iu`. m%;l
s h
s% d lr .Sk
s% dâ m%;l
s drlh
idohs'
úhe<s
B;¾
² we,als,a fya,hsvhla .S%kdâ m%;sldrlh iE§fï § uq,ska ye,ckhg iïnkaO j
meje;s ldnka mrudKqfõ O%eùlrKh my; mßÈ fjkia fõ'
RX + Mg 
→ RMgX
² RMgX nkaOkj, O%eùlrKh fya;=fjka" ue.akSishï yd ne÷Kq ldnka m%n,
kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i yd b;d m%n, Niauhla f,i l%shd lrhs'
² my; i|yka m%;sl%shd u`.ska .S%skdâ m%;sldrlfha m%n, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl ,laIK

fmkakqï l< yels h'

² wKql iQ;%h i|yd ;sìh yels ish¨ u we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHqy we£ug
isiqka fhduq lrkak'
• taajd m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl" ;D;shsl jYfhka j¾. lr oelaùug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
• tla tla iudjhúlh idok .S%kdâ m%;sldrlh yd tajd wï," we,afldfyd, yd weók
yuqfõ idok M,j, jHqy ,sùug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
123
ksmqK;dj 9'0 ( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'2 ( nkaOk we;s ùu yd nkaOk ì£u isÿ jk ld,dka;rh weiqfrka
we,a l s , a fya , hs v j, ks h q l a , s f hd*s , s l wdfoa Y m% ; s l s % h d
úYaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 01 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
%s d i|yd ud¾. folla meje;sh
yels nj y\qkd .kshs'
² nkaOk ì£u yd iEoSu tla jr isÿ jk ;ks mshjr m%;sls%hdjla f,i we,als,a
fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj úia;r lrhs'
² nkaOkh ì£fuka wk;=re j kj nkaOkh iEoSu mshjr follska isÿ jk
m%;sls%hdjla f,i we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj úia;r
lrhs'
² ;ks mshjrlska fyda mshjr follska fyda isÿ ùu flfrys we,als,a fya,hsvfha
iajNdjh n,mdk wkaou úia;r lrhs'
² kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd flfrys laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd jhskhs,a
laf,darhsâ m%;sls%hdYS,S fkd ùu meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd meyeos,s lsÍug nkaOk
ì|Sfï yd nkaOk iEoSfï mshjr i|yd .; jk ld,dka;rh ie,ls,a,g .;
yels h'
² C-X nkaOkh ì|Su yd kshqla,sfhd*hs,h iu`. kj nkaOkh iEoSu tl jr isÿ
jk úfgl we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj ;ks mshjr
m%;sl%shdjla f,i isÿ fõ'
² fï wkqj ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosßm;a l< yels h'
²² ²²
-
OH
OH
² C-X nkaOkh ì|Sfuka wk;=re j kshqla,sfhd*hs,h yd kj nkaOkh iEoSu

isÿ jk úfgl we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj mshjr
follska isÿ jk m%;sl%shdjla f,i i,lkq ,efí'
² fï wkqj mshjr follska isÿ jk m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosßm;a l< yels
h'
²²
1 mshjr Br
-
Br
ldfndlegdhkh
124
2 mshjr -²² OH
OH
² mshjr follska isÿ jk m%;sl%shdj w;rueos ldfndlegdhkhla yryd isÿ fõ' fuys oS
we;s jk ldfndlegdhkfha ia:dhS;dj wkqj" jvd;a ia:dhS ;D;shsl ldfndlegdhkhla
iEoSug yelshdj we;s ;D;shsl we,als,a fya,hsv (R1, R2, R3 = alkyl) mshjr follska
kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj isÿ lrhs' m%d:ñl we,als,a fya,hsv (R1, R2 = H, R3
= H fydaa alkyl) ia:dhS w;rueos ldfndlegdhkhla iEoSug wiu;a neúka kshl q ,a f
s hd*s,l
s
wdfoaYh ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdjla f,i isÿ lrhs'
² oaú;shsl we,als,a fya,hsv (R1 = H, R2, R3 = alkyl) l=uk ud¾.h wkq.ukh lrkafka
o hkak m%;sl%shd ;;a;aj u; ;SrKh fõ'
² jhskhs,a yd *Skhs,a ldfndlegdhk wia:dhS jk w;r tu ksid tajd oaú;aj mshjr
wdldrhg m%;sls%hd fkd lrhs' tajdfha mj;sk oaú;aj nkaOk iajNdjhlska hqla; C-
X nkaOkh" we,als,a fya,hsvj, C-X nkaOkhg jvd Yla;su;a jk ksid tajd ;ks
mshjr wdldrhg o m%;s%lshd fkd lrhs' fï nj iïm%hqla; jHqy weiqfrka fmkajd Èh
yels h'

² lKavdhï ls%hdldrlï u.ska we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaYh mshjr
tllska yd follska jk wdldr meyeÈ,s lsÍug WÑ; wdlD;s ilia lsÍug isiqka
fhduq lrkak'
125
ksmK
q ;dj 10 ( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;r
iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'1 ( we,afldfyd,j, jHqyh" tys ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkfha

O%eùh iajNdjh" Tlaiscka-yhsârcka nkaOkfha O%eùh
iajNdjh iy m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,afldfyd, m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;shsl f,i j¾.SlrKh lrhs'
² O - H nkaOkfha yd C - O nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'
² we,afldfyd,j, fN!;sl .=K yd tajdfha H nkaOk iEoSfï yelshdj w;r
iïnkaO;d fmkajd fohs'
² we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkh ì£u" C - O nkaOkh ì£u" bj;a ùu iy
TlaislrK m%;sls%hd tajdfha jHqyh iu`. iïnkaO lr olajhs'
² we,afldfyd,j, .=K mÍlaId lr jd¾;d ;nhs'

² fudfkdyhsâßl we,afldfyd," m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;shsl jYfhka wdldr
;=klg j¾.SlrKh l< yels h' ^we,als,a fya,hsvj, oS fuks'&
H R R
R C OH R C OH R C OH
m%d:ñl oaú;shl
s ;D;shl
s
H we,afldfyd, H we,afldfyd, R we,afldfyd,
² fN!;sl .=K
we,afldfyd,j, -OH nkaOkh R - O δ - -H δ + f,i O%eùlrKh fõ' tys
m%;sM,hla f,i we,afldfyd, wKq w;r we;s jk wka;¾-wKql yhsârcka
nkaOk ksid tajdfha ;dmdxl" tajdg wkqrEm idfmaCI wKql ialkaOh iys;
we,aflak yd B;rj,g idfmaCI j by< w.h .kshs' ioDY fYa%Ksfha my<g h;a
u we,afldfyd,j, ;dmdxlh jeä fõ'
t;fkda,aj, wka;¾-wKql yhsârcka nkaOk mj;akd wdldrh my; rEmfha
oelafõ'
C2H5 C2H5
O H O
H H
O H O
C2H5 C2H5
126
wvq idfmaCI wKql ialkaO iys; we,afldfyd, c,fha ødjH fõ' O%eùh ødjlhla jk
c,fhys we,afldfyd,j, ødjH;djg bjy,a jkafka c, wKq iu`. H nkaOk iEÈh
yels -OH ldKavh hs' we,afldfyd, wKqfõ ks¾O%eùh we,als,a ldKavh c,fha
ødjH;djg ndOdjls' we,afldfyd, ioDY fYa%Ksfha my<g hEfï § -OH ldKavhg
idfmaCI j ks¾O%eùh we,als,a ldKavfha úYd,;ajh l%ufhka jeä fõ' ta wkqj
c,fhys ødjH;dj my; j.=fõ oelafjk mßÈ l%ufhka wvq fõ'
jHjydßl kduh iQ;%h ;dmdxlh$ oC c,fha øjH;dj$g

^c,h 100 g l ødjH jk
we,afldfyd, ialkaOh&
fu;s,a we,afldfyd,a CH3OH 64.5

t;s,a we,afldfyd,a CH3CH2OH 78.3
n - fm%dmhs,a "" CH3CH2CH2OH 97
n - ìhqghs,a "" CH3(CH2)2CH2OH 118 7.9
n - fmkaghs,a "" CH3(CH2)3CH2OH 123.8 2.3
n - fylaihs,a "" CH3(CH2)4CH2OH 136.5 0.6
n - fymaghs,a "" CH3(CH2)5CH2OH 176 0.2
n - Tlaghs,a "" CH3(CH2)6CH2OH 195 0.05
- ´kE u wkqmd;hlg ñY% fõ'

² O - H nkaOkh ìf|ñka isÿ jk m%;sls%hd
î& fidaähï iu`. m%;sls%hdj
∞
R- - + Na R - O-Na+ + H2
we,afldfyd, ÿn, wï,hla f,i yeisfrñka fidaähï iu`. m%;sl%shd fldg
yhsârcka jdhqj msg lrñka fidaähï we,afldlaihsâ idohs' tfy;a we,afldfyd,
NaOH yd Na2CO3 iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍug ;rï wdï,sl fkd fõ' we,afldlaihsâ
whkh m%n, kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla yd m%n, Niauhla o fõ'
îi& ldfndlais,sla wï, iu`. m%;sls%hdj ^we,afldfyd, weis,alrKh&
we,afldfyd, iu`. ldfndlais,sla wï, m%;sls%hd lr tiagr iEfoa' fuu

tiagÍlrK m%;sl%shdj i|yd idkaø H2SO4 wï,h W;afma%rlhla f,i ls%hd
lrhs'
² we,afldfyd,j,g C-O nkaOkh ì|Sfuka isÿ jk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY

m%;sl%shd
î& we,afldfyd, PCl3 fyda PCl5 fyda iu`. m%;sls%hdfjka we,als,a laf,darhsâ
,efí'
3R - OH + PCl3 3RCl + H3PO3
R - OH + PCl5 RCl + POCl3 + HCl
127
(ii) yhsv%cka fya,hsv iu`. m%;sls%hdj
HBr
R-OH R-Br + H2O
we,afldfyd, HBr iu`. kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdjla isÿ ù wkqrEm

we,al, a hsvh ,nd fohs' O mrudKqj fm%df
s a fn%du s rKh ùfuka -OH ldKavh
a gdakl
jvd;a fyd| bj;a ùfï ldKavhla njg m;a flf¾'
fuu m%;sl%shdfõ § Br- kshqla,sfhda*hs,h jk w;r bj;a jk ldKavh H2O

fõ'
îii& ZnCl2 yd idkaø HCl wï,h iu`. m%;sls%hdj ^Ælia mÍCIdj&
fuu m%;sls%hdfõ § R-OH " R-Cl njg m;a flf¾' W;afm%arlhla f,i ZnCl2
l%shd lrhs' we,als,a laf,darhsâ c,fha wødjH ksid m%;sls%hdj bÈßhg isÿ ùfï
§ m%;sls%hd ñY%Kh wmeyeÈ,s ;;a;ajhlg m;a fõ' m%;sls%hl ñY% lsÍfuka miq
wmeyeÈ,s nj^wdú,;dj& fmkaùug .; jk ld,h weiqßka m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd
;D;shsl we,afldfyd, fjka lr y÷kd .; yels h'
imhk ,o m%;sls%hd ;;a;aj hgf;a by; m%;sl%shdj isÿ jkafka mshjr follsks'
;D;shsl we,afldfyd,h jvd;a ia:dhS w;rueoshla idok neúka ;D;shsl
we,afldfyd,h Ælia m%;sldrlh yuqfõ b;d u flá ld,hl oS wdú,;djla
we;s lrhs' tfy;a oaú;shsl we,afldfyd, È.= ld,hla o" m%d:ñl we,afldfyd,
b;d È.= ld,hla o" .kq ,nhs'
bj;a ùfï m%;sls%hd

² we,afldfyd, idkaø H2SO4 wï,h iu`. r;a lsÍfï § fyda we¨ñkd iu`.
by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a lsÍfï § fyda bj;a ùfï m%;sls%hdjlg Ndck fõ'
we,afldfyd,hlska c, wKqjla bj;a ùfï m%;s%ls%hdj we,afldfyd,
úc,kh kï fjhs' fuys oS m%;sls%hdfõ M,h f,i we,alSkhla ,efí'
ks¾c,Sh Al2O3 $
C C C= C
fyda idkaø H2SO4 $
H OH
we,afldfyd, we,alSk
128
² we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh
Tlails rKfhka ,efnk M,h we,afldfyd,fha m%d:ñl fyda oaú;shl

s fyda ;D;shl
s
fyda iajNdjh u; r|d mj;S'
we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh i|yd H+/KMnO4 fyda H+/K2Cr2O7 fyda H+/CrO3

jeks Tlaisldrl u`.ska isÿ l< yels h'
(i) m%d:ñl we,afldfyd,

O O
[O] [O]
R CH2 OH R C R C
H OH
ldfndlais,sla wï,h
by; i|yka l< Tlaisldrl fh¥ úg m%d:ñl we,afldfyd, u`.ska

m<uq j we,aäyhsv ,nd fohs' fïjd ldfndlais,sla wï, olajd ;j ÿrg;a
TlaislrKh fõ'
msßãkshï laf,dafrdfl%dafïÜ (PCC) -[C5H5NH+CrO3Cl] fhdod .; fyd;a

we,aäyhsv ksmojqKq wÈhf¾ § m%;sls%hdj k;r lr .; yels h'
O
R C
C H
PC
R CH2 OH H /+K
M
nO
4
O
R C
OH
îi& oaú;shsl we,afldfyd, lSfgdak njg TlaislrKh fõ'
H+/KMnO4 O
R CH OH R C
fyda PCC R/
/
R
îii& ;D;shsl we,afldfyd,

m%d:ñl yd oaú;shsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqfõ
idudkHfhka ;D;shsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh fkd fõ'
129
² C4H9OH wKql iQ;%hg ,súh yels ish¨ u we,afldfyd,j, jHqy bÈßm;a lr

tajd m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;shsl we,afldfyd, f,i j¾.SlrKh lsÍug
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
² we,afldfyd,j, mj;akd wka;¾-wKql wdl¾IKj, iajNdjh y÷kd f.k ta

wkqj ysñ jk fN!;sl .=K ms<sn| idlÉPdjla fufyhjkak'
² we,afldfyd,j, øjdxl" ;dmdxl yd c,fha ødjH;dj ms<sn| idlÉPd lsÍug

isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² we,afldfyd,j, O-H nkaOkh ì£fuka isÿ jk m%;l %s d" C-O nkaOkh ì£fuka
s h
isÿ jk m%;sls%hd" bj;a ùfï m%;sls%hd yd TlaislrK m%;sl%shd WodyrK u`.ska
bÈßm;a lsÍug yd wdo¾Ykh lr fmkaùug isiqkag wjia:dj i,id fokak'
130
ksmK
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'2 ( ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh yd Tlaiscka-yhsârcka

nkaOkh weiqfrka *Sfkda,aj, .=K yd m%;sl%shdj,
iajNdjh ms<sn| úuid n,hs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,afldfyd,j,g jvd *Sfkd,aj, wdï,sl;dj jeä uka oe hs meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² we,afldfyd, ,la jk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd i|yd *Sfkda, ,la
fkd jkafka uka oe hs meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² fnkaiSka j,fha ldnka mrudKqjlg iDcq j -OH ldKavhla ne£ we;s

wefrdaueál ixfhda. *Sfkda, f,i y÷kajkq ,efí' we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda,
c,Sh ødjKj, § my; olajd we;s f,i ú>gkh fõ'
ROH + H2O RO- + H3O+

C6H5OH + H2O C6H5O- + H3O+
*Sfkda," we,afldfyd,j,g jvd wdï,sl fõ' ñka woyia jkafka by; olajd
we;s iu;=,s;;dj, § *Sfkda,ays iu;=,s;d ,laIHh jvd;a ol=Kq mig nr j
msysgk nj hs' fuhg fya;=j jkafka *Sfkda,aj,g idfmalaI j *SfkaÜ whkfha
ia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hg idfmalaI j we,afldlaihsâ whkfha ia:dhS;djg
jvd jeä ùu hs' *SfkaÜ whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys we;s RK wdfrdamKh
iïm%hqla;;dj u`.ska úiqrejd yeÍu fya;=fjks' t jeks wdfrdamK úiqrejd
yeÍula we,afldlaihsâ whkfha isÿ fkd fõ'
O-H nkaOkh ì£fuka isÿ jk m%;sls%hd
² *Sfkda,aj, by< wdï,sl;dj my; ksoiqka u`.ska o ;yjqre fõ' t kï

we,afldfyd,hla fidaähï iu`. m%;sl%shd l< o" NaOH iu`. m%;sls%hd fkd
lrhs' tfy;a *Sfkda,a fidaähï iu`. fuka u NaOH iu`. o m%;sl%shd lrhs'
tfy;a *sfkda,a Na2CO3 iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍug ;rï wdï,sl fkd fõ'
2C6H5OH + 2Na → 2C6H5O-Na+ + H2
C6H5OH + NaOH → C6H5O-Na+ + H2O
131
C - O nkaOkh ì£fuka isÿ jk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd fkd oelaùu'
² we,afldfyd, fuka fkd j" *Sfkda, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g

iyNd.s fkd fõ' thg fya;= f,i my; lreKq oelaúh yels h'
(i) Tlaiscka u; ;sfnk tlir bf,lafg%dak hq., fnkaiSka j,h Tiafia úia:dk
.; ùu fya;=fjka C-O nkaOkh flá yd Yla;su;a ùu
(ii) *Skhs,a legdhkh wia:dhS ùu
² *Sfkda,a iaj,amh ne.ska mÍCId k<j,g f.k my; oelafjk Wmfoia wkqj mÍlaId
isÿ lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² c,h 1 cm3 muK tl;= lr fyd¢ka fid,jd thg pH lvodis lene,a,laa

oukak'
² fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ ødjKh 1 cm3 muK tl;= lr fyd¢ka fid,jd

fojkq j ;kql HCl wï,h 1 cm3 muK tl;= lrkak'
² ksÍlaIK igyka lr .kak'
² by; mÍCIKj, § ,;a ksÍCIK wkqj *Sfkda,a ms<sn| j t<eôh yels ks.uk
idlÉPd lrkak'
132
ksmK
q ;dj 10 ( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'3 ( *Sfkda,aj, -OH ldKavh Bg iïnkaO fnkaiSka j,fhys

m%;sl%sh;dj flfrys we;s lrk n,mEu úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 02 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² *Sfkda,aj, wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj, oS OH ldKavhg idfmalaI j wdfoaYlh ´f;d
^2"6& yd merd ^4& ia:dkj,g iïnkaO jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² *Ssfkd,ayS fnkaiSka j,h" fnkaiSkaj,g jvd bf,lafg%d*hs, flfrys jvd;a
il%sh ukaoe hs meyeos,s lrhs'

² *Sfkda,aj, Tlaiscka mrudKqj u; jQ tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,a fnkaiSka
j,fha úia:dk.; ùu ksid tys j,h bf,lafg%dakj,ska fmdfydi;a fõ' tu
ksid th b,lafg%d*s,l
s m%;l
s drl flfrys fnfyúka il%h s ù we;' *Sfkda,j
a ,
-OH ldKavh ´f;da" merd fhduqldrl fõ' ÔH ldKavh ´f;da" merd
fhduqldrl jkafka ukaoe hs meyeos,s lsÍu wkjYH h'&
² *Sfkda,aj, bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd fnkaiSkays wkqrEm m%;sl%shdj,g

wdod< ;;a;aj iu`. iei|Sfuka *Sfkda,ays fnkaiSka j,h bf,lafg%d*hs,
flfrys jvd;a il%sh ù we;s nj meyeos,s fõ' my; ksoiqka i,lkak'
î& fn%daóka Èhr iu`. laIKsl j m%;sl%shd lr 2,4,6-Tribromophenol iqÿ
wjlafIamh ,nd foa'
OH OH
Br Br
+ 3 Br2 + 3HBr
Br
2,4,6-Tribromophenol
îi& *Sfkda,a khsÜfrdlrKh i|yd ;kql HNO3 muKla jqj o m%udKj;a fõ'
OH OH OH
NO 2
;kql HNO3 +
20 0C
fhdað; bf.kqï-b.ekaùï ls%hdldrlï ( NO 2
² *Sfkda,a iu`. my; mÍlaId isÿ lr ksÍCIK ,nd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² fn%daóka Èhr 1 cm3 la muK mÍCId k<hlg f.k thg *Sfkda,a iaMálhla
^fyda ìxÿ folla muK& tl;= lsÍu'
133
ksmK
ksmqK;dj uÜgu 10'4 ( we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdakj, m%;sl%shd u`.ska fmkakqï flfrk

>C=O nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjh
úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ldnks,a ldKavfha O%eùh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjh meyeos,s lrhs'
² ldnks,a ldKavhg wdfõksl m%;sls%hd j¾.h kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sls%hd
nj meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g ksoiqka jk m%;sl%shd lsysmhl hka;%K
bÈßm;a lrhs'
² lSfgdakj,g idfmalaI j we,aäyhsv b;d myiqfjka TlaislrKh ùfï .=Kh
tajd tlsfkl fjka lr y÷kd .ekSug fhdod .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'
² we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdakj, .=K mÍCId lr jd¾;d lrhs'

² we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj,g HCN wdl,kfha hka;%Kh
fuu m%;sl%shdj isÿ lrkq ,nkafka ldnks,a ixfhda.h yd c,Sh fidaähï
ihkhâ ødjK ñY%Khlg ;kql Lksc wï,hla tl;= lsÍfuks'
fuys § CN- whkh kshqla,sfhd*hs,h f,i m%;sls%hd lrhs'
O OH
HCN
R C R C CN
R
R
H O H O- OH
C C H H+ CH 3 C H
H C H C
H
H ••
CN
CN
CN - H
Cyanohydrin
² .S%kdâ m%;sldrlh ^RMgX& iu`. m%;sls%hdfõ hka;%Kh
O OH
(i) RMgX
CH 3 C CH3 C CH3
îi& H+/H2O
CH 3 R
O MgX OH
O
H+/H2O
CH3 C CH3 C CH3 CH3 C CH3
CH 3
R R
134
² .%Skdâ m%;sldrlfha R ldKavh R - Mg ys nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq.,h iu`.
kshqla,sfhda*hs,hla f,i ldnks,a ldnka iu`. m%;sls%hd lrhs'
² fí%ä m%;sldrlh ^2"4-DNP) iu`. m%;sl%shdfõ hka;%Kh

(i) kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,kh
.. ..
H2N - NH
NO 2 OH NO 2
R
C= O + R C N N NO 2
R R H H
NO 2
lSfgdakh 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazene
(2,4-DNP)
(ii) úc,kh
by; w;rueos M,h iEÿKq ú.i u úc,kh ù wjika M,h jk
2"4-vhskhsÜfrd*Skhs,ayhsârfidak ,efí'
OH NO 2 R
C = N NH + H2O
R C N N NO 2
R NO 2
R H H
NO 2
2,4-Dinitophenylhydrozone
^;o ly fyda ;eô,s mdg wjlafIamhla&
fuu m%;s%ls%hdj we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak y÷kd .ekSfï mÍlaIdjla f,i fhdod

.efka'
² Tlaiy
s rKh
(i) LiAlH4 fyda NaBH4 fyda u`.ska TlaisyrKh
fuys oS we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak we,afldfyd, njg TlaisyrKh fõ'
H
R (i) LiAlH4
C=O R C OH
(ii) H2O/ H+
R R
H
R NaBH4 /fu;fkda,a
C=O R C OH
R R
(ii) u`.ska TlaisyrKh ^laf,ukaika TlaisyrKh&
Zn(Hg) $id'HCl
fuys § we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak wkqrEm yhsâfrdldnk njg TlaisyrKh
l< yels h'
135
H
R Zn(Hg) $id'HCl
C=O R C R
R
H
² we,aäyhsv TlaislrKh
fgd,ka m%;l
s drlh yd f*a,xs ødjKh jeks ÿ¾j, Tlail
s drj,ska mjd we,aäyhsv
ldfndlai,sla wï, njg TlaislrKh fõ'
î& fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u`.ska TlaislrKh

c,Sh is,j
a ¾ khsÜf¾Ü ødjKhlg ;kql fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ ìxÿ lsym s hla
tla lsÍfuka ,efnk is,aj¾ yhsâfrdlaihsâ wjlafCIamhg ;kql wefudakshï
yhsâfrdlaihsâ tla lsÍfuka fgd,ka m%;sldrlh- [ Ag (NH3)2]+ idokq ,nhs'
O
R -
+
C = O + 2[ Ag (NH3)2] + 3OH R C + 2Ag + 4NH3 + 2H2O
-
O ßoS
H levm;
fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u`.ska TlaislrKh fyj;a ß§ legm;a mÍlaIdj we,aäyhsv

yd lSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr y÷kd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .efka'
îi& f*a,sx ødjKh u`.ska TlaislrKh

Ndiañl lshqmaßla gdgf¾Ü ødjKhla f*a,sx m%;sldrlh f,i ye|skafõ' fuh
;o ks,a meye;s c,Sh ødjKhls' we,aäyhsvhlska ìxÿ lsym
s hla fuu m%;l
s drlhg
tl;= lr r;a lsÍfï oS ødjKfha ks,a meyeh l%ufhka ke;s ù .fvd,a r;= mdg
lshqmaria Tlaihsâ wjfCIamh we;s fõ'
R O
C = O + f*a,sx ødjKh Cu2O +R C
.fvd,a r;= -
H O
wjfCIamh
f*a,sx ødjKh u`.ska o we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak tlsfkl fjka lr y÷kd .;

yels h'
(iii) wdï,sl fmdgEishï vhsfl%dafïÜ fyda wdï,sl fl%dañla Tlaihsâ fyda wdï,sl
fmdgEishï m'uex.fkaÜ hk Tlaisldrl u`.ska we,aäyhsv" ldfndlais,sla wï,
njg TlaislrKh fõ'
R O
H+/KMnO4
C=O R C + Mn2+
OH
H
R O
H+/K2Cr2O7 + Cr3+
C=O R C
OH
H
we,aäyhsv yuqfõ H+/KMnO4 ødjKfha oï meyeh wj¾K fõ' H+/K2Cr2O7 ødjKfha

;eô,s meyeh fld< meyehg yef¾' fuu m%;sldrl u`.ska o we,aäyhsv yd
lSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr y÷kd .; yels h'
136
² úúO we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak isiq lKavdhïj,g mjrd tajd úIh ks¾foaYfha

i|yka m%;sldrl iu`. m%;sl%shd lr idok ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqy ,shd
oelaùug fhduq lrkak'
² we,aäyhsv TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqfõ lSfgdak TlaislrKh fkd jk nj

ixikaokd;aul j fmkajd fokak'
² we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak tlsfkl fjka lr y÷kd .ekSfï mßCId isÿ lrkak'
137
ksmK
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'5 ( iajhx ix>kk m%;sls% hd u`.ska fmkakqï flfrk mrsÈ
we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj, α ia:dkfhys m%;sls%h;dj y÷kd
.ksh's
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ldnks,a ixfhda.j, ia:dkfha m%;sls%hdYS,S;ajh WÑ; WodyrK weiqfrka
fmkajd fohs'
² fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ" weisge,aäyhsâ yd weisfgdaka isÿ lrk ix>kk
m%;sls%hd bÈßm;a lrhs'

² ldnks,a ldKavfha m%n, f,i bf,lafg%dak bj;g we§fï iajNdjh fya;=fjka"
ldnks,a ldnkag iDcq j u ne÷Kq ldnka mrudKq ^ -H) wdï,sl núka hqla;
fõ' Niauh ^ksoiqka - OH-& u`.ska -H fm%dfgdakhla f,i bj;a l< yels h'
t fia ieÿKq ldnekdhkh my; oelafjk mßÈ iïm%hqla; jHqy idoñka ia:dhS
fõ'
H H H H
α
R + OH-C= OR C + H2O
H H H H
R C R C C _ O-
² by; ldnekdhkh" whkSlrKh fkd jQ we,aäyhsv wKqjl ldnks,a ldnka

mrudKqjg kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i myr fohs' ta wkqj yhsârcka iys;
we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak iajhx ix>kk m%;sl%shdjg Ndck fõ'
ksoiqk-
weisge,aäyhsâ c,Sh NaOH yuqfõ m%;sls%hdj
H OH O
NaOH(aq)
2CH 3 C= O CH3 C CH2 C H
138
weisfgdaka ix>kkh
CH 3 OH CH 3
NaOH(aq)
2CH3 C = O CH3 C CH2 C = O
CH 3
by; oS ,o wdl,k M, myiqfjka úc,khg ,la fõ'

ksoiqka (-
OH H H
H $
+
CH3 CH CH2 C = O CH3 CH CH C = O + H2O
OH CH 3 CH3
H+ $
CH3 C CH2 C = O CH3 C CH C = O + H2O
CH 3 CH3

² yhsârcka we;s we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak my; tajdhska f;aÍug isiqka fhduq
lrkak' ta wkqj iajhx ix>kkhg iyNd.s jk we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak fudkjd
oe hs f;aÍug;a" ix>kk M, ,shd oelaùug;a isiqka fhduq lrkak'
α
OH H CH3 H
H
CH3 C C = O , CH3CH2 C = O, CH3 C C = O ,
CH 3 CH3
H H O
H C = O, C = O , C = O, CH3 CH2 C
139
ksmK
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'6 ( Tlaic

s ka wvx.= fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. ldfndlai,
s l
s a
wï,j, jHqyh iy .=K ixikaokh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ldfndlais,sla wï,j, fN!;sl .=K tajdfha jHqyh yd iïnkaO lr olajhs'
² ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha ^-COOH& m%;sls%hd rgdj ldfndks,a ixfhda.j,
ldnks,a ldKavh iu`. o" *Ssfkda,a iy we,afldfyd,j, -OH ldKavh iu`. o"
ixikaokh lrhs'
² Na, NaOH, NaHCO3 iy Na2CO3 iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd weiqfrka ldfndlais,sla
wï," we,afldfyd, iy *sfkda,aj, wdï,sl .=K ixikaokh lrhs'
² C-O nkaOkh ì£u isÿ jk m%;sls%hd i|yd WodyrK bÈßm;a lrhs'
² ldfndlais,sla wï,j, .=K yd m%;sl%shd mÍlaId lr jd¾;d ;nhs'

² ldfndlai,
s l
s a wï,j, lsh
% dldÍ ldKavh ldfndlai,
s a ldKavh fõ' ldfndlai,
s a
ldKavfhys ldnks,a ldKavhl=;a tu ldnka mrudKqjg iïnkaO jQ yhsâfrdlai,
s a
ldKavhl=;a we;'
² ldfndlais,a ldKavh O%eùh ls%hdldÍ ldKavhla fõ' C = O yd O - H ldKavj,

O%eùlrKh fya;=fjka wka;¾-wKql yhsârcka nkaOk idohs' iudk idfmaCI
wKql ialkaO iys; we,aäyhsvj,g yd lSfgdakj,g idfmaCI j ldfndlais,sla
wï,j, ;dmdxl by< fõ'
² C1 isg C4 olajd ldfndlais,sla wï, c,fha fyd¢ka Èhe fõ' ldnka ixLHdj
jeä jk úg c,ødjH;dj wvq fõ' wefrdaueál ldfndlais,sla wï, c,fha
ødjH iaMálrEmS >k øjH fõ' tfy;a ldnksl wï, ish,a,la u mdfya ldnksl
ødjlj, Èh fõ'
² ldfndlais,sla wï, wKq hq.,a f,i yhsârcka nkaOkj,ska ne£ oaú-wjhjl

iE§fï yelshdj o ldfndlais,sla wï,j, ;dmdxl by< w.hla .ekSug fya;=
fõ' ldfndlais,sla wï, oaú-wjhjl jHqy f,i yhsârcka nkaOkj,ska ne£
mj;sk wdldrh my; rEmfha oelafõ'
O H O
R C C R
O H O
140
ldfndlais,sla wï,j, m%;sl%shd
² O - H nkaOkh ì£fuka isÿ jk m%;sls%hd

-
2RCOOH + 2Na 2RCOO Na+ + H2
-
RCOOH + NaOH RCOO Na+ + H2O
-
RCOOH + NaHCO3 RCOO Na+ + CO2 + H2O
fidaähï" fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ yd fidaähï nhsldnfkaÜ iu`.

we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlais,sla wï, olajk m%;sl%shd
ixikaokd;aul j my; j.=fõ oelafõ'
ixfhda.h Na f,dayh iu`. NaOH ødjKh NaHCO3

iu`. ødjKh iu`.
m%;sls%hd lr
m%;sls%hdjla
R -O Na+ idoñka H2 m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
R - OH -
ke;'
msg lrhs'
OH m%;sls%hd lr m%;sls%hdjla
m%;sls%hd lr -
- C6H5O Na+ idoñka ke;'
C6H5O Na+ idoñka
H2 msg lrhs' NaOH ødjKh ;=<
Èh fõ'
O m%;sls%hd lr m%;sls%hd lr
m%;sls%hd lr - -
R C - RCOO Na + RCOO Na +
RCOO Na +
O -H idoñka NaOH idoñka CO2
idoñka H2 msg lrhs'
ødjKh ;=< Èh fõ' jdhqj uqod yßhs'
² by; ixfhda. NaHCO3 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk wdldrhg u Na2CO3 iu`. o

m%;sls%hd lrhs'
we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlai,
s l
s a wï,j, wdï,sl m%n,;d my; i|yka
mßÈ úp,kh fõ'
we,afldfyd, < *Sfkda, < ldfndlais,sla wï,
ldfndlais,sla wï, c,Sh ødjKhl oS my; iu;=,s;;djg t<efò'
O O
R C + H2 O ⇌ R C + H3O+
-
OH O
by; iu;=,s;fha iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh *Sfkda, we;s lr .kakd wkqrEm
iu;=,s;;djg idfmalaI j jvd;a ol=Kq mig nr j msysghs' fuhg fya;=j
jkafka ldfndlai,
s l
s a wï,j,g idfmalI
a j ldfndlaif
s ,aÜ whkfha ia:dhS;dj"
*Sfkda,aj,g idfmalaI j *SfkaÜ whkfha ia:dhS;djg jvd jeä ùu hs'
ldfndlaisf,aÜ whkh my; oelafjk jHqyj, iïm%hqla; uqyquls'
-
O O
R C R C
- O
O
141
ldfndlaisf,aÜ whkfha ia:dhS;djg fya;= jkqfha iudk úoHq;a RK
Tlaiscka mrudKq w;r RK wdfrdamKh úia:dk.; ù meje;Su hs'
² C - O nkaOkh ì£fuka isÿ jk m%;sls%hd

² PCl3/ PCl5 iu`.
O OH O Cl
C C
PCl3
+ H3PO3
O OH O Cl
C C
PCl5
+ POCl3 + HCl
² we,afldfyd, iu`.
O O
CH3 C + C2H5OH CH3 + H 2O
C
OH O-C 2H 5
² ldfndlais,sla wï, LiAlH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKh

ldfndlais,sla wï, b;d m%n, Tlaisydrlhla jk LiAlH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKfhka
we,afldfyd, ,nd fok w;r NaBH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKh fkd fõ'
O
CH3 CH2 C CH3 CH2 CH2 OH
O-H
² ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha nkaOk iajNdjh meyeÈ,s lr t u`.ska ldfndlais,sla

wï,j, fN!;sl .=K wkdjrKh lsÍu i|yd idlÉPdjla fufyhjkak'
142
ksmK
ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'7 ( wï, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 03 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd hkq wï, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd
nj m%ldY lrhs'
² wï, laf,darhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
² tiagrj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
² tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
² fuu fldgfiys iEu m%;sls%hdjl u m<uq jk mshjr ldnks,a ldnka u;g isÿ
jk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl myr §ula nj m%ldY lrhs'
úIh lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la

² wï, laf,darhsâj, m%;sls%hd
î& fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ iu`. m%;sls%hdj
wï, laf,darhsâ NaOH iu`. m%;sl%shd l< úg jeämqr NaOH m%;sls%hd lr
fidaähï ,jKh njg m;a jk wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla wï,h iEfoa'
O O O
NaOH NaOH
R C R C R C
Cl OH -
O Na+
² m%;sl%shdfõ hka;%Kh
O-
O O
NaOH
R C R C Cl R C + Cl-
Cl OH
-OH OH OH-
O
R C
O-
îi& c,h iu`. m%;sls%hdj

wï, laf,darhsâ c,h iu`. o iudk hka;%Khlska m%;sl%shd lr wkqrEm
ldfndlais,sla wï,h idohs'
O O
H 2O
R C R C
Cl OH
143
îii& we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shdj
wï, laf,darhsv" we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shd lr tiagr idohs'
O O
R C + C2H5-OH R C
Cl O-C 2H 5
îv& *Sfkda,a iu`. m%;sl%shdj

wï, laf,darhsv" *Sfkda,a iu`. m%;sls%hd lr *Skhs,a tiagr idohs'
OH
O O
R C + R C
Cl O
^v & NH3 iu`. m%;sl%shdj

wï, laf,darhsv" wefudakshd iu`. m%;sls%hd lr tauhsv idohs'
O O
NH 3
R C R C
Cl NH 2
^vi& m%d:ñl weók iu`. m%;sls%hdj

wï, laf,darhsv iu`. weók m%;sls%hd lr we,als,a tauhsv idohs'
H O H
O
R C + H N R R C N R
Cl
² tiagrj, m%;sls%hd
î& tiagr ;kql wï, u`.ska c,úÉfþokh ù wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla wï,h iy
we,afldfyd,h ,nd fohs'
O O
R C R C + C2H5OH
OC 2H 5 OH
îi& tiagr c,Sh NaOH iu`. m%;sls%hd l< úg we,afldfyd,h iy wkqrEm

ldfndlais,sla wï,fha fidaähï ,jKh idohs'
O O
R C R C + C2H5OH
OC 2 H 5 -
O Na +
144
îii& .%Skdâ m%;sldrlh iu.
.%Skdâ m%;sldrlh tiagr iu`. m%;sls%hd lr ;D;shsl we,afldfyd, idohs' fuys
§ tiagrh m<uq j lSfgdakhla nj m;a ù wk;=re j .%Skdâ m%;sldrlh iu`.
kej;;a
O YS>%fhka m%;sls%hd lrñka M,h ,ndOMgBr
fohs' OH
R C OC2H5 + 2CH3MgBr R C CH3 R C CH3
CH3 CH3
îv& u`.ska TlaisyrKh

LiAlH4O
R C OC2H5 RCH2-OH + C2H5OH
² weuhsvj, m%;sls%hd
î& NaOH iu`.
tauhsv c,Sh NaOH ødjKhla iu`. WKqiqï l< úg NH3 msg lrñka wkqrEm
ldfndlais,slOa wï,fha fidaähï ,jKhOidohs'
c,Sh NaOH
R C R C + NH3
NH 2 -
O Na+
îi& LiAlH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKh

LiAlH4 yuqfõ wkqrEm m%d:ñl weókh njg TlaisyrKh fõ'
O (i) LiAlH4
R C R-CH 2-NH 2
(ii) H+/H2O
NH 2

² wï, laf,darhsv" tiagr yd tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd isiq lKavdhïj,g
mjrd tajd wOHhkh lsÍug fhduq lrkak'
145
ksmK
q ;dj 11 ( khsÜrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;r
ksmqK;dj uÜgu 11'1 ( ,dlaIKsl m%;l

s h
%s d iy .=K weiqrk
s a weók iy weks,k
S a ms<n
s |
úYaf,aIKfha fhfohs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,als,a weókj, m%fNao y÷kd .kshs'
² m%d:ñl weókj, m%;sls%hd yodrhs'

² wefudakshdj, yhsârcka mrudKq fjkqjg we,als,a fyda weß,a ldKav iïnkaO
ù we;s ixfhda. weók jYfhkaa ye|skaúh yels h' weók" m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd
;D;shsl jYfhka j¾. lrkq ,efí' we,als,a fya,hsv yd we,afldfyd, fuka
fkd j" weók j¾.SlrKh flfrkqfha khsÜrcka mrudKqjg iïnkaO ù we;s
we,als,a fyda weß,a ldKav ixLHdj wkqj hs' wefudakshdj, yhsârcka mrudKq
;=fkka tlla fjkqjg we,als,a fyda weß,a ldKavhla iïnkaO ù we;s ixfhda.
m%d:ñl weók f,i ye|skf a õ' wefudakh
s dj, yhsârcka mrudKq folla fjkqjg
we,als,a fyda weß,a ldKav folla iïnkaO ù we;s ixfhda. oaú;shsl weók
f,i o yhsârcka mrudKq ;=k fjkqjg we,als,a fyda weß,a ldKav ;=kla
iïnkaO ù we;s ixfhda. ;D;shsl weók f,i o ye|skafõ'
ksoiqka (
CH3 CH3
CH3 H2 CH3 CH3
H CH3
m%d:ñl weók oaú;shsl weók ;D;shsl weók
² khsÜrcka mrudKqjg wju jYfhka tla weß,a ldKavhlaj;a iïnkaO ù we;s

ixfhda. weß,a weók f,i ye|skafõ'
NH2
weks,k
S a
² -NH2 ldKavh u`.ska fnkaik % ù we;s ksid Br2/H2O iu`. myiqfjka

S a j,h ilsh
m%;sl%shdlr iqÿ wjlafIamhla idohs'
146
² weókj, khsÜrcka mrudKqj u; we;s tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h fya;=
fldg f.k weók ks h q l a , s f hda * hs , f,i l% s h d lrhs ' m% d :ñl weók
kshqla,sfhd*hs, f,i úúO m%;sldrl iu`. olajk m%;s%lshd lsysmhla my; oela
fõ'
i& wï, laf,darhsv iu`. O
R NH2 + R/ COCl R/ C NH R
ii& we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak iu`.

O R/
R NH2 + R/ C H R N C H + H2O
H R
R N C H
OH
by; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj fí%ä m%;sldrlh iu`. we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak

olajk m%;sl%shdjg wkqrEm fõ'
(iii& we,alhs,a fya,hsv iu`.
fu fia iEfok oaú;shsl weók ;j ÿrg;a we,als,a fya,hsv iu`. m%;sl%shd

lrñka ;D;shsl weók yd pd;=¾: we,als,a wefudakshï ,jK ,nd fohs'
fï wkqj by; m%;sl%shdfõ oS M, ñY%Khla ,efí'

(iv) ^khsÜria wï,& iu`.
m%d:ñl weók khsÜria wï,h iu`. m%;sls%hd lr vhefidakshï ,jK idohs'
we,al,
s a vhefidakh
s ï ,jK wia:dhs neúka khsÜrcka jdhqj msg lrñka YS>f
% hka
we,afldfyd, njg m;a fõ'

² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels we,als,a weókj, jHqy bÈßm;a lsÍug
isiqkag mjrkak'
² m%d:ñl weókj, m%;sls%hd idlÉPd lrkak'
147
ksmK
q ;dj 11 ( khsÜrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;r
ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'2 ( fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. weókj, Ndiañl;dj ii|hs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we,s*eál weókj, iy weks,Skaj, Ndiañl;dj ii|hs'

² tauhsvj, iy weókj, Ndiañl;dj ii|hs'

² ;kql Lksc wï, u`.ska weók tajdfha ,jK njg mßj¾;kh lrhs' fuu
,jK c,Sh yhsâfrdlais,a whk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr kej;;a weókh ksoyia fõ'
t neúka weók c,hg jvd Ndiañl jk w;r" yhsâfrdlais,a whkhg jvd wvq
Ndiañl;djlska hqla; nj meyeos,s fõ'
² weók" we,afldfyd,j,g jvd Ndiañl fõ'

R-OH + H+ ⇌ ROH2+ we,als,a Tlafidakshï whkh
R-NH2 + H+ ⇌ RNH3+ we,als,a wefudakshï whkh
Tlaisckaj,g jvd khsÜrckays úoHq;a RK;dj wvq neúka khsg%cka tlir

bf,lafg%dak hq.,la m%odkh lsÍug jeä keUqrejla olajhs' t kï weókhlg
idfmalIa j we,al,
s a wefudakh
s ï whkfha ia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hlg idfmalI
a
j we,als,a Tlafidakshï whkfha ia:dhS;djg jvd jeä h' fuhg fya;=j jkqfha
úoHq;a RK;dfjka wvq mrudKqjlg Ok wdfrdamKhla jvd myiqfjka oeßh
yels ùu hs'
² weks,Skaj,g jvd m%d:ñl we,s*eál weókj, Ndiañl;dj jeä h'
weks,Skays khsÜrcka u; jQ tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h iïm%hqla;;dj u`.ska
wefrdaueál j,h u;g úia:dk.; ù we;s neúka fm%dafgdakhlg ,nd oSu
myiqfjka isÿ fkd ùu weks,Skaj, wvq Ndiañl;djg fya;= fõ'
148
² weókj,g jvd weuhsvj, Ndiañl;dj wvq h' ukao h;a" weuhsv ldKavfha
khsÜrcka u; we;s bf,lafg%dk
a hq., iïm%hl
q ;
a ;dj u`.k
s a ldfndkhs,a ldKavh
u;g úia:dk.; ù mej;Su hs'
O O-
R C R C +
NH2 NH2

² we,afldfyd," weók" weks,Ska yd weuhsvj, Tlaiscka yd khsÜrcka mrudKq u;
we;s tlir bf,lafg%dk
a hq., odhl lsÍug we;s yelshdj wkqidrfhka tu ixfhda.j,
Ndiañl;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,s lrkak'
149
ksmqK;dj 11 ( khsÜrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;r
ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'3 ( vhfidakshï ,jKj, m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² vhfidakshï ,jKh ksmojd .kakd wdldrh úia;r lrhs'
² vhfidakshï ,jKh c,h" H3PO2, CuCl, CuCN, CuBr yd KI iu`. isÿ lrk
m%;sia:dmk m%;sls%hd ,shd olajhs'
² vhfidakshï ,jKh bf,laÜfrd*hs,hla f,i yeisfrk m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka
,shd olajhs'

² weks,Ska khsÜria wï,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr *Sfkda,a ,nd foa'
NH OH
2
NaNO2 /HCl + N2 + HCl
wefrdaueál vhfidakshï ,jK we,s*eál vhfidakshï ,jKj,g jvd ia:dhS

fõ' t neúka fuu m%;sl%shdj my< WIaK;ajj, oS isÿ l< úg wefrdaueál
vhfidakshï ,jKh *Sfkda,h njg m;a ùu my; jefgk w;r vhfidakshï
,jKh fjka lr .; yels h' N +2 Cl -
NH2 N +2 Cl -
NaNO2 /HCl
(0 - 5) 0C
² vhfidakh
s ï ldKavh m%;i
s :
a dmkh fjñka vhfidakh
s ï ,jK isÿ lrk m%;l
s h
s% d
- c,h iu`.
OH
H2O/∆
+ N2 + HCl
- CuCl iu`.
Cl
CuCl/ HCl
+ N2
- CuBr iu`.
Br
CuBr/HBr
+ N2
150
- KI iu`.
I
KI
+ N2
- CuCN iu`.
CN
CuCN/KCN + N2
- yhsfmdfmdiamria wï,h iu`.
H3PO2
+ N2 + H3PO3 + H+
² bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj, § vhfidakshï ,jKhg

bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,i m%;sls%hd l< yels h'
vhfidakshï ,jKh *Sfkda,a iu`. m%;sls%hd lr ;eô,s j¾Khlska hqla;
jk ixfhda.hla ,nd fok w;r β -kemaf;da,a iu`. m%;sls%hd lr r;=
j¾Kfhka hqla; ixfhda.hla o ,nd foa'
OH
N +2 Cl -
/ NaOH
HO N=N
;eô,s
OH
HO
/ NaOH
N=N
r;=
² weók" we,afldfyd," weks,Ska yd weuhsvj, ir, jHqy we|Sug isiqkag Wmfoia
fokak'
² tu ixfhda.j, khsÜrcka mrudKq i;= tlir bf,lafg%dak hq., odhl lsÍug we;s
yelshdj wkqidrfhka fï ixfhda.j, Ndiañl;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,s lrkak'
151
ksmqK;dj 12'0 ( ridhksl" m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍug yd m%;sl%shd
YS>;
% dj iqÿiq mßos md,kh lsÍug pd,l ridhk úoHd uQ,O¾u
fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'1 ( ridhksl m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl ks¾Kh
lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² hï úm¾hdihl tall ld,hla ;=< isÿ jk fjkia ùu YS>%;dj f,i m%ldY
lrhs'
² YS>%;dj flfrys ld,h mokï jk nj úúO WodyrK iïnkaO lr f.k m%ldY
lrhs'
² úúO YS>%;dj,ska hq;= j isÿ jk ridhksl m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrK imhhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj uekSfï oS øjH m%udKfha fjkia ùu uQ,sl idOlh f,i
olajhs'
² YS>%;dj ieie|Sfï oS øjH m%udKh fyda idkaøKh fyda u; r|d mj;sk fjk;a
.=Khla ^j¾;k wxlh wdosh& Ndú; l< yels nj fmkajhs'
² laIKsl j isÿ jk m%;sl%shd i|yd ld,h ueksh fkd yels neúka tajdfha YS>%;dj
wOHhk lsÍug wmyiq nj m%ldY lrhs'
² ld,h ueksh yels fiñka isÿj k m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;d wOHhkh l< yels njg
WodyrK imhhs'
² ridhksl úm¾hdihl YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu wdo¾Ykh lrhs'
² m%;l
s h
%s djl YS>;
% dj flfrys idkaøKfha n,mEu fmkaùu i|yd WodyrK imhhs'
² m%;sls%hdjl YS>%;dj flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjh ^mDIaÀl j¾.M,h& n,mdk
wdldrh wdo¾Ykh lrhs'
² iucd;Sh W;afma%rl u`.ska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj fjkia ùu wdo¾Ykh lr fmkajhs'
² úIucd;Sh W;afm%arl u`.ska m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj fjkia ùu wdo¾Ykh lr fmkajhs'

² talSh ld,hl § isÿ jk idkaøKfha fjkia ùu YS>%;dj f,i w¾: oelaúh yels
h' ^m%;sls%hl idkaøKh wvq ùu fyda M, idkaøKh jeä ùu f,i&
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
² WIaK;ajh
² idkaøKh ^mSvkh&
² fN!;sl iajNdjh ^m%;sl%shlj, mDIaÀl j¾.M,h&
² W;afm%arl îucd;Ssh fyda úIucd;Sh&

² yels ;rï iajdNdúl WodyrK imhñka mßirfha isÿ jk ixisoaê" laIKsl
$flá ld,Sk$os.= ld,Sk f,i j¾.SlrKh lrkak'
² ;U f,dayh yd iskala f,dayh o< jYfhka 50] HNO3 wï,hg oud m%;sl%shd
YS>%;dfõ fjki fmkakqï lrkak'
² CuSO4 ødjKhlg iskala lene,a,la oud ødjKfha j¾K fjkia ùu fmkakqï
152
lrkak' ødjKfha idkaøKfhys ñkqula f,i j¾Kh fhdod .; yels fyhska
YS>%;dj ieieoSfï oS j¾K fjki ie,els,a,g .; yels nj idlÉPd lrkak'
mÍlaIKh I : m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys idkaøKh n,mdk nj fmkaùu
² rEmigyfka oelafjk mßos wegejqula ilia lr msßisÿ lrk ,o 2 cm os.

ue.akSishï má lene,s folla tl;= lrkak' k< follg c,h 10 cm3 ne.ska
f.k tl k,hlg HCl ìxÿ folla o wfklg ìxÿ y;rla o oud mÍlaIKh lr
n,kak' ^fuys wfkl=;a idOl ksh; j ;nd idkaøKh muKla fjkia lr
we;'&
c,h 10 cm3 +
c,h 10 cm3 HCl wï, ìxÿ y;rla
+ HCl wï, Mg
ìxÿ folla c,h
^WIaK;ajh ksh; j mj;ajd f.k hdug c, n÷k wjYH fõ'&
² wï, idkaøKh jeä k<fha fõ.fhka jdhq nqnq`M ksl=;a jk nj olakg ,efí'
² fï wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys idkaøKh n,mdk nj ks.ukh l<
yels h'
mÍlaIKh II ( m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajh n,mdk nj fmkaùu'
² rEmigyfka oelafjk wdldrhg wegejqu ilid moaO;sj, WIaK;ajh muKla

úp,kh lrñka wksl=;a idOl ksh; j ;nd m%;sl%shd lrjkq ,efí'
1'0 mol dm-3 H2SO4 10.0 cm3

0'01 mol dm-3 KMnO4 10.0 cm3
0'01 mol dm-3 Na2C2O4 25.0 cm3
ldur
WIaK;ajfha 60 0C WIaK;ajfha
mj;sk c, mj;sk c,
;dmlh ;dmlh
² t úg ldur WIaK;ajfha mj;sk ødjKhg jvd jeä fõ.hlska 60 0C mj;sk

ødjKh új¾K jk nj ksÍlaIKh l< yels h'
² fï wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys WIaK;ajh n,mdkafka he hs ks.ukh
l< yels h'
153
mÍlaIKh III ( m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sls%hlj, fN!;sl iajNdjh
^mDIaÀl j¾.M,h& n,mdk nj fmkaùu'
² tl u ialkaOhla we;s CaCO3 leghla iy CaCO3 l=vq fjk fjk u

mÍlaIK k< follg .kak'
² k< folg u tl u idkaøKh we;s ^Wod ( 0'01 mol dm-3 HCl(aq)& wï,
iudk mßud tl;= lrkak'
² mÍlaIK k< fol u c, ;dmlhl ;nkak'
² jdhq msg ùfï fõ.j, fjki ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
² c, ;dml ;=< ;eîfï wjYH;dj wjOdrKh lrkak'
² CaCO3 l=vq iys; k<fha jdhq msg ùfï YS>%;dj wkslg jvd jeä nj
ksÍlaIKh l< yels h'
² fï wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sls%hlj, fN!;sl iajNdjh
n,mdk nj ks.ukh l< yels h'
mÍlaIKh IV (
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys W;afm%arl n,mdk nj mÍlaId lsÍu'
² lelEreï k< follg zmßud 20Z H2O2 10'0 cm3 ne.ska .kq ,efí' ^mßud 20
hkafkka woyia jkafka iïu; WIaK;ajh yd mSvkfha § H2O2 ødjKfha
tall mßudjlska O2 mßud 20la ,efnk nj hs'&
² tla k<hlg c,h 5'0 cm3 tl;= lrk w;r wfklg 0'1 mol dm-3 NaOH
ødjKh 5'0 cm3 tl;= lrkak'
² t úg NaOH tl;= l< k<fha fõ.fhka jdhq nqnq¿ ksl=;a jk olakg ,efí'
² fï wkqj NaOHj,ska H2O2j, úfhdack YS>%;dj jeä flfr;e hs lsj yels
h'
W;afm%arl j¾.
(a) iucd;Sh W;afm%arl

m%;ls h
s% l iy W;afm%r
a l tl u l,dmfha mj;S kï tu W;afm%r
a l iucd;Sh W;afm%r
a l
f,i ye|skafõ'
Wod (-(i)
(ii)
(b) úIucd;Ssh W;afm%arl

W;afm%arl yd m%;sl%shl tlsfklg fjkia l,dmj, mj;sk úg tajd úIucd;Sh
W;afm%arl f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
Wod (- (i)
(ii)
154
YS>%;dj iqÿiq mßos md,kh lsÍug pd,l ridhk úoHd
uQ,O¾u fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'2 ( m%;l

s h
s% lj, idkaøK WÑ; mßos yiqrejñka m%;l
s h
s% d YS>;
% dj
md,kh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 14 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² aA+bB → cC +dD hkak ridhksl m%;sls%hdjla f,i idudkHlrKh lrhs'
² A m%;sl%shlfha idkaøKh fjkia ùfï YS>%;dj f,i fyda D M,fha
idkaøKh fjkiaùfï YS>;

% dj f,i fyda m%;l
s h
%s djl YS>;
% dj w¾:l:kh
lrhs'
² fok ,o m%;sl%shdjl oS tla tla m%;sl%shlh bj;a jk fyda tla tla M,h
iEfok fyda YS>%;d tlsfklg iudk fkd jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sls%hlhla bj;a ùfï YS>%;dj fyda M,hla W;amdokh ùfï YS>%;dj fyda
wod< ix>glfha iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl ix.=Klh u; r|d mj;sk nj m%ldY
lrhs'
² fï wkqj m%;sls%hdjl YS>%;dj } nj m%ldY lrhs'

m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ieie|Sfï oS ksYaÑ; m%;sl%shlhla fyda M,hla fyda f;dard
.; hq;= nj ;yjqre lrhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sl%shlj, idkaøKfha n,mEu ta ta m%;sl%shlg
wod< m%;sl%shd fm< u`.ska fmkakqï lrk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
YS>%;dj = k [A]x [B]y
² YS>%;d kshufha wvx.= mo w¾: l:kh lrhs'
² m<uq jk fm< yd fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshufha iólrK ,shd
olajhs'
² m<uq jk fm< yd fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d ksh;fhys tall
^mrsfïh SI tall yd mßfïh fkd jk SI tall& jHq;amkak lrhs'
² Y+kH fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshufha iólrKh ,shd olajhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl iuia; fm< w¾:l:kh lrhs'
² Y=kH fm<" m<uq jk fm<" fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj"
idkaøKh iu`. fjkia jk wdldrh m%ia;dßl j ksrEmKh lrhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h w¾: l:kh lrhs'
² m<uq jk fm< m%;sl%shdjl w¾OÔj ld,h idkaøKh u; r|d fkd mj;sk nj
meyeos,s lrhs'
² úúO fm<j,g wh;a m%;sl%shd i|yd m%dfhda.sl WodyrK imhhs'
² iqÿiq m%ia;dr u`.ska m%;sl%shdjl wdrïNl YS>%;dj" lsishï fudfyd;l YS>%;dj
yd uOHkH YS>%;dj ksrEmKh lrhs'
155
² Y+kH" m<uq jk yd fo jk fm< m%;sl%shd kso¾Ykh lsÍu i|yd mÍlaIK
bosßm;a lrhs'
² mÍlaIKj,ska ,efnk f;dr;=re ksis f,i yeisrùfuka úúO m%;sl%shlj,g
wod< j m%;sl%shdfõ fm< ks¾Kh lrhs'
² YS>%;d kshuh yd m%;sl%shd fm< wdY%s; .eg¨ úi|hs'
úIh lreKq meyeÈ,s lr §ug w;aje,la
• A g idfmaCI j m%;sls%hdfõ fm< =
• D g idfmaCI j m%;sls%hdfõ fm< =
• idudkHlrKh lrk ,o by; m%;sls%hdfõ YS>%;d kshuh = k [A] x [B] y. fuys x

yd y hkq ms<sfj<ska A g yd B g idfmaCI j m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fõ'
² by; m%ldYhg wkqj m%;sls%hdfõ iuia; fm< (x + y) u`.ska oelafõ'

mÍlaIKh I(- Mg iy wï, w;r m%;sl%shdj flfrys idkaøKfha n,mEu
mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu
wjYH oE (- 0'1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 250 cm3
msßisÿ lrk ,o 2.0 cm Mg má len,s 6
l%uh (-
rn¾ máh
H2SO4 ødjKh
123
12312
Mg máh
rn¾ máh 123
12312
12
c,h 10 cm3
isyska ùÿre k<h
c,h
² lelEreï k<hlg c,h 10 cm3 oud uÜgu rn¾ máh fhdod l%udxlkh lr
.kq ,efí'
² lelEreï k<hg 0'10 mol dm-3 H2SO4 wï,h 40 cm3 la tl;= lr lg msfrk
f;la c,h mqrjd .kq ,efí'
² msßisÿ lrk ,o 2.0 cm os. Mg má lene,a, rEm igyfka oelafjk wdldrhg
uQähg iú lr Mg máh we;=`M jk mßos uQäh jid hál=re lrñka úrdu
>áldj l%shd;aul lsÍu tl jr lrkq ,efí'
² l%udxls; uÜgu olajd jdhqj msÍug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,efí'
156
² j.=fõ oelafjk wdldrhg úúO wï, mßud Ndú; lrñka o" 2 cm os. Mg má
w¨;ska iú lrñka o" l%udxls; uÜgu olajd jdhqj tl;= ùug ld,h ukskq
,efí'
0.10 mol dm-3 l%udxls; uÜgu olajd

H2SO4 mßudj$cm3 jdhqj msÍug .; jk ld,h$s
40'0
35'0
30'0
25'0
20'0
15'0
wdrïNl YS>%;dj = wdrïNfha isg iq`M fjkia ùula olajd

uOHkH YS>%;dj
tla tla wï, ødjKfha idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak' idkaøKh yd
w;r m%ia;drhla w|skak' ,efnk m%;sM, idlÉPd lrkak'
mÍlaIKh II (- Na2S2O3 iy HCl wï,h w;r m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj flfrys

idkaøKfha n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu'
wjYH øjH ( Na2S2O3 0.10 mol dm-3 ødjKh" 2.0 mol dm-3 HCl wï,h"
úrdu >áldj" lelEreï k<" ñkqï is,skavr" 50cm3 îlrhla
l%uh (
² j.=fõ oelafjk mßÈ wod< Na2S2O3 ødjK mßudj 50 cm3 îlrhlg oukq
,efí'
² l;srhla .eiQ iqÿ lvodishla u; Na2S2O3 iys; îlrh ;nd" wod< HCl mßudj
thg tl;= lr îlrfha isg ksh; Wilska wei ;nd f.k l;srh fkd fmkS
hdug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,efí'
² îlrh msßisÿ lr j.=fõ olafjk wdldrhg úúO ødjK mßud Ndú; lrñka
l;srh fkd fmkS hdug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,efí'
157
(i) m%;sl%shd iS>%;dj yd ;fhdai,afmaÜ whk idkaøKh w;r iïnkaOh fiùu
my; j.=fõ fmkajd we;s mßos úúO ;fhdai,af*aÜ idkaøK we;s ødjK
Ndú;fhka mÍlaIKh isÿ lrkak'
Na2S2O3 c, HCl ld,h$s

ødjK mßudj/cm3 ødjK
mßudj$cm3 mßudj /cm3
25.0 - 5.0
20.0 5.0 5.0
15.0 10.0 5.0
10.0 15.0 5.0
5.0 20.0 5.0
(ii) m%;sl%shdfõ iS>%;dj iy yhsârcka whk idkaøKh w;r iïnkaOh fiùu

my; j.=fõ fmkajd we;s mßos úúO wï, idkaøK we;s jk mßos ødjK idod
mÍlaIKh kej; isÿ lrkak'
Na2S2O3 c, HCl
ødjK mßudj ødjK ld,h$s
mßudj$ $cm3 mßudj$
cm3 cm3
25.0 - 5.0 -
25.0 1.0 4.0 -
25.0 2.0 3.0 -
25.0 3.0 2.0 -
25.0 4.0 1.0 -
m
by; wjia:d foflys oS wdrïNfha isg l;srh fkd fmkS hdu olajd ld,h
;=< YS>%;dj ksh; j mj;S he hs o th wdrïNl YS>%;djg iudk he hs o
Wml,amkh lrkak' iEu wjia:djl u iEfok i,a*¾ m%udKh ksh; ksid
YS>%;dj } ksh;hla$t
by; wjia:d foflys oS idkaøKh iu`. YS>%;dj ^1$t& fl fia úp,kh fõ

oe hs wOHhkh lrkak'
158
mrSlaIKh III ( Fe(III) whk yd KI w;r m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj flfrys idkaøKfha
n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu'
jdoh (
fuu m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iEfok I2 m%udKh Ndú;
l< yels h' msIag ødjKhla ks,a mdg ùu i|yd ;sìh hq;= wju I2(aq)
idkaøKh 1.0 × 10-5 mol dm-3 fõ' fuh b;d iq`M m%udKhla neúka ta i|yd
.; jk ld,h uekSu wiSre h' t neúka ld,h ueksh yels jk mßos ks,a
meyeùug .; jk ld,h m%udo l< hq;= h' fuu ;;a;ajh I2, I- njg m;a
jk YS>% m%;sl%shdjlska <`.d lr .; yels h' fï i|yd Na2S2O3 fhdod .;
yels h'
okakd Na2S2O3 m%udKhla udOHhg tl;= flf¾' udOHfha wvx.= S2O32-

wjika jQ fudfydf;a u ødjKfha ks,a j¾Kh osia fõ' iEfok whãka
m%udKh" fhdod we;s Na2 S2O3 m%udKh u`.ska ;SrKh fõ'
wjYH øjH ( 0.10 mol dm-3 KI ødjKh" 0.10 mol dm-3 Fe3+ whk ødjKh
[FeCl3 fyda Fe(NH4)(SO4)2 fyda Ndú; lrkak']
0.10 mol dm-3 Na2S2O3 ødjKh" 0.10 mol dm-3 H2SO4
ødjKh" úrdu >áldj
l%uh (
mshjr 1
^1& ^2& ^3& ^4& ^5&

msIagh 0.1 mol dm-3 0.10 mol dm-3 0.10 mol dm-3 c,h msIagh ks,a
fh¥ H2SO4 KI FeCl3 mßudj$ mdg ùug
Na2S2O3 ødjK ødjK ødjK cm3 .; jk
ødjK mßudj$ mßudj$ mßudj$ ld,h$s
mßudj$cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3
10.0 10.0 25.0 10.0 -

10.0 10.0 20.0 10.0 5.0
10.0 10.0 15.0 10.0 10.0
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 15.0
10.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 20.0
by; j.=fõ oelafjk ødjK my; i|yka wkqms<sfj<g ñY% lr msIagh ks,amdg
ùug .; jk ld,h ukskq ,efí'
(2) + (4)
(1) + (3) + (5)
159
mshjr 2
msIagh 0.1 mol dm-3 0.1 mol dm-3 0.1 mol dm-3 msIagh
fh¥ H2SO4(aq) KI(aq) FeCl3(aq) c, ks,a mdg
Na2S2O3(aq) ødjK ødjK ødjK mßudj$ ùug .;
mßudj$cm3 mßudj$cm3 mßudj$cm3 mßudj$cm3 cm3 jk ld,h$s
10.0 10.0 10.0 25.0 0.0

10.0 10.0 10.0 20.0 5.0
10.0 10.0 10.0 15.0 10.0
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 15.0
10.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 20.0
by; wjia:d foflys § u idkaøKh (1/t) iu`. úp,kh jk wdldrh mÍlaId

lrkak'
YS>%;dj n=2
(1/t)
n=1
n=0
idkaøKh (c)
m%ia;drfha yevh wkqj" m%;sls%hdfõ fm< ^n& ;SrKh l< yels h'
wdrïNl Ys>%;dj" hï fudfyd;l YS>%;dj yd idudkH YS>%;dj
idkaøKh C0 R0 - wdrïNl YS>%;dj (t = 0 ys § YS>%;dj&

/mol dm-3
R1 - m%;sls%hdfõ t1 ld,fha § YS>%;dj =

C1
C2 R2 - m%;sls%hdfõ t2 ld,fha § YS>%;dj

R3 - m%;sls%hdfõ t3 ld,fha §
C2 YS>;
% dj
ld,h/s
t1 t2 t3
160
ld,h t1 isg ld,h t2 olajd m%;sls%hdfõ idudkH YS>%;dj
R1, R2 yd R3 hkq ms<sfj<ska ld,h t1 , t2 isg t3 § m%;sls%hdfõ lsishï fudfyd;l

YS>%;dj hs'
m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h ^ t 1/2 &

² m%;l s h
s% djl w¾O Ôj ld,h hkq lsih
s ï ridhksl m%;l
s h
s% djl m%;l
s h
s% l idkaøKh
w¾Ohla ùug .; jk ld,h hs'
² m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjla i|yd ld,h iu`. idkaøKh fjkia ùfï m%ia;dßl
ksrEmKh my; oelafõ' m<uq jk fm< m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h wdrïNl
idkaøKfhka iajdhka; fõ'
idkaøKh
/mol dm-3
C
C/2
C/4
C/8
t 1/2 t 1/2 t 1/2
t1/2 2t1/2 3t1/2 ld,h/s
161
ksmqK;dj 12'0 ( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍug yd m%;sl%shd
YS>;
fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'3 ( ridhksl m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj flfrys úúO idOlj, n,mEu
ú.%y lsÍug wKql pd,l jdoh fhdod .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² m%;sl%shdjla isÿ ùug wjYH idOl ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
² il%shk Yla;sh w¾: olajhs'
² WIaK;ajh jeä lrk úg wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh jeä jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² fjkia WIaK;aj foll oS jdhq wKq i|yd fnda,aÜiaudka jHdma;s jl% we| tu
WIaK;aj foflys oS jdhq wKqj, pd,l Yla;s ii|hs'
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dfõ jeä ùu wKqj, pd,l Yla;sfha jeä ùu weiqßka meyeos,s
lrhs'
² idkaøK ixl,amh Ndú;hg .ksñka tall mßudjla ;=< tall ld,hl oS isÿ
jk ix>Ügk ixLHdfõ jeä ùu meyeos,s lrhs'
² WÑ; osYdk;shla iys; ix>Ügk ixLHdj" iuia; ix>Ügk ixLHdjg
iudkqmd;sl nj m%ldY lrhs'
² WIaK;ajh kexùfï oS il%shk Yla;sh blaujk wKq ixLHdj jeä jk nj
m%ldY lrhs'
² WIaK;ajh jeä jk úg ix>Ügk ixLHdj o jeä jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sl%shlh >k øjHhla jk úg § tys mDIaÀl j¾.M,h jeä l< úg ix>Ügk
ixLHdj jeä jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys W;afm%arlhl n,mEu m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh
weiqßka úia;r lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjla isÿ ùug kï ;
² m%;sl%shl wKq ix>Ügkh úh hq;= hs'
² wKq WÑ; osYdk;shla iys; j .eáh hq;= h'
² tla;rd wju Yla;shlg jvd jeä pd,l Yla;shla .efgk wKqj,g ;sìh
hq;= h' ^fï wju Yla;sh il%shk Yla;sh kñka ye|skafõ'&
² WÑ; osYdk;sh
my; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj i,lkak'
NO (g) + Cl2 (g) → NOCl (g) + Cl (g)
fuys ix>Ügkhg ;=vq fok my; oelafjk wKql osYdk;s fol i,luq'
^w&
O Cl Cl
O
Cl Cl
N N
NO wKqfõ khsÜrcka mrudKqj Cl2 wKqfõ Cl mrudKqj iu`. .efgk w;r

N-Cl nkaOkh we;s fõ'
162
N Cl Cl
N
^wd& O Cl
O Cl
NO wKqfõ Tlaiscka mrudKqj Cl2 wKqj fj; ióm jk w;r N-Cl

nkaOkh we;s fkd fõ' NO yd Cl2 wKq .eà" fmd,d mek fjka fõ'
² il%shk Yla;sh
il%shk Yla;sh Êa& hkq M, ksmoùu i|yd ix>Ügkh jk wKqj,g ;sìh hq;=
wju Yla;sh hs' th Yla;s ndOlhla jk w;r tys úYd,;ajh m%;sl%shdj u;
/f|a'
>
wKql Nd.h
s $k J
Yla;h
Ea
Ea il%shk Yla;sh
m%;l
s h
s% l blaujQ Yla;s iys;
wKql Nd.h
∆H
M, >
> Ea pd,l Yla;sh
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
tu fõ.h iys; wKq .Kk

hï fõ.hla we;s wKql Nd.h }
uq`M wKq .Kk
² il%shk Yla;shg jvd wvq Yla;shlska hq;a wKq o >Ügkh fõ' tfy;a fuys
oS tu wKq .eàfuka miq tlsfklska wE;a fõ'
² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj il%shk Yla;sh Êa& u; /|S mj;S' Ea wvq j;a u" Bg jeä
Yla;shlska hq;a wKqj, ixLHdj jeä fõ' fï ksid iM, ix>Ügk ixLHdj
by< f.dia m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeä fõ'
m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
² WIaK;ajh
WIaK;ajh jeä jk úg pd,l Yla;sh jeä jk neúka tall ld,hl oS tall
mßudjla ;=< isÿ jk ix>Ügk ixLHdj jeä fõ' tu ksid tall ld,hl oS
isÿjk iM, ix>Ügk ixLHdj o jeä jk w;r tkhska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeä
fõ'
fï yereKq úg l=vd WIaK;aj ke`.Sul oS jqj" il%shk Yla;sh blaujd hk
Yla;sfhka hq;a wKqj, Nd.h fndfyda fihska jeä ùu ksid o YS>%;dj jeä fõ'
uelaiafj,a-fnda,aÜiaudka Yla;s jHdma;s jl%fhka fuh meyeos,s l< yels h'
163
T1
wKql Nd.h
T2
T1< T2
Ea pd,l Yla;sh
² idkaøKh
m%;sl%shl idkaøKh jeäj;a u tall mßudjl wKq ixLHdj jeä jk neúka
tall ld,hla ;=, tall mßudjl isÿjk ix>Ügk ixLHdj jeä jk w;r" ta
iu`. tall mßudjl isÿjk iM, ix>Ügk ixLHdj o jeä fõ' t neúka
m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj jeä fõ'
ie'hq' jdhquh moaO;sj," kshñ; WIaK;ajhl oS mSvkh jeä jk l,ays mßudj wvq
fõ' t fyhska idkaøKh jeä fõ' fï ksid jdhquh m%;sl%shdj,mSvkh jeä
ùu m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ'
² W;afm%arl
W;afm%arlhla u`.ska m%;sl%shdjl hka;%Kh fjkia lsÍu fya;=fjka m%;sl%shdj
fjkia m%;sl%shd ud¾.hla .kshs' tys il%shk Yla;sh my;a w.hls' t neúka fuu
il%shk Yla;shg jeä Yla;shla we;s wKqj, ixLHdj jeä fõ' fï ksid tall
ld,hl oS isÿ jk iM, ix>Ügk ixLHdj jeä ù t khska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj o
jeä fõ'
W;afm%arl ke;s wKql

wjia:dj Nd.h
W;afm%arl we;s Ea - W;afm%arlh ke;súg il%shk Yla;sh
Yla;h
wjia:dj Ea/c - W;afm%arlh we;súg il%shk Yla;sh

s
Ea
a/c
m%;sl%shl
²
²
M, ² ² ² 12
12
12
²
² 12
12
1212
1212
12112
1212
112
12
121123
12123
1
² ²²
² 12
12
12
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
pd,l Yla;sh
² m%;sl%shlj, fN!;sl iajNdjh
>k m%;l s h
s% lj, wxY=j, ;ru l=vdj;a u" m%;l
s h
s% l wKqj,g .eáh yels mDIaÁl
j¾.M,h jeä fõ' fuh m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ'
kso (- c,Sh yhsârlaf,daßla wï, ødjKhla iu`. CaCO3 len,sj,g jvd
fõ.fhka CaCO3 l=vq m%;sl%shd ùu fuhg ksoiqkls'

² M, ksmoùu i|yd m%;sls%hd iïnkaOfhka jk wjYH;d idlÉPd lrkak'
² ix>Ügk jdoh weiqfrka idkaøKh" WIaK;ajh" mDIaÁl j¾.M,h yd W;afm%r
a l
m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj flfrys flfia n,mdkq ,nkafka oehs idlÉPd lrkak'
164
YS>;
fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'4 ( ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj ú.%y lsÍug m%;sl%shd hka;%Kh
fhdod .kshs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² uQ,sl m%;sl%shd" ixlS¾K m%;sl%shdj,ska fjka lr olajhs'
² m%;sl%shdjl fm< yd hka;%Kh w;r iïnkaO;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
² Yla;s úoHdfõ uQ,O¾u Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka" wKql ix>Ügkfhka miq j we;s
jk isoaê meyeos,s lsÍu i|yd Yla;s me;slv f.dv kxjhs'
² m%;sl%shdj,g hka;%K fhdackd lrkq msKsi iuia:dksl yd pd,l úoHd;aul
wOHhk m%fhdackhg .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'

uQ,sl m%;sl%shd
² iuyr m%;sl%shd tla mshjrlska isÿ fõ' tajd uQ,sl m%;sl%shd hkqfjka ye|skafõ'
uQ,sl m%;sl%shd iq,n fkd fõ'
ksoiqka (
1' NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2(g) + O2(g)
2.
nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd
² m%;sl%shdj,ska nyq;rh" ir, f,i fmfkk m%;sls%hd mjd" mshjr lsysmhlska isÿ
jk w;r tajd nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd hkqfjka ye|skafõ'
ksoiqk (-
2N2O5(g) → 4NO2(g) + O2(g) îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
² ridhksl m%;sl%shdjla mshjr lsysmhlska isÿ jk nj wdï,slD; fmdgEishï

vhsfl%dafïÜ ødjKhlg yhsv%cka f*frdlaihsâ tl;= lsÍfuka fmkajd Èh
yels h'
165
^ks,&a
^fld<&
² ;=,;
s ridhksl iólrKfhka m%ldYs; Y=oO
a úm¾hdihg fya;= jk uQ,l
s m%;l
s h
s% d
^mshjr& wkqms<sfj< m%;sl%shdfõ hka;%Kh kï fõ'
² we;eï úg" m%;sl%shdjl hka;%Kh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iuia:dksl id¾:l f,i
Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
kso ( O O
R C + HO R C + H218O
18
OH O
H2O bj;a ùu i|yd wï,fha wvx.= 18 OH ldKavfha O mrudKqj fhfok nj
18
O iuia:dkslh u`.ska fmkaúh yels h'
kso (
O O
18
OH- + R C R C + OH
O 18
O-
tiagrj, laIdÍh c,úÉfþokfha oS we,afldfyd,h 18O iuia:dkslfhka f;dr

ùu" weis,a - Tlaiscka úLKavkh yryd isÿ jk nj ikd: lrhs'
R′
² ;=,s; ridhksl m%;sl%shdjlg iyNd.s jk wKq ixLHdj wKql;dj kï fõ'
uQ,sl m%;sl%shdj, wKql;dj" m%;sl%shd fm<g iudk fõ'
wKql;dj m%;sl%shdj fõ. m%ldYkh m%;sl%shd fm<

tal wKql A → M, R = k[A] m<uq jk fm<
oaú wKq 2A → M, R = k[A]2 fo jeks fm<
;%s wKql 3A → M, R = k[A]3 f; jeks fm<
² nyqmshjr îxlS¾K& m%;sl%shdjl fõ.h ks¾Kh lrkafka fifuka u isÿ jk

m%;sl%shdj hs' t fyhska th fõ. ks¾K mshjr (RDS) hkqfjka ye|skafõ' t
fyhska nyqmshjr m%;sl%shdjl fõ. kshuh ks¾Kh lsÍfï ;SrKd;aul idOlh
jkafka fõ. ks¾K mshjr hs'
kso (
A + 2B → AB2 îuia; m%;sl%shdj&
A+ B AB ^fõ. ks¾K mshjr&
AB + B AB2
R = k[A][B]
² m%;l
s h
s% djla" hï m%;l
s h
s% lhla wkqnoaOfhka Y=kH fm< ù kï" bka woyia jkafka
tu m%;sl%shdfõ hka;%Khg mshjr folla fyda jeä .Kkla we;=<;a jk nj;a"
t lS m%;sl%shlh iyNd.s jk mshjr idfmalaI jYfhka jeä fõ.hlska isÿ jk
nj;a h'
166
² by; i|yka fya;= ksid" yqfola m%;sl%shdjl iuia; iólrKh foi ne,Sfuka
muKla" m%;sl%shl idkaøKh tys fõ.h flfrys n,mdk wdldrh fm/hsh fkd
yels h' m%;sl%shdjl fm<" mÍlaIK u`.ska muKla ks¾Kh flfrk wdkqNdúl
ksh;hls' (empirial entity).
² m%;sl%shdjla isÿ ùug kï m%;sl%shl wKq WÑ; osYdk;shla we;s j ix>Ügkh úh

hq;= h' tla mshjrlska isÿ flfr;e hs ie,eflk my; oelafjk ;dmdjfYdaIl
m%;sl%shdj i,lkak'
NO + Cl2 → NOCl + Cl
ix>Ügkh jk wKq folla tlsfklg ióm j;a u tajdfha bf,lafg%dak j,d

w;r úl¾IKh wkql%ufhka jeä jk w;r ta iu`. tajdfha fõ.h wvq fjhs'
fï iu`. wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh" úNj Yla;sh njg mßj¾;kh fjhs'
² M, iEfok mrsos m%;sl%shl wKq m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh ^m%;sl%shdfõ m%.;sh& Tiafia
bosßhg tñka úNj Yla;s Wmßuhla miq lrhs' fuu úNj Yla;s Wmßufha §
m%;sl%shlj, mrudKql kHIaáj, yd nkaOk bf,lafg%dakj, ieleiau il%sh
ixlS¾Khla (AC) f,i ye|skafõ' th
O = N....... Cl.......Cl f,i oelaúh yels h' il%sh ixlS¾Khla fnfyúka wia:dhS
jk w;r Bg we;af;a ixl%ñl meje;auls' t fyhska th fjka lr .; fkd yels
h' fï ksid fï wjia:dj ixl%uK wjia:djla ^TS& hkqfjka o y÷kajkq ,efí'
² m%;sl%shd lrk wKqj,g" tajdfha bf,lafg%dak j,d úksúo f.dia me/Ks nkaOk
ì|Sug ;rï m%udKj;a pd,l Yla;shla wef;d;a" il%sh ixlS¾Kh kj nkaOk
idoñka M, njg" t kï fuys oS NOCl yd Cl njg" mßj¾;kh fõ' wKqj,
∆
pd,l Yla;sh" YsLrh lrd ióm ùug m%udKj;a fkdfjf;d;a tajd fmd,d mek
tlsfklska wE;a fõ'
îl%sh ixlS¾Kh
fyj;a ixl%uK wjia:dj&
fuh my; oelafjk úNj Yla;s me;släka ksrEmKh l< yels h'
>
Yla;sh (O=N....Cl....Cl) Êa(f)& - bosß m%;sl%shdfõ

-------------------------------- il%shk Yla;sh
>
>
Êa (r)& - miq m%;sl%shdfõ

il%shk Yla;sh
Ea(r) ∆H - m%;sl%shdfõ
tka;e,ams fjki
Ea(f)
Ea(f) NOCl + Cl.
>>
>
H
NO + Cl2
>
>
--------------------------------
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
167
² N+ñ wjia:dfõ we;s m%;l
s h
s% lj, úNj Yla;h
s ;a" il%h
s ixlS¾Kfha úNj Yla;h
s ;a
w;r fjki bosß m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh Êa(f)& fõ' th" il%sh ixlS¾Kh
idokq msKsi WÑ; osYdk;sfhka ix>Ügkh jk wKqj,g iemehsh hq;= wju
w;sf¾l Yla;h s fõ' N+ñ wjia:dfõ we;s M,j, úNj Yla;h s ;a" il%h
s ixlS¾Kfha
úNj Yla;sh;a w;r fjki miq m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh Êa(r)& fõ' th
M,j,ska il%sh ixlS¾Kh iEoSug miq l< hq;= Yla;s lvbu fõ' bosß yd miq
m%;sl%shdj, il%shk Yla;s w;r fjki" m%;sl%shd tka;e,amshg iudk fõ'
∆H = Ea(f) - Ea(r)
^;dmodhl m%;sl%shdj," Yla;s uÜgug wkqrEm j" m%;sl%shlj,g my<ska M,

msysgk nj ie,elsh hq;= h'&
Wod (
O
N......Cl......Cl
Yla;sh O
------------------- ---- ----
>
>
>
O
. Ea(f)
N- Cl + Cl
O
>>
Ea(r)
O
H N + Cl - Cl
∆ O
>
>
------------------- ---- ----
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh
² nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd" Yla;s YS¾I fyj;a ixl%uK wjia:d tllg jeä .Kkla
yryd isÿ fõ' fu jeks m%;sl%shdj," idfmalaI jYfhka jeä ia:dhS;dfjka hq;a
m%;sl%shdYS,S w;rueoshla Î& Yla;s me;slfvys ksïkhl msysghs' th fjka lr
.ekSug fyda tys j¾Kdj,sh u`.ska y÷kd .ekSu l< yels h' M, njg m;a
ùug th ;j;a il%sh ixlS¾Khla fyj;a ixl%uK wjia:djla njg m;a úh
yels h' ixl%uK wjia:dfõ iajNdjh ms<sn| j fndfyda f;dr;=re imhkafka
w;rueosh hs'
m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh m%;sl%shd LKavdxlh

168
E = iuia; m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh
= m<uq jeks mshjfrys il%shk Yla;sh
= fo jeks mshjfrys il%shk Yla;sh
= I → A + B wdmiq m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh
= D → A + B wdmiq m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk Yla;sh
² fu jeks m%;sl%shdjlg ksoiqkla f,i fnkaiSkaj,g ÂrH& bf,lafg%d*hs,hla

Ê+& wdfoaY ùu ie,elsh yels h'
H
ArH + E+ Ar+ (fiñka)
E
H
+
Ar + Z ArE + HZ (fõ.fhka)
E
δ+ δ+
H NO2 H H NO2
- - NO2 --
-- --
-- --
+
δ+ + δ+
TS1 I TS2

² i;H m%;sl%shd lsysmhl f;dr;=re /ia lr" fõ. ks¾Kdhl mshjr oS tajdfha
fõ. kshuh fhdackd lsÍug isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'
² WÑ; osYdk;shlska wKq folla tlsfklg ióm ùfï oS l=ula isÿ jkafka o
hkak ms<sn| j idlÉPdjla fufyhjd tkhska m%;sl%shdjl Yla;s me;slv
f.dv kxjkak'
² m%;sl%shd hka;%K ks¾Kh lsÍfuys ,d pd,l úoHdj m%fhdackj;a jkafka fl
fia oe hs .fõIKh lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² fhdað; m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIK isÿ lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
169
ksmqK;dj 13'0 ( .;sl iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk ixjD; moaO;sj, ufyaCI .=K
ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iu;=,;
s ;dj ms<n
s | ixl,amh yd uQ,O¾u
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'1 ( iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,am weiqrska moaO;sj, ufyalaI .=K
m%udKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 14 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ixjD;" újD;" tal,s; moaO;s WodyrK foñka meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² wkjr; wjia:dj yd tu wjia:dfõ we;s moaO;s WodyrK foñka meyeos,s lrhs'
² moaO;shl .;sl iajNdjh yd m%;sj¾;H;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
² wjia:d úm¾hdi" ødjKj, mj;sk iu;=,s;;d" ridhksl moaO;s" whksl moaO;s
iy bf,lafg%dav w;r mj;sk iu;=,s;;d hkd§ fN!;sl yd ridhksl l%shdj,s
ksoiqka f,i fhdod .ksñka iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk moaO;s úia;r lrhs'
² iu;=,s;;d kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
² fok ,o moaO;s i|yd iu;=,s;;d ksh; ,shhs'
² iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh meyeos,s lrhs'
² n,mEulg hg;a lrk ,o moaO;shlg f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh fhdohs'
² idkaøKh" mSvkh" WIaK;ajh" W;afm%r
a l yd m%;l
s h
s% d udOH iu;=,;
s ;djg n,mdk
whqre úia;r lrhs'
² Kp, Kc, yd KD u; mokï jQ .eg¨ úi|hs'

² ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'1 hgf;a zúIh lreKq meyeos,s lsÍug w;aje,laZ mßYS,kh
lrkak'
² wkjr; wjia:dfõ mj;sk moaO;s
moaO;shl mj;sk hï ix>glhla iEoSfï YS>%;dj;a tu ix>glh jeh ùfï
YS>%;dj;a iudk jQ úg tu moaO;sh wkjr; wjia:dfõ we;s nj lsj yels h'
fuu l%shdj,sh ixjD; fyda újD; fyda hk moaO;sj, isÿ úh yels h' fuys oS
ufyalaI .=K ld,h iu`. fjkia fkd fõ'
ksoiqka (-
î& gexlshl we;s c,h mßudjlg hï YS>%;djlska c,h .,d tau;a" tu
YS>%;dfjka u bj;g c,h .,d hEu;a ie,el+ úg wdrïNfha oS tys ;snQ
c, mßudj t f,i u mj;S'
îi& jdhqf.da,h moaO;shla f,i ie,el+ úg" my; i|yka m%;sl%shd fya;=fjka
tys ´fidaka idkaøKh ksh; j mj;sk w;r th wkjr; wjia:dfõ
mj;S'
îii& úúO l%shdj,s ksid O2 jeh ùu;a" O2 iEoSu;a" tl u iS>%;dfjka u
isÿ jk ksid jdhqf.da,Sh O2 idkaøKh ksh; j mj;S'
îv& taldldr f,i oe,afjk bá mkaoula .ek is;kak' moaO;sh újD; h'
oe,af,a .=K fkd fjkia j mj;sk nj fmfkkafka øjH thg we;=`M jk
yd bka msg jk YS>%;d iudk jk fyhsks'
² by; moaO;s" iu;=,s; moaO;s fkd fõ'
170
² ufyalaI .=K
moaO;shla iuia;hla fia i,ld mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrkq ,nk fyda .Kkh
lrkq ,nk fyda .=K ufyalaI .=K fõ' fuys oS moaO;sfha wxY= ms<sn| j wjOdkh
fhduq lrkq fkd ,efí'
² .;sl l%shdj,s iy m%;sj¾;H;dj

A muKla we;=<;a lrk ,o ksh; WIaK;ajfha we;s ixjD; moaO;shl isÿ jk
my; oelafjk m%;sj¾;H m%;sl%shdj i,luq'
A B
wdrïNfha oS A " B njg m;a ùfï YS>%;dj b;d by< jk w;r B , A njg
m;a ùfï YS>%;dj Y+kH fõ' l%ufhka B iEoSu;a iu`. B , A njg m;a ùfï YSS>%;dj
jeä jk w;r" A, B njg m;a ùfï YS>%;dj l%ufhka wvq fõ' hï wjia:djl oS
bosß l%shdfõ YS>%;dj yd miq l%shdfõ YSS>%;dj iudk fõ' t úg moaO;sh .;sl
iu;=,s;;djg m;a ù we;e hs lshkq ,efí' fuh my; m%ia;drfhka o fmkaúh
yels h'
YS>;
% dj Rf = bosß m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj
Rb = miq m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj
Rf = Rb
ld,h
² fu n÷ iu;=,s;;d we;s jkafka m%;sj¾;H úm¾hdi wdY%s; j muKs'

² iu;=,s;;dj we;s ùug moaO;sh ixjD; tlla úh hq;= h'
² moaO;sh ksh; WIaK;ajfha meje;sh hq;= h'
² bosß yd miq hk fo miska u iu;=,s;;dj lrd t<ôh yels h'
² iu;=,s;;dj .;sl h. tkï iu;=,s; wjia:dfõ oS bosß yd miq m%;sl%shd fol
u iudk fõ.j,ska isÿ fõ'
² iu;=,s;;dfõ oS moaO;sfha ufyalaI .=K fjkia fkd fõ'
² fN!;sl fuka u ridhksl moaO;sj, o .;sl iu;=,s;;d mj;S'
² øj-jdhq iu;=,s;;d
ixjD; n÷kla ;=< we;=<;a lr we;s c,h yd by< wjldYfha we;s c, jdIamh
w;r my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s fõ'
H2O (l) H2 O(g)
² >k-jdhq iu;=,s;;d
whãka W!¾èjmd;kh jk øjHhls' ixjD; n÷kla ;=< wvx.= lrk ,o >k
whãka yd whãka jdIamh w;r my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s fõ'
I2(s) I2(g)
ixjD; n÷kla ;=< we;s w`.=rej,g wêfYdaIKh jQ CO jeks jdhqjla n÷k ;=<
jdhq l,dmfha we;s CO iu`. iu;=,s;;dfõ meje;Su fuhg ;j;a ksoiqkls'
171
² øú; jdhqjla yd jdhq l,dmh w;r iu;=,s;;dj
ksoiqkla f,i Tlaiscka jdhqj c,fha Èh ù iEfok ;kql ødjKhla i,luq'
fuu ødjKh" Tlaiscka jdhqj wvx.= jdhquh l,dmhla ^jdhqf.da,h jeks& yd
iam¾Y j we;s úg my; oelafjk .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s fõ'
O2(ødjKh& O2(g)
² wñY% øj-øjH iu;=,s;;dj

tlsfkl yd wñY% øj folla tlsfkl yd iam¾Y j mj;sk moaO;shl tu øj
fofla u øjKh jk øjHhla jHdma; j we;s wjia:djl fuh we;s fõ'
ksoiqkla f,i I2 c,h yd CCl4 hk øj foflys u osh fõ' CCl4 ys I2 osh ù
we;s wjia:djl Bg ixY=oaO c, ia;rhla tla lr we;s wjia:djl CCl4 ys osh ù
we;s I2 l%ufhka c, ia;rhg .uka lrhs' ld,h;a iu`. fu fia .uka lrk
fõ.h wvq fõ' ta w;r c, ia;rh ;=<g we;=`M jk I2 l%ufhka wdmiq CCl4
ia;rhg .uka lrhs' ld,h;a iu`. fu fia .uka lrk fõ.h jeä fõ' tu
ksid tla wjia:djl oS by; lS ixisoaê foflys fõ. tl iudk fõ' t kï tajd
.;sl iu;=,s;;djg t<eU we;'
I2(H2O) I2(CCl4)
² ridhksl iu;=,s;;d
fïjd m%;sj¾;H ridhksl m%;sl%shd wdY%s; j we;s jk iu;=,s;;d h'
kso (- N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl (g)
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O (l)
² whksl iu;=,s; moaO;s

whksl moaO;shla ridhksl moaO;shla úh hq;= u h' fu jeks moaO;shl whk
wvx.= fõ' moaO;shl ridhk øjH yd whk w;r we;s iu;=,s;;d fu fia
ye|skafõ'
kso ( H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COOH- (aq) + H+(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O (l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
HIn(aq) H+(aq) + In-(aq)
² bf,lafg%dav iu;=,s;dj
f,dayhla tys whk wvx.= ødjKhl .s,ja d we;s wjia:djla ie,el+ úg wdrïNfha
oS f,day mrudKq bf,lafg%dak msg lrñka idok whk ødjK .; fõ' msg jk
bf,lafg%dak f,dayh u; /|S mj;S' t úg f,day mDIaGh RK f,i wdfrdams;
fõ' ødjKfha whk idkaøKh jeä j;a u tajd f,dayh u;= msg we;s bf,lafg%dak
,nd .ksñka f,day mrudKq njg m;a fõ' hï wjia:djl oS f,day mrudKq whk
njg m;a ùu;a" whk" f,day mrudKq njg m;a ùu;a tl u YS>%;djlska isÿ fõ'
fu úg mrudKq yd whk w;r .;sl iu;=,s;;djla we;s fõ' fuu wjia:dfõ
oS RK wdfrdams; f,day mDIaGh yd Ok wdfrdams; f,day whk w;r we;s jk
úNj wka;rh tu f,dayfha bf,lafg%dav úNjh kï fõ'
kso ( Zn/Zn2+ (s) whk ødjKhl .s,ajd we;s wjia:djla i,luq'
t úg Zn2+(aq)+ 2a Zn(s) .;sl iu;=,s;;dj we;s fõ'
172
iu;=,s;d kshuh (
² ixjD; moaO;shl lsishï WIaK;ajhl oS isÿ jk my; i|yka idudkHlrKh
lrk ,o m%;sls%hdj i,lkak'
fuys A yd B m%;sls%hl o C yd D M, o a, b, c yd d wod< iafgdhs;sfhdñ;sl

ix.=Kl o fõ' moaO;sh iu;=,;s ;dfõ mj;S kï" ta i|yd my; i|yka m%ldYkh
,súh yels h'
fuys [ ] hkafkka wod< øjHj, iu;=,s;;d idkaøKh ixfla;j;a flf¾' fuys

K hkq ksh;hls' th iu;=,s;d ksh;h f,i ye¢kafõ'
² K WIaK;ajh u; muKla rod mj;sk w;r m%;sls%hl yd M,j, wdrïNl fyda

wjidk idkaøKj,ska iajdhla; fõ' fok ,o úm¾hdihla i|yd iu;=,s;;d
ksh;h m%ldY lsÍfï oS my; i|yka wjYH;d imqrd ,sh hq;= h'
² wod< ;=,s; m%;sl%shd iólrKh ,shd oelaúh hq;= h' îdudkHfhka fuh ,shkq
,nkafka iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl ix.=Kl i|yd wvq;u mQ¾K ixLHd ,efnk mßos
h'&
² wod< WIaK;ajh i|yka l< hq;= h'
² tla tla m%;sl%shlfha iy M,j, fN!;sl wjia:dj i|yka l< hq;= h'
óg wu;r j moaO;shl iu;=,s;;d ksh;h iïnkaO my; i|yka lreKq flfrys

wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;= h'
² iu;=,s;;d ksh;h u`.ska m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj ms<sn| lsis ÿ f;dr;=rla ,nd fkd
fohs'
² K ys w.h l%shdj,shg iïnkaO wdrïNl idkaøK u; r|d fkd mj;S'
² K ys w.h WIaK;ajh iu`. fjkia fõ'
² iïuq;shla jYfhka K i|yd m%ldYkh ,shkq ,nkafka M," ,jfhys we;=<;a
jk mßos h'
² >khl fyda ixY=oaO øjHhl fyda idkaøKh ieu úg u ksh;hla fia i,lkq
,efí' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h i|yd m%ldYkh ,sùfï oS tu ksh; w.h iu;=,s;;d
ksh;hg we;=<;a jk mßos .Ks; l¾u lrkq ,efí'
² iu;=,s;d ksh;fha tall" K i|yd jk m%ldYkh u; /f|hs' ^fl fia jqj o
;dm.;s úoHdjg wkqj iu;=,s;;d ksh;h ie,eflkafka udk rys; rdYshla
f,i h'&
ujq,sl idkaøKh wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d ksh;h ^Kc&

² idkaøKh weiqßka m%ldYs; by; úia;r lrk ,o iu;=,;s ;d ksh;h idudkHfhka
ye|skafjkafka Kchkqfjks' ^fuys c hkafkka idkaøKh ye`.efõ'& Kc ys tall"
iu;=,s;;d m%ldYkhg wod< iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl iólrKh wkqj fjkia fõ'
kso(
173
Kc ys tall =
Kc ys tall }
iu;=,s;;d ksh;h - wdxYsl mSvk weiqrska ^Kp&

jdhquh iu;=,s;;d moaO;shl wvx.= jdhq mßmQ¾K f,i yeisf¾ kï"
t kï" ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS jdhqfõ idkaøKh mSvkhg iudkqmd;sl h'

jdhqjl wdxYsl mSvkh } iuia; mSvkh × jdhqfõ ujq, Nd.h
PG = PT × xG
∴ wdxYsl mSvkh" jdhqjl ujq, m%udKhg iudkqmd;sl w;r" th ñY%Khl
we;=<;a jdhqjl idkaøKfha ñkqula f,i .; yels h'
² ksoiqkla f,i khsÜrcka yd yhsârcka w;r ixfhdackfhka wefudakshd
ksIamdokh lsÍfï m%;sl%shdj i,luq'
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

N2 ,H2 yd NH3 jdhqj, wdxYsl mSvk ms<sfj<ska yd o o wdxYsl
mSvk wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d ksh;h Kp o kï"
fï wkqj" Kp ys tall ^mSvk tall&-2 fõ' wdxYsl mSvk SI tallj,ska ^Pa

fyj;a N m-2& fyda tfy;a 1 bar f,i ^1 bar = 105 Pa& f,i Ndú; l< yels
h'
² jdhqj, wdxYsl mSvk" tajdfha idkaøK f,i u i,ld l%shd lrk neúka" tajd
iólrKfhka m%ldYs; wod< iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl ix.=Klfha n,hg kexfõ'
174
² Kp, iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh ms<sn|j yd iu;=,s;;dfõ § mj;akd jdhq idkaøK
ms<sn| úia;r flfrk o¾Ylhls'
² ixjD; moaO;shl isÿjk m%;sj¾;S ;dm úfhdackh u`.ska iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk

ñY%Khla ,efí' ixjD; moaO;shla ;=< khsÜrcka fgÜfrdlaihsâ jdhqj úfhdackh
fjñka my; oelafjk iucd;Sh iu;=,s;;dj we;s fõ'
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
Kc =
Kp =
úIucd;Sh iu;=,s;;d
² m%udKj;a ;rï by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a l< úg" wefudakshï laf,darhsâ"
wefudakshd jdhqj yd yhsârcka laf,darhsâ jdhqj njg úfhdackh fõ' ixjD;
n÷kla ;=< oS m%;sl%shdj iu;=,s;;djg m;a fõ'
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
² ixY=oaO >khl idkaøKh" tys ujq, m%udKh mßudfjka fnoSfuka ,efí'

ixY=oaO >khl >k;ajh ksh; neúka tys idkaøKh o ksh; fõ'
² t neúka wefudakshï laf,darhsâj, fia u fjk;a >k øjHj, o iu;=,s;;d
idkaøKh ksh; jk w;r th iu;=,;
s ;d ksh;h i|yd jk m%ldYkfha we;=<;a
lsÍu wkjYH h'
∴ Kc = [NH3(g)][HCl(g)]
Kp yd Kc w;r iïnkaO;dj
aA(g) + bB(g) cC(g) + dD(g)
² by; wdldrfha idudkHlrKh lrk ,o m%;sl%shdjla ie,elSfuka yd jdhq

mßmQ¾K f,i yeisf¾ he hs Wml,amkh lsÍfuka my; oelafjk iólrKh
jHq;amkak l< yels h'
Kp = Kc.(RT) ∆n
∆n = iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl iólrKfhys iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl iólrKfhys

M, jdhq wKq ixLHdj m%;sl%shl jdhq wKq ixLHdj
175
øj - jdhq iu;=,s;;d
² ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS ixjD; n÷kla ;=< øj c,h yd c, jdIam w;r my;
oelafjk iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
H2O(l) H2O(g)
fok ,o WIaK;ajhl oS by; moaO;sh i|yd iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka
H2O(l) ys idkao%Kh ksh; he hs ie,el=j fyd;a

ksh; WIaK;ajhl oS jdhqjl mSvkh tys idkao%Khg iudkqmd;sl fyhska
K= f,i ,súh yels h' fuh jkdys fuu moaO;sfha iu;=,s;;d ksh;h
jk w;r th tu WIaK;ajfha oS c,fha ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkhg iudk fõ'
² úNd. ix.=Klh ^ KD&

² úNd. ix.=Klh hkq ødjH úfYaIhla" wñY%H øj folla w;r jHdma; ùug
wod< iu;=,s;;d ksh;h hs'
² wñY%H øj tlg fi,ejQ l,ays ;djld,sl j ñY% jk kuq;a wjidkfha oS jeä
>k;ajfhka hq;a øjh my<ska o" wvq >k;ajfhka hq;a øjh by<ska o" ;sfnk
mßos l,dmj,g fjka fõ' l,dm fol fjka jkafka oDYH udhsula jk
udjlfhks'
² wñY% yd ridhksl jYfhka tlsfkl iu`. m%;sl%shd fkd lrk ødjl folla
w;r tajd iu`. ridhksl j m%;sl%shd fkd lrkakd jQ o" ix>gkhg fyda
ú>gkhg fyda Ndck fkdjkakd jQ o" ødjHhla jHdma; j iu;=,s;;djg
t<eU we;s úg ksh; WIaK;ajfha oS ødjl fol w;r ødjHfha idkaøKj,
wkqmd;h ksh;hla fõ'
X(A) X(B)
KD } B ødjlh ;=< X ødjHfha idkaøKh

A ødjlh ;=< X ødjHfha idkaøKh
^KD jHdma;s ix.=Klh fyj;a úNd. ix.=Klh f,i ye|skafõ' &
² by; kshuh j,x.= ùug kï"

² WIaK;ajh ksh; úh hq;= h'
² ødjl tlsfkl yd ñY% ùula fyda m%;sls%hd ùula fyda isÿ fkd úh hq;= h'
² øjHh ødjlh ;=< § ix>gkh ùula fyda ú>gkh ùula fkd úh hq;= h'
² ødjl foflys § u" ødjH wKq tl u wKql iajrEmhlska meje;sh hq;= h'
² ødjHh" ødjlh iu`. m%;sls%hd fkd l< hq;= h'
² ødjH;d .=Ks;h (Ksp) i|yd 13'4 mßYS,kh lrkak'
176
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh
² iu;=,s;;djg t<eU we;s úg isÿ ù we;s m%;sl%shd m%udKh iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh
kï fõ' fuh m%;sl%shdfjka m%;sl%shdjg fjkia fõ' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h"
iu;=,s;;d ia:dkfhys ñkquls' iu;=,s;;d ksh;h tl ^1& g jvd jeä kï"
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh ol=Kg nr j mj;S he hs lshkq ,efí'
f,a-peg¾,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh
² lsishï m%;sl%shdjla i|yd iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh wp, jQjla fkd j m%;sl%shd
;;a;aj fjkia lsÍfï oS fjkia jkakls' .;sl iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk moaO;shl"
t lS iu;=,s;;dj f.k taug fya;= jQ lsishï idOlhla ixfrdaOkh l< fyd;a
tu ixfrdaOkh wju jk wdldrhg moaO;sh kej; ilia jkq we;' fuh f,a-
peg¾,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh f,i ye|skafõ'
² my; i|yka idOl iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh fjkia lrhs'

² idkaøKh
² mSvkh
² WIaK;ajh
tu idOlj, fjki" iu;=,s;;dj flfrys n,mdk wdldrh wfmdaykh lsÍug
f,a-peg¾,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh Ndú; l< yels h'
f,a-peg¾,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh iu;=,;

s ;d kshufhys .=Kd;aul ú.%yhla fia ie,efla'
yels iEu úg u iu;=,s;;d kshuh m%fhdackhg .ksñka m%udKd;aul f,i
lreKq ú.%y lsÍug W;aidy .kak' tys oS my; i|yka lreKq fj; wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
^1& tla tla øjHfha idkaøKh fjkia lsÍu
^2& moaO;shl mSvkh jeä lsÍu ^fuys oS mßudfõ wvq ùu idkaøKh jeä
ùula f,i ie,elsh yels h'&
^3& moaO;shg fjk;a ksIal%sh jdhqjla fyda m%;sl%shdjlg fkd n,mdk

jdhqjla fyda tl;= lsÍu'
^4& iu;=,s;;d ksh;h flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu m%udKd;aul j

wOHhkh fkd lrk fyhsk"a WIaK;ajh fjkia ùu isÿ jk wjia:dj,
oS wod< mqfrdal:k i|yd f,a-peg¾,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh Ndú; lrkak'
fuys m%;sl%shdfõ oS ;dmodhl$;dm wjfYdaaIl iajNdjh i,ld n,kak'
^5& W;afm%arlhla iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh fjkia fkd lrhs'
177
² iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk fN!;sl úm¾hdi i|yd moaO;s kï lrkak'
² iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk ridhksl úm¾hdi i|yd moaO;s kï lrkak'
² fok ,o moaO;sj, iu;=,s;;d ksh;h i|yd m%ldYk ,sùug isiqkg mjrkak'
² ksÍlaIKhg ,la lrk moaO;shla iu;=,s;;djg t<eU we;s oe hs fiùu i|yd
mÍlaIKhla ie,eiqï lsÍug isiqkg wjia:dj fokak'
² ixrplj, idkaøKh ÿka úg" moaO;shl iu;=,s;;d ksh;h .Kkh lsÍug
u`. fmkajkak'
² iu;=,s;;dfõ we;s moaO;shla n,mEulg hg;a lrk ,o wjia:dj, oS f,a
peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh Ndú; lsÍug wjia:d fokak'
² wjYH o;a; imhd we;s úg" iu;=,s; moaO;shl ixrplj, idkaøKh fiùu
i|yd l%shdldrlï fokak'
² ksmqK;d uÜgï 13'1 hgf;a we;s mÍlaIK isÿ lrkak'
178
s ;dj ms<n
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'2 ( tal ixrpl moaO;sj, øj-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj úp,kh jk

wkaou úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ixY=oaO øj moaO;s y÷kd .kshs'
² wKql p,s;h weiqßka øj-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
² WIaK;ajh iu`. øjj, jdIam mSvk úp,kh myohs'
² jdIam mSvk iy ;dmdxl w;r iïnkaOh u;= lr fmkajhs'
² wjê ,laIH y÷kajhs'
² ;s%l ,laIH y÷kajhs'

øj jdIam iu;=,s;;dj
² wyUq p,s;hl fhfok A hk øjhl yd tys jdIamfha wKq i,lkak' øjh
wvx.= j we;af;a újD; n÷kl kï tys jdIam l,dmfha wKq úisÍ hkq we;' ta
iu`. ;j ;j;a wKq øj l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg .uka lrk w;r" fuh uq`M
øjh u jdIamSNjkh jk f;la isÿ jkq we;'
² øjfha jdIamN
S jkh ixjD; wjldYhla ;=< isÿ jk l,ay"s øjfhka jdIam l,dmhg
fia u" jdIam l,dmfhka øj l,dmhg o" wKq .uka lsÍu isÿ jk w;r tla;rd
wjia:djl oS wod< WIaK;ajh hgf;a .;sl iu;=,s;;djla ia:dms; fõ' fuu
wjia:dfõ oS øjfha jdIamSNjk YS>%;dj" >kSNjk YS>%;djg iudk fõ'
A(l) A(g)
fl fia jqj o" fuys oS isÿ jk wKaùlaISh úm¾hdi

jdIa m ksÍlaIKh l< fkd yels h'
A l,dmh WIaK;ajh ksh; j mej;=k fyd;a" iu;=,; s ;dfõ oS jdIamh
A A
A
úiska we;s flfrk mSvkh ksh;hla jk w;r th wod<
A A WIaK;ajfha oS øjfha ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh fõ' fuh u
A A ø j
A l,dmh iu;=,s;;d ksh;hla o fõ'
² wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh WIaK;ajh u; r|d mj;S' WIaK;ajh jeä ùfï oS wKqj,
pd,l Yla;sh by< kexfjk w;r jeä pd,l Yla;shla iys; wKq" wka;¾-
wKql n, ue`v f.k jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M fõ' wka;¾-wKql n, m%n, jQ
;rug" wKq jdIam l,dmhg ñ§ hEfï keUqrej wvq fõ'
² jdIam l,dmhg wKq we;=`M ùu jeä jQ ;rug jdIam mSvkh jeä fõ' t neúka
jeä jk WIaK;ajh jdIam mSvkh kexùug fya;= fõ' wfkla w;g" WIaK;ajh
wvq l< l,ays jdIam l,dmfha wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh wvq ù jv jvd wKq øj
l,dmhg meñfKa' fuys m%;sM,hla f,i jdIam mSvkh wvq fõ'
179
jdIam l,dmh A A A jdIam l,dmh
P1 A P2
A A A
A
A A A A A
A A A A
A A A
A
A A A A A AA
øj l,dmh A A
øj l,dmh A
T1 T2
T1> T2
P1> P2
jdIam mSvkh yd ;dmdxlh

² øjh r;a l< úg WIaK;ajh by< hk w;r tla;rd WIaK;ajhl oS øjfha
ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh" ndysr jdhqf.da,h
S mSvkhg iudk fõ' fï WIaK;ajfha
oS øjH øjh kgk w;r th øjfha idudkH ;dmdxlh hs'
² WIaK;ajh iu`. øjhl jdIam mSvkh jeä jkafka f¾Çh wdldrhg fkd fõ'
;j o úúO øjj, wka;¾-wKql n, úúO jk w;r t ksid tajdfha jdIamYS,S;d
o úúO h' fï ksid úúO øjj, ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh" jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkhg
iu jk WIaK;aj o tlsfklg fjkia fõ' fï ksid úúO øjj,g úúO
;dmdxl we;' ^j.=j yd rEmh n,kak&'
vhsfu;s,a vhst;s,a vhs*k

S hs,a
t;s,k
S a B;¾ B;¾ c,h whãka lmqre B;¾
jdIam mSvkh$atm
WIaK;ajh$ 0C
ixfhda.h ;dmdxlh$ 0C
C2H5OC2H5 34.6
C2H5OH 78 jdIamYS,S;dj wvq fõ'

jdIam mSvkh wvq fõ'
H2O 100 ;dmdxlh jeä fõ'
C8H18 120
180
øjhl wjê ,laIHh ^Critical Point &
² ixjD; moaO;shl we;s øj-jdIam iu;=,s;;djla i,luq' moaO;sfha WIaK;ajh
jeä ùu;a iu`. ;snQ iu;=,s;;dj ì| jefgñka wKq jv jvd øj l,dmfhka
jdIam l,dmhg .uka lrhs' wk;=re j jdIam l,dmfha øjH m%udKh jeä
fjñka yd øj l,dmfha øjH m%udKh wvq fjñka kj iu;=,s; wjia:d we;s jkq
we;' wjidkfha oS jdIam l,dmh muKla mejef;k wjia:djla t<efUhs'
² iïmSvkfhka fuu jdIamh øùlrKh l< yels h' fl fia jqj o by< hk
WIaK;ajh iu`. jdIamh øùlrKhg olajk keUqrej wvq fõ' fï ksid hï
jdhqjlg wjê WIaK;ajh hkqfjka ye|skafjk wju WIaK;ajhla mj;sk w;r
Bg by< WIaK;ajj, oS fl ;rï by< mSvkhla fhÿj;a jdhqj øùlrKh l<
fkd yels fõ' úúO jdhqj,g úúO wjê WIaK;aj we;'
kso( jdhqj$jdIamh wjê WIaK;ajh$ K
H2O 647.4
NH3 405.0
CO2 304.5
wjê WIaK;ajfha oS jdhqjla øùlrKh lsÍu i|yd fhosh hq;= wju mSvkh wjê
mSvkh f,i ye|skafõ' ;j o wjê WIaK;ajfha oS yd wjê mSvkfha oS iEÿKq
øjHfha ujq,hl mßudj" wjê mßudj f,i ye|skafõ'
² my; oS we;s c,fha l,dm igyfkka WIaK;ajh iu`. c,fha jdIam mSvkh
úp,kh jk wdldrh ^TC jl%h& yd WIaK;ajh iu`. whsiaj, jdIam mSvkh
úp,kh jk wdldrh ÂT jl%h& fmkakqï flf¾' BT f¾Ldfjka whsia yd øj
c,h iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk WIaK;aj yd mSvk fmkakqï flf¾'
mSvkh$atm
>k øj
jdhq
>k
jdhq
WIaK;ajh$K
;dmdxlh wjê
,CIHh
181
T ,laIHfha oS whsia" c,h yd c, jdIam hk ;=k u iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk w;r
fuh c,fha ;%sl ,laIHh f,i ye|skafõ'
TC jl%h c,fha wjê WIaK;ajfhka^647'4 K& wjika fõ' óg jvd by<

WIaK;ajj, oS meje;sh yelafla jdIam l,dmhg muKs'
² wKql p,s;h weiqßka øj-jdhq iu;=,s;dj ms<sn| idlÉPd lrkak'

² fok ,o m%ia;drh weiqßka WIaK;ajh iu`. øjhl jdIam mSvkh úp,kh jk
wkaou myokak'
² jdIam mSvkh yd ;dmdxlh w;r iïnkaO;dj úia;r lrkak'
² fok ,o m%ia;drh weiqßka c,fha ;s%l ,laIHh yd wjê ,laIHh úia;r lrkak'
182
ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iu;=,; s ;dj ms<n
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'3 ( oajHx.S øj moaO;sj, øj-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj úp,kh jk
wkaou ú.%y lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iu;=,;
s ;dj yd pd,l úoHdj ms<n
s | uQ,O¾u oajHx.S ødjK moaO;shlg fhdoñka
rW!,a kshuh jHq;amkak lrhs'
² mßmQ¾K ødjKh w¾: olajhs'
² mßmQ¾K fkd jk ødjK fl fia" l=ula ksid rW!,a kshufhka wm.ukh fõ
oe hs meyeos,s lrhs'
² iu;=,s;;dfõ oS ødjK yd jdIam l,dmj, ixhq;sh fiùu i|yd rW!,a kshuh
Ndú; lrhs'
² oajHx.S ødjKj, mßmQ¾K yeisrSu yd mßmQ¾K fkd jk yeisÍu úia;r lrhs'
² jdIamYS,S øjhl wjdIamYS,S øjHhla oshe ù we;s ødjKhlska tajd fjka lr
.ekSug" ir, wdijkh Wmfhda. lr .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'
² ir, wdijkhlg WodyrK imhhs'
² ir, wdijkh i|yd Ndú; jk WmlrK kï lrhs'
² tu WmlrKj, Wmfhda.S;d meyeos,s lrhs'
² ir, wdijkhla i|yd wdijk WmlrK ilia lrk wdldrh úia;r lrhs'
² jdIamYS,S øj hq.,lska iEoS we;s ñY%Khl ix>gl tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug
Nd.sl wdijkh Ndú; flfrk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² Nd.sl wdijkhlg WodyrK olajhs'
² Nd.sl wdijkhlska fjka lr .; yels oajHx.S ñY%Khl .=K m%ldY lrhs'
² rW!,a kshuh iy Nd.sl wdijkh w;r iïnkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'

² øj-øj moaO;s my; oelafjk mßos j¾.SlrKh l< yels h'
² mQ¾K f,i ñY% jk øj-øj moaO;s
Wod ( c,h yd t;fkda,a" fylafiaka yd fymafÜka" fnkaiSka yd fgd¨ùka
² w¾O f,i ñY% jk øj-øj moaO;s
Wod( c,h yd ìhqgfkda,a
² wñY% øj-øj moaO;s
Wod ( c,h yd fgÜrdlaf,dafrdfuf;aka
² mßmQ¾K ødjK
mQ¾K f,i ñY% jk A yd B hk øj ixrpl follska hq;a oajHx.S ødjKhl
we;eï úg f(A-B) = f(A-A) = f(B-B) úh yels h' ^f hkafkka wka;¾-wKql wdl¾IK
n, fyj;a wKq w;r wka;¾l%shd ixfla;j;a flf¾&' t n÷ ødjKhla mßmQ¾K
ødjKhla kï fõ' mßmQ¾K ødjKhl ixrpl ñY% l< úg
^w& uq¨ mrsudj ñY% lrk ,o mßudj, tl;=jg iudk fõ'
^wd& tka;e,ams fjkila isÿ fkd fõ' ^t fyhska WIaK;aj fjkila o ksÍlaIKh
l< fkd yels fõ&'
183
² A yd B øjj, mrsmQ¾K ødjKhla" ixjD; n÷kla ;=<" by<ska we;s ßla;
wjldYlhg jdIamSNjkh jk l,ays" øj l,dmfha wka;¾l%shd blaujd hdug
;rï pd,l Yla;shla we;s A yd B wKq" øj mDIaGhg by<ska we;s wjldYh lrd
kslafuhs' fï iu`. jdIam l,dmfha p,kh jk A yd B wKqj,ska iuyrla
øj l,dmhg we;=`M fjhs' fï l%h
s dj,s foflys
fõ. iudk jQ úg .;sl iu;=,s;;djla we;s
jdIam
l,dmh
fõ' fuh" ksh; WIaK;ajhla mj;sk úg
^w& iuia; jdIam mSvkh ^fuhg A yd B
øj jdIamj, wdxYsl mSvk odhl fõ'& yd
l,dmh ^wd& jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh ksh; j
meje;Sfuka ikd: fõ'
² jdIamfha ixhq;sh
^w& A yd Bj, idfmalaI jdIamYS,S;d ^t fyhska tajdfha ;dmdxl& yd
^wd& ødjKfha A yd B j, idfmalaI idkaøK u; /f|hs'
² hï ixrplhl jdIamYS,S;dj yd ødjKh ;=< tys idkaøKh jeä jk úg" th
jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M ùfï m%jK;dj jeä jk w;r t neúka bka jeä wdxYsl
mSvkhla we;s flf¾'
rW!,a kshuh
² oajHx.S mßmQ¾K ødjKhl jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh m%udK;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu
i|yd øj-jdIam moaO;shl we;s iu;=,s;;d ^my; ^1& yd ^2&& ie,elsh hq;= h'
A øj l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg hdfï YS>%;dj R1 kï
[A(l)] øj l,dmfha A ys ujq, Nd.hg (xA) iudkqmd;sl neúka"

R1= k1 xA ...............(3)
jdIam l,dmfha we;s A" øj njg m;a ùfï YS>%;dj R2 kï"
;jo"
A (g) ys idkaøKh" A(g) j, wdxYsl mSvkh jk PA g iudkqmd;sl neúka"
R2= k2 PA ............... (4)
iu;=,s;;dfõ oS R1= R2 fõ'
^3& yd ^4& wkqj
xA = 1 jk úg" PA = P0A fõ'

k= P0A
PA= P0A xA
t fia u" PB= P0B xB
184
fï wkqj" ksh; WIaK;ajhla hgf;a oS" mßmQ¾K ødjKhl A kï jQ hï
ixrplhlska we;s flfrk jdIam mSvkh" A j, ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkfha yd
øj l,dmfha tys ujq, Nd.fha .=Ks;hg iudk fõ' fï iïnkaO;dj rW!,a
kshuh hkqfjka ye|skafõ'
² fu jeks ødjKhl PA < P0A yd PB < P0B nj meyeos,s h'

A øjfha jdIam mSvk md;kh = P0A - PA
= P0A - P0A xA
= P0A(1- xA)
= P0A xB
fõ'
t fia u"
fuh rW!,a kshuh m%ldY l< yels úl,am wdldrhls'
² rW!,a kshuh" fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh iu`. ixfhdackh lsÍfuka
jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh ks¾Kh l< yels h' uq`M jdIam mSvkh P o" jdIam
l,dmfha A yd B ys ujq, Nd. ms<sfj<ska yA yd yB o kï"
² hï WIaK;ajhl oS P0A ksh;hla neúka

PA = xAP0A hk rW!,a kshuh wkqj mßmQ¾K
jd'mS' jd'mS'
ødjKhl hï ixrplhl jdIam mSvkh
yd øj l,dmfha tys ujq, Nd.h w;r P0A
m%ia;drh ir, f¾Ldjla fõ' PAB
² B g jvd A jdIamYS,S hehs Wml,amkh
P0B PA
l< fyd;a ^t kï P0A> P0B yd t neúka
Tb(A)< Tb(B)& mßmQ¾K oajHx.S ødjKhl
PB
øjj, jdIam mSvk yd ujq, Nd. w;r
m%ia;drh rEmfha oelafjk mßos fõ' fuys
0 xA 1
PAB hkq uq¨ mSvkh jk w;r PA yd PB
1 0
ms<sfj<ska A yd B ys jdIam mSvk fõ'
ixhq;sh
185
kso ( fylafiaka yd fymafÜka" fnkaikS a
yd fgd¨Bka " fn% d a f udtf;a k a yd WIaK;ajh WIaK;ajh
whfvdtf;ak"a ldnka fgÜrdlaf,darhsâ
yd laf,darf*daï" C6H6 yd C6D6 îe' hq' T0B
´kE u ixhq;shl oS uq`M mSvkh PA ys
yd PB ys ftlHhg iudk h'&
tfy;a " fu jeks ñY% K hl ks h ;
mSvkfha oS ;dmdxlh yd ixhq;sh w;r
ir, f¾Çh iïnkaO;djla fkd mj;S'
mßmQ¾K fkdjk øj moaO;s 0 xA 1
² mßmQ¾K ødjK rW!,a kshuhg wkql+, 1 xB 0
j yeis f rhs ' rW!,a ks h ufhka
wm.ukh jk ødjK o fõ' fïjd
wmßmQ¾K ødjK fõ' wmßmQ¾K ødjKhl wka;¾ wKql wdl¾Yk n, wiudk
fõ' t kï"
² wmßmQ¾K ødjK iuyrl yd > jk w;r" tys

m%;M
s ,hla f,i øj l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg wKq we;=`M ùfï ksoyi mßmQ¾K
ødjKhl mj;sk tu ksoyig jvd wvq h'
tu ksid jdIam mSvk-ixhq;s m%ia;dr jl% njla fmkajñka mßmQ¾K ;;a;ajfhka

my<g o ;dmdxl-ixhq;s m%ia;dr jl% njla fmkajñka mßmQ¾K ;;a;ajfhka
by<g o wm.ukh fjhs' kso ( fm%dmfkdaka yd fu;fkda,"a g%hl
s f
a ,dafrdfuf;aka
yd fm%dmfkdaka" t;fkdhsla wï,h yd c,h
jdIam jdIam
mSvkh mSvkh
p AB
PA
PB
xA
xB
186
fu jeks ødjK rW!,a kshufhka RK wm.ukhla fmkajkafka he hs lshkq
,efí' fu n÷ ødjK ñY% lsÍfï oS WIaK;ajh by< hhs' mßud ixfldapkhla isÿ
fjhs'
² we;eï ødjKj, yd fõ' mßmQ¾K ødjKj,
wKqj,g jvd myiqfjka fïjdfha wKq øj l,dmfhka jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M
fjhs'
fï ødjKj, jdIam mSvk-ixhq;s jl% mßmQ¾K ;;a;ajfhka by<g o"

;dmdxl-ixhq;s jl% my<g o wm.uk fõ'
kso ( fm%dmfkdaka yd ldnka vhsi,a*hsâ" t;fkda,a yd fnkaiSka
VP VP
T T
T 0b(B)
PAB
iDK
PA wm
.u
mß kh
mQ¾
K
ødj
0
Ok
wm. K h T 0b(A)
PA uk
h
PB
0 xA 1
V.P 1 xB 0
fu jeks ødjK rW!,a kshufhka Ok wm.ukhla fmkajk w;r ixrpl ñY%

lsÍfï oS WIaKa;jfha wvq ùula isÿ fõ' mßudfõ jeä ùula isÿ fõ'
² ¨Kq ødjKhlska fyda wmú;% c,fhka fyda wdi%e; c,h ,nd .ekSug ir,
wdijkh fhdod .; yels h'
² fuys oS wdijk ma,dial=jg wu;r j lkafvkairhla o Ndú; l< hq;= h'
² irm wdijkfha § tla ixrplhla muKla jdIam l,dmhg we;=`M fõ'
² ixrpl fol u jdIamYS,S jk mßmQ¾K fyda wdikak f,i mßmQ¾K fyda ødjKhla
ie,el+ úg tajd tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug Nd.sl wdijkh fhdod .efka'
² ir, wdijkfha WmlrKj,g wu;r j fuys oS úNdcl l=¿Kla Ndú; flf¾'
² Nd.sl wdijkfhka øj folla tlsfklska fjka lr .ekSug kï tajdfha
;dmdxl w;r ie,elsh hq;= fjkila ;sìh hq;= h' t kï jdIamYS,S;d ie,elsh
hq;= ;rï tlsfklg fjkia úh hq;= h'
² tla tla WIaK;ajfha oS ,nd .; yels" wdiQ;fha ixhq;sh oek .ekSug" WIaK;aj
ixhq;s l,dm igyka b;d m%fhdackj;a fõ'
187
WIaK;ajh WIaK;ajh
jdIam V = jdIamfha ixhq;sh
V L = øjfha ixhq;sh
T 0A
T0A = A j, ;dmdxlh
øj T0B = B j, ;dmdxlh
T1 j dIam T1
T2 T2
T 0B øj
L
xA 0 x1 0.5 1
xB 1 0.5 0
ixhq;sh
² by; oS we;af;a TA0 > TB0 jk A yd B mßmQ¾K ødjKhl ksh; mSvkfha § w¢k
,o l,dm igyk hs'
² A iy B iu ujq, ñY%Kfha kgk WIaK;ajh T1 fõ' T1 WIaK;ajfha oS øj
l,dmh iu`. iu;=,s; j mj;sk jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;sh x1 fõ' ^;dmdxlh
wvq ixfhda.h" jdIam l,dmfha jeämqr mj;S'&
² T1 ys oS kgk jdIamh >kSNjkh l< fyd;a ,efnk øjfha ixhq;sh x1 fõ'
fuys B by< m%;sY;hla wvx.= h'
² ;j o x1 ixhq;sh ork øjfha T2 ;dmdxlh wvq ksid th jdIamhla f,i wdijk
l=¿fKa ;j;a by<g .uka lrkq we;'
² fï wdldrhg fjka fjka wkqhd; wdijk /ilska isÿ jk l%shdj,s ish,a,
tljr wdijk l=¿K ;=< ika;;sl j isÿ fõ'
² wjidkfha wdiQ;h f,i ixY=oaO B ixrplh ,efí' wdijk ma,dial=fõ we;s
ødjKfha A ys ujq, Nd.h l%ufhka jeä jk neúka ;dmdxlh jeä jk w;r
wjidkfha oS iïmQ¾Kfhka u mdfya A b;sß fõ'
² wdijkfha oS x1 ixhq;sh iys; ødjKh wdijk l=¿fKa by<g hk úg fjkia
jk wdldrh B;, u`.ska oelafõ'
188
WIaK;ajudkh u`.k
s a wdiQ;fha
WIaK;ajh ,nd foa'
c,h msg ùu
,sì.a lkafvkairh
c,h
we;=`M ùu
ùÿre leg wiqrd we;s wdiQ;h
l=¿K
l=¿K osf.a l%ufhka
WIaK;ajh wvq fõ'
úisÍ hEu j<lk leá;s
;dmh

² isiqka ,jd my; oelafjk ødjl hq.,j, úúO mßud ñY% lsÍug i,iajd
WIaK;ajfha isÿ jk fjki uekSug i,iajkak'
² fylafiaka yd fymafÜka
² c,h yd t;fkda,a
² c,h yd t;fkdhsla wï,h
² ksÍlaIK idlÉPd lrkak'

² rW!,a kshuh mokï jQ ir, ixLHd;aul .eg¨ úi|Sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² yels wjia:dj, oS we;eï ødjl wKq w;r wka;¾l%shd idfmalaI jYfhka jvd
m%n, ùug$jvd ÿn, ùug ;=vq fok fya;= idlÉPd lrkak' ksoiqkla f,i
CHCl3 yd CH3COCH3 w;r wdl¾IK n," CHCl3 yd C6H14 w;r wdl¾IK
n,j,g jvd m%n, fõ' (
² Nd.sl wdijkfha fhoSï f,i we,afldfyd, ksIamdokh" jd;fhka N2 yd O2
fjka lr .ekSu yd fmÜfrda,shï msßmyÿj ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrkak'
189
s ;dj ms<n
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'4 ( w,am f,i ødjH whksl ixfhda. yd iïnkaO iu;=,s;
moaO;sj, .=K m%udKkh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² we;eï whksl ixfhda. b;d fyd|ska c,fha osh jk w;r we;eï ixfhda. iq`M
jYfhka osh fjk nj m%ldY lrhs'
² iq`M jYfhka osh jk ixfhda. i|yd Ksp fhdohs'
² fmdÿ whk wdprKh fhdohs'
² wjlafIamK l%uj,ska yd iEfok wjlafIam úúO m%;sldrlj, øjKh ùu
wkqidrfhka legdhk y÷kd .kshs'
² ødjH;d .=Ks; uQ,O¾uh Ndú;fhka wjlafIamj, ødjH;dj meyeos,s lrhs'
² legdhkj,ska iEfok whksl ixfhda.j, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mokï lr .ksñka
,ehsia;= .; legdhk ldKav mylg fjka lrhs'

² NaCl ys c,fha ødjH;dj wdikak f,i 5 mol dm-3 fõ' ødjKfha Na+ yd Cl-
whk w;r wka;¾l%shd mj;sk fyhska tajd ir, jqj o" tlsfklska iajdëk fkd
fõ'
² AgCl jeks iaj,am jYfhka ødjH whksl ixfhda.hl c,Sh ødjK ;=< tajdfha
whk iajdëk j mj;sk w;r ix;Dma; ødjKhl tu whk iy >kh w;r my;
i|yka .;sl iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
iu;=,s;d kshuh fhoSfuka"
hk [AgCl(s)] ksh;hls'
∴ Ksp = [Ag+(aq)][Cl-(aq)]
Ksphkq ksh; WIaK;ajfha oS ksh;hls' th ødjH;d .=Ks;h f,i ye|skafõ'
² AgCl j, øjHd;dj x mol dm-3, kï Ksp = x2 mol2 dm-6 fõ'
² idudkHfhka by< ødjH;djla we;s ixfhda. i|yd ødjH;d .=Ks;h fkd

fhfoa'
² whksl .=Ks;h tu øjHfha ødjH;d .=Ks;h blaujQ úg ixfhda.h wjlafIam
fjhs'
Wod - kï AgCl wjlafIam fõ'
190
wjlafIamKfhka y÷kd .; yels legdhk
² d7,d8, d9 yd d10 bf,lafg%dksl úkHdi we;s legdhkj,ska iEfok wjlafIam"
jeämqr wefudakshdj, øjKh ù ia:dhS ixlS¾K whk idohs'
M2+(aq) + X2- (aq) MX(s)

7
(d ) [Co(NH3)6] 2+
- ly ÿUqre (d10) [Zn(NH3)4]2+ - wj¾K
(d8) [Ni(NH3)6]2+ - ;o ks,a (d10) [Ag(NH3)2]+ - wj¾K
(d9) [Cu(NH3)4]2+ - .eUqre ks,a (d10) [Cd(NH3)4]2+ - wj¾K
legdhk ñY%Khla fjka lsÍfï l%shdj,sh

² legdhk ñY%Khl .=Kd;aul úYaf,aIKfha oS tajd ldKav mylg fjka flf¾'
.=Kd;aul úYaf,aIK mámdáhg mokï ù we;af;a jrKSh wjlafIamK uQ,O¾uh
hs' jrlg tlla ne.ska ødjKhl we;s legdhk wjlafIam lsÍu jrK
wjlafIamKh hs'
I ldKavh
² legdhk ñY%Kfha ødjK fldgilg isi, s a ;kql yhsârlaf,daßla wï,h jeämqr
tl;= flf¾' Ag " Pb yd Hg2 whk wef;d;a wødjH laf,darhsv f,i
+ 2+ 2+
wjlafIam fõ'
Ksp = 1.0 × 10-10 mol2 dm-6
Ksp = 1.0 × 10-5 mol3 dm-9
Ksp = 1.0 × 10-18 mol3 dm-9
² by; laf,darhsvj, Ksp w.h b;d l=vd fyhska whksl .=Ks;h myiqfjka
blauúh yels h' w¾O jYfhka ødjH wfkl=;a laf,darhsvj, Ksp w.h by<
jk w;r tajd ødjKfha mj;S'
² PbCl2 >kh" [PbCl4]2- yd [PbCl3]- wdoS ixlS¾K whk idoñka idkaø HCl ys
øjKh fõ' isis,a ;kql HCl(aq) tl;= lsÍfuka fuh j<lajd .; yels h'
II ldKavh
² I ldKavfha wødjH laf,darhsv fjka lsÍfuka miq ,efnk fmrkh wdï,sl h'
fuh yryd H2S heùfï oS b;d wvq Ksp w.hlska hq;a i,a*hsv muKla wjlafIam
fõ'
Pb2+(aq) PbS(s) ^l`M& Sn2+(aq) SnS(s) ^ÿUqre&
Cu (aq) CuS(s) ^l`M&
2+ 4+
Sn (aq) SnS2(s) ^ly&
Hg (aq) HgS(s) ^l`M&
2+ 3+
Sb (aq) Sb2S3(s) ^;eô,s&
3+
Bi (aq) Bi2S3(s) ^l`M& 3+
As (aq) As2S3(s) ^ly&
Cd2+(aq) CdS(s) ^ly&
191
² by; i,A*hsvj, ødjH;d .=Ks; fu fia h'
Ksp(PbS) = 7× 10-28 mol2 dm-6 Ksp(SnS) = 1× 10-26 mol2 dm-6
-36 2 -6
Ksp(CuS) = 4× 10 mol dm Ksp(Sb2S3) = 1× 10-93 mol5 dm-15
Ksp(HgS) = 1× 10-52 mol2 dm-6 Ksp(As2S3) = 1× 10-22 mol5 dm-15
Ksp(Bi2S3) = 1× 10-97 mol5 dm-15
Ksp (CdS) = 8× 10-27 mol2 dm-6
² H2S ys whkSlrKh
² H+ whkj, by< idkaøKh fya;=fjka i,a*hsâ whk idkaøKh idfmalaI

jYfhka wvq h' i,a*hsvj, by< Ksp w.hla we;s Mn2+" Zn2+" Co2+" Ni2+ jeks
legdhk ødjKfha mj;S'
III ldKavh
² ødú; H2S bj;a lrkq msKsi II ldKavfha fmrkh úkdä lsysmhla kgjkq
,efí' bkamiq fmfrkfha Fe2+ whk fjf;d;a tajd Fe3+ njg TlaislrKh
lrkq msKsi idkaø HNO3 iu`. úkdä lsysmhla kgjkq ,efí' miq j ødjKhg
NH4Cl yd NH4OH tl;= flf¾'
Fe3+(aq) Fe(OH)3 (s) ^r;=-ÿUqre& Ksp(Fe(OH)3) = 1× 10-28 mol4 dm-12

Al3+(aq) Al(OH)3 (s) îqÿ fc,àkh& Ksp(Al(OH)3) = 1× 10-33 mol4 dm-12
Cr3+(aq) Cr(OH)3 (s) ^fld<& Ksp(Cr(OH)3) = 1× 10-31 mol4 dm-12
NH4Cl(aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
² ÿn, Niauhla jk NH4OH ys c,Sh ødjKhl OH- idkaøKh mj;skafka my<

uÜgul h' NH4Cl úiska iemfhk NH4+ whk iu;=,s;;dj ;j ÿrg;a jug
úia:dmkh lrhs' fï ksid OH- idkaøKh fndfyda fihska wvq fõ' tfy;a Al3+"
Fe3+ yd Cr3+ hk whkj, yhsâfrdlaihsvj, idfmalaI jYfhka wvq Ksp w.h
whksl .=Ks;h úiska blaujkq ,nk fyhska tajd wjlafIam fõ'
² tfy;a by< Ksp w.hla iys; yhsâfrdlaihsv idok legdhk ødjKfha mj;S'
Ksp[Zn(OH) 2] = 1× 10-17 mol3 dm-9 Ksp[Ca(OH)2] = 1× 10-5 mol3 dm-9
Ksp[Mn(OH)2] = 1× 10-14 mol3 dm-9 Ksp[Mg(OH)2] = 1× 10-11 mol3 dm-9
-16 3 -9
Ksp[Co(OH)2] = 1× 10 mol dm
Ksp[Ni(OH)2] = 1× 10-16 mol3 dm-9
192
² Fe(OH)2 ys ødjH;d .=Ks;h 1× 10-14 mol3 dm-9 fõ' NH4Cl we;s úg Fe(OH)2
iïmQ¾Kfhka wjlafIam fkd fõ' m%;sldrl tl;= lsÍug fmr Fe2+ whk Fe3+
njg mßj¾;kh l< hq;af;a tfyhsks'
² Ni2+(d8), Co2+(d7), yd Zn2+(d10) úiska ia:dhS weóka ixlS¾K iEoSu tajdfha

yhsâfrdlaihsvj, ødjH;djg fya;= fõ'
IV ldKavh
² III ldKavfha fmrkfhys OH- whk jeämqr wvx.= ksid th laIdÍh fõ' OH-
whk iys; fï udOHhg H2S hefõ' H2S j,ska iemefhk H+ whk úiska OH-
whk WodiSk flfrhs'
H2S(aq) 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
OH-(aq)
H2O(l)
² fuhska by; iu;=,;

s ;dj ol=Kg nr jk w;r th ødjKfha S2- whk idkaøKh
jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ' fï ksid idfmalaI jYfhka by< ødjH;d .=Ks; iys;
Mn2+" Zn2+" Co2+ yd Ni2+ hk whk idok i,a*hsvj, by< jQ ødjH;d .=Ks;h
blaujk whksl .=Ks;hla ødjKfha we;s fõ' fï ksid tu whk i,a*hsv f,i
wjlafIam fõ'
Zn2+(aq) ZnS (s) Ksp(ZnS) = 1× 10-21 mol2 dm-6
îqÿq&
2+
Mn (aq) MnS(s) Ksp(MnS) = 1× 10-25 mol2 dm-6
^frdai&
Co2+(aq) CoS (s) Ksp(CoS) = 1× 10-23 mol2 dm-6
^l`M&
Ni2+(aq) NiS(s) Ksp(NiS) = 1× 10-28 mol3 dm-6
^l`M&
V ldKavh
² IV ldKavfha fmrkh kgjd H2S bj;a lr" NH4Cl iaj,amhla yd jeämqr
NH4OH tl;= flf¾' ødjKh kgjd (NH4)2CO3 tl;= flf¾' Ca2+, Sr2+ yd
Ba2+ whk" ldnfkag f,i wjlafIam fõ'
Ca2+(aq) CaCO3(s) Ksp = 3x10-9 mol2 dm-6

(iqÿ)
Sr2+ (aq) SrCO3(s) Ksp = 1x10-10 mol2 dm-6
(iqÿ)
Ba2+(aq) BaCO3(s) Ksp = 5x10-9 mol2 dm-6
(iqÿ)
193
fmdÿ whk wdprKh
by; i|yka wdldrfha ix;Dma; AgCl ødjKhg c,Sh NaCl ødjKhla tl;=
l< úg c,Sh Cl- whk idkaøKh jeä fõ' fok ,o WIaK;ajhl oS Ksp
ksh;hla neúka udOHfha Ag+ idkaøKh wvq úh hq;= h' t kï AgCl wjlafIam
fõ' wka whqrlska lsj fyd;a Cl- whk ødjKhl AgCl j, ødjH;dj" ixY=oaO
c,fha AgCl ys ødjH;djg jvd wvq h' fuh fmdÿ whk wdprKh f,i ye|skfa õ'
Ag iïnkaOfhka o ;;a;ajh fu fia h'
+
² ødjH;d .=Ks;h yd fmdÿ whk wdprKh iïnkaO fhda.H .eg¨ úi|Sug isiqka
fhduq lrkak'
² fok ,o ksheoshl we;s legdhk y÷kd .ekSug isiqkg mjrkak'
² wod< laf,darhsvj," i,a*hsvj," yhsâfrdlaihsvj, yd ldnfkagj, Ksp w.h
ii|k f,i isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
194
s ;dj ms<n
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'5 ( ÿn, wï," ÿn, Niau" wdï,sl ,jK yd Ndiañl ,jK
wdY%s; iu;=,s;;d moaO;sj, .=K m%udKkh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 22 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ixhq.aul wï," ixhq.aul Niau iy nyqNdiañl^nyqfm%daál& wï, y÷kajhs'
² Kw, Ka, Kb i|yd m%ldYk ,shd olajhs'
² ixhq.aul wï,-Niau hq.,j, Ka yd Kb w;r iïnkaO;dj jHq;amkak lrhs'
² Kw, Ka yd Kb Ndú; lr .eg¨ úi|hs'
² pH w¾: olajhs'
² wdï,sl yd laIdÍh ødjKj, pH .Kkh lsÍug iólrK jHq;amkak lrhs'
² fok ,o wkqudmkhlg fhda.H o¾Yl f;dard .ekSu i|yd o¾Yl ms<sn| jdoh
Ndú; lrhs'
² wï,-Niau m%;sl%shdj, iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h .Kkh lrhs'
² úúO wkqudmk i|yd wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka lrhs'
² iul;d ,laIHh wdikakfha oS l=vd ødjK mßudjlska laIKsl j úYd, pH
fjkila isÿ jk nj fmkajhs'
² wï,-Niau ^WodiSkslrK& o¾Yl" ÿn, wï, fyda ÿn, Niau nj m%ldY lrhs'
² o¾Ylhla whkSlrKh jQ yd fkd jQ ;;a;aj hgf;a oS tlsfklg fjkia j¾K
fmkakqï lrk nj wjfndaO lrhs'
² o¾Ylhl pH mrdih ^j¾K mrdih& tys ú>gk ksh;h ^KIn& u; /|S mj;sk
nj wjfndaO lrhs'
² o¾Ylhla f;dard .ekSu wkqudmkfha iul;d ,laIHfha § pH w.hg fyda
laIKsl pH fjkia ùï mrdihg fyda wkqrEm pKIn w.h meje;Su u; r|d
mj;sk nj fmkajd fohs'
c,fha whkSlrKh yd c,fha whkSlrK ksh;h (KW &

² c,h" fl ;rï ixY=oaO jqj o b;d w,am f,i whkSlrKh fõ'
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
² fuh wï,-Niau iu;=,s;;djls' fuys oS c,h tys ixhq.aul wï,h o ixhq.aul

Niauh o ksmojhs' by; iu;=,s;;djg iu;=,s;;d kshuh fh¥ úg;
ixY=oaO c,fha idkaøKh ksh; neúka [H2O(l) ]2 ksh; fõ'

∴ [H3O+(aq)] [OH- (aq) ] } ksh;h } Kw
195
Kw, c,fha whksl .=Ks;h fyj;a c,fha whkSlrK ksh;h fyj;a c,fha ú>gk
ksh;h f,i ye|skafõ'
ixY=oaO c,fha H3O+(aq) ys yd OH-(aq) ys idkaøK iudk fõ'
-
² 25 0C oS" ixY=oaO c,fha [H3O+(aq)] = [OH (aq)] = 1.0 ×10-7 mol dm-3
∴ Kw = 1.0 ×10-14 mol2 dm-6
ÿn, wï,hl whkSlrK$ú>gk ksh;h (Ka)

² HA wdldr ÿn, wï,hla c,fha oS my; oelafjk fm%dafgdak yqjudre
iu;=,s;;dfjys mj;S'
HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
fuys A- hkq wï,fha ixhq.aul Niauh fõ'
;kql ødjKhl oS c,fha idkaøKh ksh;hls'
Ka hkq wï,fha whkSlrK fyj;a ú>gk ksh;h fõ'
Wod ( CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Ka wï,fha wdï,sl m%n,;dj ms<sn| ñkquls'
ÿn, Niauhl whkSlrK$ú>gk ksh;h (Kb)

² c,Sh ødjKhl we;s ÿn, Niauhl ,dlaIKsl fm%dafgdak yqjudrej ie,el+ úg;
B(aq) + H2O(l) BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
BH+ hkq Niaufha ixhq.aul wï,h fõ' ;kql ødjKhl c,fha idkaøKh
ksh; neúka"
Kb, Niaufha whkSlrK$ú>gk ksh;h fõ'

kso ( NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Kb, Niaufha m%n,;dj ks¾Kh lsÍug Ndú; l< yels h'

196
Ka iy Kbw;r iïnkaOh
² Niauhl fm%dafgdak yqjudre iu;=,s;;dj tys ixhq.aul wï,h weiqßka o m%ldY
l< yels h'
BH+(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + B(aq)
B Niaufha Kb yd HB+ hk tys ixhq.aul wï,fha Ka w;r .=Ks;h ie,el+

úg (
Kw c,fha whksl .=Ks;h fõ'
² ÿn, wï, yd ÿn, Niau c,fha oS Nd.sl jYfhka whkSlrKh jk fyhska

iu;=,s;;d we;s fõ'
ixhq.aul hq.,
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

ixhq.aul hq.,
H2O yd H3O+ ms<sfj<ska ixhq.aul Niauh yd tys ixhq.aul wï,h fõ'
ixhq.aul hq.,
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

ixhq.aul hq.,
iu;=,s;;d kshuh fhoSfuka"
² HCl, HNO3 jeks m%n, wï, yd NaOH m%n, Niau c,Sh ødjK ;=< oS mQ¾K
ú>gkh isÿ fõ'
197
t ksid tajdfha ú>gkh weiqßka H3O+ whk idkaøKh iy OH- whk idkaøKh
Rcq j u m%ldY l< yels h'
Tiaj,aâ f.a ;kQlrK kshuh

ÿn, f,i whkSlrKh jk moaO;s i|yd fu f,i fl,ska u whkSlrKh
mdol fldg H3O+ fyda OH- whk idkaøK bosßm;a l< fkd yels h' ta i|yd
j.= .; Kafyda Kb w.h oS we;s úg ta i|yd Tiaj,aâ ;kQlrK kshuh Ndú; l<
yels h'
ÿn, tal Ndiañl wï,h (HX) ujq, tlla wvx.= jk V ødjK mßudjla i,luq'
HX(aq) H+(aq) + X- (aq)
wdrïNl ujq, m%udKh$mol 1 0 0

ú>gkh α kï
iu;=,s; úg m%udKh$mol ^1-α) α α
iu;=,s; úg idkaøK$mol dm-3
mj;sk WIaK;ajfha oS by; ÿn, wï,h ;j ÿrg;a ú>gkh fkd jk neúka

th iu;=,s; moaO;shla f,i i,lkq ,efí'
Ka hkq ÿn, wï,fha ú>gk ksh;h fõ'
= wï,fha wdrïNl idkaøKh c fõ'
by; iïnkaO;dj Tiaj,aâ ;kQlrK kshuh kï fõ'
198
1 jk úg" neúka
∴ Ka } α2 C ^ÿn, wï, i|yd&
∴ Kb } α2 C ^ÿn, Niau i|yd&
fï iïnkaO;dj u`.ska ÿn, wï,j, [H+] fyda ÿn, Niauj, [OH-] fyda
fiùu l< yels h'
pH w.h
² c,Sh ødjKj, mj;sk yhsfv%dakshï whk idkaøKh we;eï úg b;d wvq h'
ld¾ñl l%shdj,s" ¥IKh" wï, jeis" reêr yd ldhsl ridhkh we;=`M fndfyda
lghq;=j, oS udOHhl H3O+ whk idkaøKh b;d m%fhdackj;a fõ' fndfyda
úg wmg yuq jk c,Sh ødjKj, [H3O+], 10-14 isg 10 mrdifha mj;S'
² fï ksid ødjKhl [H3O+] ,>q mßudKfhka m%ldY lsÍu myiq h' yhsâfrdakh
s ï
whk fkdfyd;a yhsârcka whk idkaøKfhys ixLHd;aul w.fha 10 mdofha
RK ,>q w.h pH kï fõ' fuys p j,ska n,h o" H3O+ j,ska yhsâfrdakshï
whk fyj;a ir, j m%ldY flfrk mßos yhsârcka whk o ixfla;j;a fõ'
.Ks;uh f,i pH w¾: oelafjkafka my; oelafjk iólrKfhks'
fyj;a
² m%ldYkfha RK i,l=K ksid" yhsârcka whk idkaøKh jeä jk úg pH wvq

fõ' ;j o pH tall tll fjki" yhsârcka whk idkaøKfha oi .=Khl
fjkilg wkqrEm fõ'
m%n, wï, ødjKj, pH .Kkh lsÍu

² m%n, wï, c,fha oS iïmQ¾Kfhka whkSlrKh ù mj;S he hs Wml,amkh
flf¾' fïjdfha H3O+ whk idkaøKh" wï,fha ujq,sl idkaøKfhka Rcq j
u ,nd .; yels h' wï,h talfm%daál kï [H3O+], wï,fha ujq,sl idkaøKhg
iudk fõ'
Wod( 0.1 mol dm-3 yhsârlaf,daßla wï, ødjKhla ie,el+ úg"
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
∴ [H3O+(aq) ] = 0.1 mol dm-3
-log10 0.1 = 1
∴ pH = 1
² H2SO4 jeks oaúfm%daál wï, ;kql c,Sh ødjKj, oS H3O+ whk ^H+whk&
folla foñka fndfyda ÿrg u mdfya mQ¾K f,i whkSlrKh fõ'
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2H3O+(aq) + (aq)
0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 ødjKhl [H3O+(aq) ] = 0.2 mol dm-3
log10 0.2 = -0.7
∴ -log10 0.2 = 0.7
∴ pH = 0.7
199
m%n, Niau ødjKj, pH .Kkh lsÍu
² m%n, Niau o c,fha oS iïmQ¾Kfhka whkj,g ú>gkh fõ' tu ksid tu
ødjKj, yhsâfrdlaihsâ whk idkaøKh Niaufha ujq,sl idkaøKh weiqßka
myiqfjka ,nd .; yels h'
kso ( 0.3 mol dm-3 fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ ødjKhla ie,el+ úg (

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[OH-(aq)] = 0.3 mol dm-3
² fuys yhsârcka whk idkaøKh" c,fha whksl .=Ks;h weiqßka ks¾Kh l<
yels h' 298 K WIaK;ajfha oS c,fha whksl .=Ks;h 1×10-14 mol2 dm-6 fõ' t
neúka fuu WIaK;ajfha oS"
[H3O+(aq)] = Kw / [OH-(aq)]
[H3O+(aq)] =
= 3.33 × 10-14 mol dm-3
pH = -log10 (3.33 × 10-14 )
= 13.5
ÿn, wï, ødjKj, pH .Kkh lsÍu
² ÿn, wï, c,fha oS whkSlrKh jkafka wiïmQ¾K f,i h' t neúka ÿn,
talfm%daál wï,hl c,Sh ødjKfha my; oelafjk iu;=,s;;dj mj;S'
HA (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
moaO;sh i|yd iu;=,s;;d kshuh fh¥ úg (
wï,fha wdrïNl ujq,sl idkaøKh C o ú>gk m%udK α o fõ kï;
α << 1 jk úg 1 - α 1 neúka
200
t fia u ÿn, Niau ødjKhl"
ÿn, wï, yd m%n, Niauj,ska jHq;amkak ,jK ødjKj, pH .Kkh lsÍu

kso( CH3COONa
CH3COONa(s) + H2O(l) → CH3COO-(aq) + Na+(aq)
Na+(aq) + H2O(l) → ie,elsh hq;= m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH (aq) + OH-(aq)
iu;=,s;;d kshuh wkqj ;
[H2O(l)] ksh; neúka"
² 0.050 mol dm-3 fidaähï t;fkdtaÜ ødjKhl yhsâfrdlaihsâ whk idkaøKh

yd m%;sl%shd m%;sY;h .Kkh lrkak' wod< WIaK;ajfha oS t;fkdhsla wï,fha
Ka, 1.8 ×10-5 mol dm-3 fõ'
ødjKfha OH- idkaøKh x kï(

[CH3COO-(aq)] = 0.05 mol dm-3 - x
[OH-(aq)] = x
[CH3COOH(aq)] = x
∴ 5.6 ×10-10 mol dm-3 =
x = [OH-(aq)] = 5.3 ×10-6 mol dm-3
201
m%;sl%shd m%;sY;h =
ÿn, Niauhlska yd m%n, wï,hlska jHq;amkak ,jK yd c,h w;r m%;sl%shdj

kso ( NH4Cl
fuu whk c, úÉfþokhg iyNd.s ùu i,luq'

NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) → ie,elsh hq;= m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
[H2O(l)] ksh; neúka"
Kw " Kb yd okakd ksid yd pH .Kkh l< yels h'
202
ødjKhl pH w.h ks¾Kh lsÍu
² ødjKhl pH w.h
² o¾Yl îQpl&
² o¾Yl lvodis
² pH ógr
Ndú;fhka ks¾Kh l< yels h'
pH o¾Yl ms<sn| jdoh

² ´kE u wï, Niau o¾Ylhla ÿn, wï,hla fyda ÿn, Niauhla fyda fõ' tajd
lsishï pH w.hlg jvd my< § tla j¾Khla o" fjk;a lsishï pH w.hlg
jvd by< § fjk;a j¾Khla o fmkajhs'
² wï, Niau o¾Ylh HIn f,i ksrEmKh flfrk my; iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk
ÿn, wï,h i,lkak'
HIn(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + In-(aq)

j¾Kh - 1 j¾Kh - 2
t úg o¾Ylhla nj ye`.ùug ÿn, wï,fha iu;=,s;;d ksh;h Ka fjkqjg
KInksh;h fhdokq ,efí'
-log10 KIn = -log10[H3O+(aq)]-log10[In-(aq)]-(-log[HIn(aq)])
-
² HIn yd In j¾K follska hqla; fõ'
² wï,hla tl;= lsÍfï oS iu;=,s;;dj jug nr jk neúka HIn ys j¾Kh m%uqL
j fmfkhs'
² laIdrhla tl;= lsÍfï oS ^H3O+bj;a jk neúka& iu;=,s;;dj ol=Kg nr jk
w;r In- ys j¾Kh m%uqL fõ'
² my< pH w.hj, oS j¾Kh - 1 fmkakqï flfrk w;r th zmy< j¾KhZ
f,i;a by< pH w.h j, oS j¾Kh - 2 fmkakqï flfrk w;r th zby<
j¾KhZ f,i;a y÷kajkq ,nhs'
² ødjKfha pH, pKIn g iudk jk úg" In- ys yd HIn ys iu ñY%Khlg wdfõKsl
w;rueos j¾Kh o¾Ykh fõ'
² o¾Ylhl pH mrdih pKIn+ 1 yd pKIn- 1 w;r msysgk úg j¾K úm¾hdih we;s
jkafka pH tall folla we;=<; h'
203
my< iSudjg by< iSudjg
o¾Ylh pH mrdih jvd wvq jvd jeä pKIn
pHw.hl oS pHw.hl oS
j¾Kh j¾Kh
fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ 2'9 - 4'6 r;= ly 3'7
fu;s,a frâ 4'2 - 6'3 r;= ly 5'0
ífrda f ud;hs f ud,a 6'0 - 7'6 ly ks,a 7'1

íÆ
mSfkda,ama;,Ska 8'3 - 10'0 wj¾K r;= 9'6
² wkqudmkhla i|yd iqÿiq o¾Ylhl pH mrdih" wkqudmkfha YS>%;u pH

fjki yd iumd; úh hq;= h' t kï" wkqudmk jl%fha iul;d ,laIHh
we;=<;a jk isria fldgi ;=< pH mrdih msysáh hq;= h'
² iul;d ,laIHfha pH w.h lsishï o¾Ylhl pKIn w.h u úKs kï tu
wkqudmkhg tu o¾Ylh iqÿiq u o¾Ylh fõ'
wï, Niau m%;sls%hdj, úúO ,laIHj, § pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu yd pH m%ia;dr

we£u
² m%;sl%shdj iïmQ¾K jk wjia:dj iul;d ,laIHh f,i ye|skafõ' m%n, wï,

- m%n, Niau wkqudmkhl iul;d ,laIHfha § [H+(aq)] = [OH-(aq)] fõ'
² m%n, wï, - m%n, Niau wkqudmkhl wka; ,laIHfha oS legdhkh ^Wod'Na+,
K+, Ca2+& fyda wekdhkh^Wod( Cl-, NO3-& fyda c,úÉfþokhg Ndck fkd fõ'
t neúka iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h ks¾Kh lrkq ,nkafka c,fha ú>gkh
úisks' tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h 7 fõ'
² tfy;a wfkl=;a wkqudmkj, oS ÿn, Niaufha legdhkh o" ÿn, wï,fha
wekdhkh o c,úÉfþokh fõ' ødjKfha pH w.h fuu c,úÉfþokfha
m%;sM,h úiska ;SrKh flf¾'
ksoiqk 1 (
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) NH4OH (aq) + H+(aq)
fuys [H+(aq)] > [OH-(aq)]
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS ødjKh wdï,sl jk w;r pH < 7'0 fõ'
ksoiqk 2(
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COOH (aq) + OH- (aq)
fuys [OH-(aq)] > [H+(aq)]
tu ksid iul;d ,laIHfha oS ødjKh laIdÍh jk w;r pH > 7'0 fõ'
204
² my; oelafjk wkqudmkh i,lkak'
0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH
0.1 mol dm-3 HCl, 25.00 cm3
wdrïNl pH w.h } 1'0
laIdrh 5'0 cm3 tl;= lsÍfuka miq pH }
} 1'1761
1'2
} 2'6778
2'7
iul;d ,laIfha § pH } 7
} 11'2924
11'3
wkqudmk pl%
^1& m%n, wï, - m%n, Niau wkqudmk
0.100 mol dm-3 0.001 mol dm-3 NaOH

NaOH
0.100 mol dm-3 HCl 0.001 mol dm-3 HCl

( 25.00 cm3) (25.00 cm3)
(a) (b)
205
---------------------------------------------------------- iul;d ,la I Hh
(b)
(a)
5 10 15 20 25 30 NaOH mßudj$cm3
rEmh 13'5'1 ( m%n, wï, - m%n, Niau wkqudmk i|yd wkqudmk jl%h
² by; (a) wkqudmkh tys iul;d ,laIH wi, § pH 3 -11 olajd ;Sj% fjkila
fmkajhs' t neúka pKIn tu mrdifha mj;sk ´kE u o¾Ylhla fï wkqudmkfha
wka; ,laIHh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iqÿiq h'
ksoiqka - *sfkdma;,Ska pKIn } 9'6
fu;s,a ´f¾kaÊ pKIn }3'7
fn%dafud;hsfkda,a í¨ pKIn }7
² Ndú; lrk m%;sldrlj, idkaøKh wvq jk úg ;Sj% pH fjki isÿ jk
mrdih mgq fõ' (b) wkqudmkh n,kak' t neúka by; o¾Yl ;=k w;=ßka
fn%dafud;hsfuda,a í¨ muKla wkqudmkh i|yd iqÿiq fõ'
^1& m%n, Niau - ÿn, wï, wkqudmk

0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH
0.10 mol dm-3 HA (25.00 cm3)
^Ka } 1 x 10-5 mol dm-3)
206
² wdrïNl wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu
[H+(aq)]2 = 10-6 mol2 dm-6

[H+(aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
∴ pH = 3.0
² iul;d ,laIHfha oS wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu

ÿn, wï,fha ixhq.aul Niaufha c, úÉfþokh i,lkak'
iul;d ,laIHfha oS [HA(aq)] = [OH-(aq)]

iul;d ,laIHfha oS [A-(aq)] = 0.05 mol dm-3 f,i .; fyd;a"
[OH-(aq)]2 = 0.05 x 10-9 mol2 dm-6

[OH- (aq)] = (0.05 x 10-9)1/2 mol dm-3
∴ pOH = 5.15
pH = 14.0-5.15 = 8.85
idkaøKh 0.1 mol dm-3 jk ÿn, HA wï,hg" 0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKh
tl;= lr wkqudmkh lsÍfï § pH úp,kh jk wkaou my; m%ia;drfha
oelafõ'
207
------------------------------------------------- iul;d ,la I Hh
NaOH mrsudj$cm3
rEmh 13'5'2 ( m%n, Niau - ÿn, wï, wkqudmk i|yd wkqudmk jl%h
² by; wkqudmkfha ;Sj% pH mrdih 7'5 -10 w;r fõ' fuu mrdihg wh;a pK In w.hla
iys; *sfkdma;,Ska ^pK In = 9.6) m%n, Niau - ÿn, wï, wkqudmk i|yd o¾Ylhla
f,i jvd;a u iqÿiq fõ'
^3& m%n, wï, - ÿn, Niau wkqudmk
0.100 mol dm-3 HCl
0.100 mol dm-3 MOH, 25.00 cm3
MOH ys pKb = 5.0 he hs is;uq'

² wdrïNl wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu
MOH (aq) M+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
[OH- (aq)]2 = 10-6 mol dm-6

[OH- (aq)] = 10-3 mol dm-3
pOH = 3.0
∴pH =14.0 – 3.0 = 11.0
208
² iul;d ,laIHfha oS wdikak pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu
[M+ (aq)] = 0.05 mol dm-3
M+ (aq) + H2O (l) MOH (aq) + H+ (aq)
[H+(aq)]2 = 0.05 x 10-9 mol2 dm-6
pH = 5.15
------------------------------------ iul;d ,la I Hh
HCl mrsudj$cm3
13'5'3 rEmh ( m%n, wï, - ÿn, Niau wkqudmkhl wkqudmk jl%h
² by; wkqudmkfha § ;Sj% pH fjkila fmkakqï lrkafka pH 3-6 olajd

mrdifha § h' tu ksid Wla; wkqudmkh i|yd WÑ; o¾Ylhla jkqfha fu;s,a
TfrkaÊ h'
4& ÿn, wï, - ÿn, Niau wkqudmkh

iul;d ,laIH wi, § ;Sj% pH fjkila fkd fmkajhs' tu ksid fï i|yd lsis
ÿ o¾Ylhla m%dfhda.sl j Ndú; l< fkd yels h'
5& 0'05 mol dm-3 c,Sh Na2A ødjKhla yd 0'10 mol dm-3 HCl w;r wkqudmkh
(A hkq ÿn, wï,hl ixhq.aul Niauh hs'&
o fõ'
209
i|yd h'
i|yd h'
HCl mßudj/cm3
m<uq jk wka; ,laIHh 12.50
fo jk wka; ,laIHh 25.00
pH 14 -
12 -
10 -
8 -
6-
4 -
12.50 25.00 HCl mßudj /cm3
13.5.4 rEmh ( HCl iu`. Na2A wkqudmkh i|yd wkqudmk jl%h
² m<uq jk wka; ,laIHh *sfkdma;,Ska u`.ska o" fo jk wka; ,laIHh fu;s,a

Tf¾kaÊ u`.ska o ks¾Kh l< yels h'
² *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylh f,i fh¥ úg wka; ,laIHh 12.50 cm3 ys § o" fu;s,a
Tf¾kaÊ o¾Ylh f,i fh¥ úg wka; ,laIHh 25.00 cm3 ys § o" ,efí'
Na2CO3 yd HCl w;r wkqudmkh

by; ksoiqk fuhg iudk fõ'
CO32- (aq) + H2O (l) HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq)
HCO3- (aq) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) + OH- (aq)
H2CO3 ys = 6.37 yd = 10.33 o fõ'
= 4.27 x 10-7 mol dm-3 yd = 4.68 x 10-11 mol dm-3 o fõ'
210
fuu K yd Ka weiqßka iul;d ,laIH foflys § pH w.h .Kkh l< yels h'
2 1
0.05 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 25.00 cm3 iu`. 0.1 mol dm-3 HCl wkqudmkh i,luq'
HCl mßudj/cm3
m<uq jk wka; ,laIHh 12.50
fo jk wka; ,laIHh 25.00
m<uq jk wka; ,laIHh ,efnkqfha my; m%;sls%hdj wjidkfha § h'
m<uq jk wka; ,laIHfha § my; iu;=,s;;djg t<efò'
fuys,
tu ksid m<uq jk wka; ,laIHfha § pH = 9.55.

fo jk wka; ,laIHh ,efnkqfha my; m%;sls%hdj wjidkfha § h'
fo jk wka; ,laIHfha § my; iu;=,s;;djg t<efò'
211
tu ksid fo jk wka; ,laIHfha § pH = 3.99.
² u,a fhdod .ksñka o¾Yl ms<sfh< lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
² o¾Yl$pH lvodis Ndú; lr úúO ødjKj, pH w.h ks¾Kh lsÍug mjrkak'
² pH w.h mÍlaId lsÍfuka ,jKj, c,Sh ødjKj, wdï,sl" laIdÍh fyda WodiSk
fyda nj ks¾Kh lsÍug fhduq lrjkak'
² m%n, wï, - m%n, Niau wkqudmkhl úúO wjia:dj, oS ødjKfha pH w.h
.Kkh lsÍug isiqkg u`. fmkajkak'
² isiqkg my; oelafjk wkqudmkj,g wod< wkqudmk jl%j, o< rEmigyka
we£ug wjia:dj fokak'
² m%n, Niau - m%n, wï,
² m%n, Niau - ÿn, wï,
² ÿn, Niau - m%n, wï,
² wkqudmkj,g iqÿiq o¾Yl ks¾Kh lsÍug;a úúO o¾Yl Ndú; lrk úg jeh
jk wkqudml ødjK mßud .Kkh lsÍug;a isiqka fhdojkak'
² tllg jeä mshjr .Kklska isÿ jk wkqudmkj, wkqudmk jl%j, o<
rEmigyka we£ug isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
kso (- Na2CO3(aq) yd HCl(aq)
212
ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iu;=,;s ;dj ms<n
Ndú; lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'6 ( wjYH;djg irs,k mrsos iajdrlaIl ødjK ms<sfh< lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iajdrlaIl ødjK .=Kd;aul j yd m%udKd;aul j yodrhs'
² iajdrlaIl moaO;s i|yd fykav¾ika iólrKh jHq;amkak lrhs'
² ir, .Kkh lsÍï i|yd fykav¾ika iólrKh Ndú; lrhs'
² iajdrlaIl moaO;shl pH w.h .=Kd;aul j yd m%udKd;aul j meyeos,s lrhs'

iajdrlaIl ødjK
² ridhksl jYfhka ixY=oaO jQ c,h 1.0 dm 3 lg 0.1 mol dm -3 HCl ødjKhlska
fyda 0.1 mol dm -3 NaOH ødjKhlska 1.0 cm 3 tl;= l< úg isÿ jk pH w.fhys
fjki wdikak jYfhka tall 3la nj .Kkh lsÍfuka fyda pH lvodis
Ndú;fhka fyda fmkaúh yels h' fuhska fmkS hkafka wï, fyda laIdr iq`M
m%udKhlg pH w.fhys úYd, fjkila isÿ l< yels nj hs' tfy;a fu jeks
fjkilg m%;sfrdaë ødjK o fõ'
² iajdrlaIl ødjKhla hkq iaj,am m%udKj,ska H+ fyda OH- fyda c,h fyda tl;=
lrk úg ødjKfha pH w.fha fjkia ùug m%;sfrdaOh olajk ødjK fõ'
² 0.l mol dm -3 CH3COOH(aq) j,ska 50.00 cm3 f.k thg 0.l mol dm -3 NaOH
ødjKhlska fok ,o mßud tl;= lr f.k hEfï oS moaO;sfha pH w.h fjkia
ùu my; j.=fjka fmkakqï flf¾'
tl;= lrk ,o moaO;sfha
0.1 mol dm-3 pH w.h
NaOH mrsudj$cm3
0.00 2.88
5.00 3.88
10.00 4.15
15.00 4.39
20.00 4.60
25.00 4.75
35.00 5.12
45.00 5.71
50.00 8.75
² by; j.=j wkqj NaOH(aq) 10 cm3la yd 25 cm3la tl;= lrk w;r;=r pH w.h
fjkia ù we;af;a b;d iq`M jYfhks' t kï ndysr j tl;= lrk ,o Niauh
ksid we;s jk pH w.h fjkia ùu wvq lr .ekSug moaO;sh lsishï m%;sfrdaOhla
olajd we;' fï l%shdj iajdrlaIl l%shdj kï fõ'
213
iajdrlaIl moaO;s
² ÿn, wï,hla" tys ixhq.aul Niauh iu`. ñY% j we;s moaO;s iajdrlaIl .=K
fmkajhs' Wod ( CH3COOH(aq) yd CH3COONa(aq) moaO;sh
² ÿn, Niauhla tys ixhq.aul wï,h iu`. ñY% j we;s moaO;s iajdrlaIl .=K
fmkajhs' Wod ( NH4OH(aq) yd NH4Cl(aq) moaO;sh
iajdrlaIl l%shdj
² CH3COOH(aq) yd CH3COONa(aq) moaO;sh weiqßka ijdrlaIl l%shdj meyeos,s

l< yels h'
f,i mQ¾K j ú>gkh fõ'
f,i Nd.sl j
ú>gkh fõ'
fuu moaO;shg msg;ska H3O+(aq) iaj,amhla tl;= l< úg" CH3COO- whk yd
tl;= ù ÿn, f,i ú>gkh jk CH3COOH(aq) idoñka tl;= l< H3O+
moaO;sfhka bj;a fõ'
tu ksid moaO;sfha pH w.h fndfyda ÿrg ksh; j mj;S'
fuu moaO;shg msg;ska OH- iaj,amhla tl;= l< úg ÿn, f,i ú>gkh jk
H2O idoñka tl;= l< OH-(aq) moaO;sfhka bj;a fõ'
OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq) 2H2O(l)
moaO;sfha wvq jk H3O (aq) idkaøKh mj;ajd .ekSug CH3COOH ú>gkh
+
fõ' t neúka pH w.h fndfyda ÿrg ksh; fõ'
² NH4OH(aq) yd NH4Cl(aq) moaO;sh weiqßka o ijdrlaIl l%shdj meyeos,s l<

yels h'
NH4OH(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4Cl(aq) → + Cl-(aq)
fuu ødjKhg msg;ska wï, iaj,amhla tla l< úg" H+(aq) yd OH-(aq) whk
tl;= ù c,h idoñka moaO;sfhka bj;a fõ' t úg moaO;sfhka wvq jk OH-(aq)
idkaøKh mj;ajd .ekSug NH4OH ;j ;j;a ú>gkh fõ' tu ksid moaO;sfha
pH w.h fndfyda ÿrg ksh; fõ'
fuu ødjKhg msg;ska Niau iaj,amhla tla l< úg" yd OH-(aq)
tl;= fjñka ÿn, f,i ú>gkh jk NH OH(aq) idoñka tl;= l< OH-(aq)
4
whk bj;a flf¾' t úg pH w.h fndfyda ÿrg ksh; j mj;S'
214
fykav¾ika iólrKh
² CH3COOH(aq)/CH3COONa(aq) jeks iajdrlaIl moaO;shl pH w.h" ks¾Kh

lsÍug my; iólrKh ^fykav¾ika iólrKh& jHq;amkak l< yels h'
wï,fha ú>gk ks;h;h"
-
² CH3COOH(aq)j, ú>gk m%udKh wvq ksid CH3COO (aq) iïmQ¾Kfhka u
,nd fokafka ,jKfhka muKla nj o iólrKfha wvx.= CH3COOH idkaøKh
wdrïNl CH3COOH idkaøKhg wdikak j iudk nj o Wml,amkh lrñka
fuu .Kkh lsÍï isÿ flf¾'
² iuyr wjia:dj, oS moaO;sj, pH w.h ksh; j mj;ajd .ekSu jeo.;a fõ'

kso( reêrfha" l¾udka;j, oS" ffcj úoHd;aul mÍlaIKj, oS'
reêrfha pH w.h 7'4 ls' reêrfha pH w.h 0'5lska fjkia ùu mjd
urKh f.k taug ;=vq foa' tu ksid YÍrhg tkak;a ,nd oSfï oS reêrfha
iajdrlaIl .=Kh b;d m%fhdackj;a fõ'
² úúO moaO;sj, iajdrlaIl l%shdj fm/hSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

² iul;d ,laIHg fmr ÿn, wï, - m%n, Niau moaO;s yd ÿn, Niau - ÿn,
wï, moaO;s iajdrlaIl moaO;s f,i yeisfrk nj fmkajd fokak'
215
ksmqK;dj 14'0 ( úoHq;a ridhksl moaO;sj, m%dfhda.sl jeo.;alu úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'1 ( ødjKhl wvx.= ødjH m%udKh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd ikakdhl;d
ñkqï Ndú; lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úoHq;a úÉfþoH" úoHq;a wúÉfþoH" m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoH yd ÿn, úoHq;a úÉfþoH
hk moj, woyi meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² c,Sh udOHhl § úoHq;a úÉfþoH" úoHq;a wúÉfþoH" m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoH yd
ÿn, úoHq;a úÉfþoH i|yd WodyrK olajhs'
² Odrdj ikakhkh lrk N+;d¾: mokï fldg bf,lafg%daksl ikakdhl yd
whksl ikakdhl ii|hs'
² úoHq;a úÉfþoHhla yryd Odrdjla ikakhkh ùu i|yd bf,lafg%dav foflys
u m%;sl%shd isÿ úh hq;= nj m%ldY lrhs'
² m%;sfrdaOh yd ikakhk;dj hk mo w¾: olajhs'
² m%;sfrdaOl;dj yd ikakdhl;dj hk mo w¾: olajhs'
² úoHq;a úÉfþoH ødjKhl ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl m%ldY lrhs'
² ikakdhl;dfjys mßfïh yd wmßfïh SI tall jHq;amkak lrhs'
² úúO iajdNdúl c, ksheosj, yd okakd idkaøKfhka hq;= fjk;a úoHq;a
úÉfþoHj, wdikak ikakdhl;d uek ixikaokh lrhs'

² m%n, úoHq;a úÑfþoH
m%n, úoHq;a úÉfÊoH hkq ødjKhl § mQ¾K jYfhka whkSlrKh jk øjH
jk w;r whksl >k iy m%n, wï, ta i|yd ksoiqka fõ' tajdfha mQ¾K
whkSlrKh fya;=fjka ødjKfha whk idkaøKh tl;= lrk ,o m%n, úoHq;a
úÉfÊoHfha idkaøKhg iudkqmd;sl fõ'
ksoiqka ( NaCl, KNO3, HCl wdÈfha c,Sh ødjK
² ÿn, úoHq;a úÉfþoH

ÿn, úoHq;a úÉfþoH ødjKj, § mQ¾K jYfhka whkSlrKh fkd fõ' ÿn,
fn%dkaiagâ wï, yd Niau fï .khg wh;a fõ'
ksoiqka ( CH3COOH, NH3, H2O
² úoHq;a wúÉfþoH
whk wka;¾.; fkd jk øj$ødjK úoHq;a wúÉfþoH f,i ye¢kafõ' tajd
úoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
ksoiqka - C6H6 , flfrdiSka
216
² ikakhk;dj yd ikakdhl;dj
bf,lafg%dav
f,day l=Üáh
ødjKh
_ - - - - - - -- -- -
+ --- - - - - -- - _
+
R R
------ ----- --
--- --- ---- -- -
l A l
A
by; jï miska oelafjkafka >kldN yeve;s f,day l=Üáhls' ol=Kq miska
oelafjkafka ødjKhla ;=< msysgqjd we;s bf,lafg%dav hq.,lg ueÈ jQ yd tu f,day
l=Üáfha udkj,ska u hq;= ødjK >kldNhls'
fuys l = os. (m)

A = yrialv j¾.M,h (m2)
R = m%;sfrdaOh ( )
= m%;sfrdaOl;dj ( )
= ikakhk;dj ( fyda S, fuys S u`.ska oelafjkqfha iSukaia h'&
k = ikakdhl;dj ( fyda S m-1)

tu >kldN iïnkaOfhka"
² ikakdhl;dfõ mßfïh SI tallh Ω −1

m−1 jk w;r jvd;a u m%dfhda.sl
tallh o fõ'
² m%;sfrdaOl;dj fuka u ikakdhl;dj o ta øjHhg ^f,dayhg fyda ødjKhg&
wdfõKsl ksh; jk w;r WIaK;ajh wkqj tajd fjkia fõ' ^ødjKhl oS
fi,aishia wxYlhg 2] la muK&
² ødjKhl ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl

² ødjHfha iajNdjh ^m%n, fyda ÿn, fyda úoHq;a úÉfþoH yd úoHq;a wúÉfþoH
ødjK" ú,Sk úoHq;a úÉfþoH&
² ødjHfha idkaøKh
² WIaK;ajh
217
j.=j 14'1'1 ( úúO c, ksheÈj, iy ødjKj, ikakdhl;d
idïm,h ikakdhl;dj$
wdiQ; c,h 1-2
0.01 mol dm-3 KCl ødjKh 1 480
<sx c,h 100 - 200
k< c,h 50 - 150
uqyqÿ c,h 40 000
² ;kql ødjK i|yd ikakdhl;dfõ wvq ùu idkaøKhg o< jYfhka iudkqmd;sl

jk w;r b;d ;kql ødjK i|yd fuh jvd;a ksje/È fõ' fuhg fya;=j ødjK
b;d ;kql jk úg whk w;r wka;¾ls%hd wvq ùu hs'
j.=j 14'1'2 úúO WIaK;ajj, § úúO KCl ødjKj, ikakdhl;d
ikakdlhl;dj$S m-1
idkaøKh / mol dm-3 0 0C 18 0C 25 0C
1.0 6.543 x 104 9.820 x 104 1.117 x 105

0.1 7.154 x 103 1.119 x 104 1.289 x 104
0.01 7.751 x 102 1.223 x 103 1.411 x 103
² Odrdj } wdfrdamKh$ld,h
fok ,o WIaK;ajhl § yd fok ,o úoHq;a fCIa;%hl § whkhla u`.ska f.k
hkq ,nk Odrdj whk idkaøKh ^C & yd tajdfha fõ.h ^v& u; r|d mj;S'
whkhl fõ.h tys wdfrdamKh ^z&" úYd,;ajh yd imhkq ,nk úoHq;a fCIa;f
% ha
úNj wkql%uKh u; r|d mj;S'
j.=j 14'1'3 ( úNj wkql%uKh 1V cm-1 hgf;a WIaK;ajh 298 K ys mj;sk c,Sh
ødjKhl oS whkj, fõ.
whkh fõ.h$mm min-1
H+ 2.05
OH- 1.12
Na+ 0.29
K+ 0.42
NO 3- 0.40
Cl- 0.42
SO42- 0.88
Ca 2+ 0.67
218
² c,Sh ødjKj, § H+ yd OH- whkj,g Wmßu fõ. we;' t neúka tajd wfkla
whkj,g jvd úoHq;h ikakhkh i|yd odhl fjhs' ksoiqkla f,i c,Sh
;kql HCl ødjKhl oS Odrdfjka 80] muK f.k hkq ,nkafka H+ whk
u`.sks'

² c,Sh ødjKj, § m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoH" ÿ¾j, úoHq;a úÉfþoH yd úoHq;a
wúÉfþoH hk mo myod fokak'
² øj wjia:dfõ oS fyda ødjK wjia:dfõ oS fyda úoHq;a úÉfþoHhla whk u`.ska
úoHq;h ikakhkh lrk nj jgyd fokak' f,day ikakdhlhla bf,lafg%dak
u`.ska úoHq;h ikakhkh lrk nj myokak'
² whksl ødjKhl fyda whksl øjhl fyda whk w;r wka;¾l%shd mj;sk nj
f;areï lrkak' úoHq;a úNj wka;rhl n,mEu hgf;a whk m%;súreoaO osYdj,g
.uka lsÍug fm<efUk nj;a" tajd .uka lrk fõ. b;d l=vd nj;a" tu fõ.
úNj wkql%uKh" whkfha úYd,;ajh yd wdfrdamKh u; r|d mj;sk nj;a
fmkajd fokak'
² ødjKhl mj;sk whk idkaøKh ms<sn| jeo.;a f;dr;=re ikakdhl;dj u`.ska
,nd fok nj 14'1'1 j.=j Ndú;fhka wjOdrKh lrkak'
² ikakdhl;d ñkqï fhfok wjia:d idlÉPd lrkak'
² ødjKj, idkaøKh uekSu
² c,fha mú;%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍu ^,jK;dfõ ñkqula f,i&
² wkqudmkj, § iul;d ,laIHh ks¾Kh lsÍu
219
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'2 ( iu;=,s; bf,lafg%dav yd tajdg wod< bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd

úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 02 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davhl ieleiau w|shs'
² WodyrK foñka idudkH f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davj, m%;sj¾;H
bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
² bf,lafg%dva h yd ødjKh w;r w;=re uqyK q f;ys (interface) úNj wka;rhla yg
.ekSu úia;r lrhs'
² úúO j¾.j, bf,lafg%dav ^jdhq bf,lafg%dav" f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%dav"
f,day - wødjH ,jK bf,lafg%dv a " rsfvdlaia bf,lafg%dva & rEmSh f,i ksrEmKh
lrhs'
² úúO j¾.j,g wh;a bf,lafg%davj, m%;sj¾;H bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
² iïu; bf,lafg%davh w¾: olajhs'
² fldaIhla iïu; wxlkfhka ,shd olajhs'

j.=j 14'2'1 ( bf,lafg%dav j¾.
bf,lafg%dav ksoiqka iu;=,s; bf,lafg%dav

j¾.h m%;sl%shdj
f,day - f,day whk Cu(s)|Cu2+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)

Ag(s)|Ag+(aq) +
Ag (aq) + e Ag(s)
f,day$wødjH ,jK Ag (s),AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + e Ag(s)+Cl-(aq)

Hg(l),Hg2Cl2(s)|Cl-(aq) 1
2 Hg2Cl2(s) + e Hg (l)+Cl-(aq)
jdhq Pt(s),H2(g)|H+(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)

Pt(s),O2(g)|OH-(aq) 2O2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 4e 4OH-(g)
ßfvdlaia Pt(s)|Fe2+(aq),Fe3+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e Fe2+(aq)

Pt(s)|Sn4+(aq),Sn2+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2e Sn2+(aq)
² ødjK i|yd fhfok úg fN!;sl wjia:dj yd idkaøKh;a

[kso( Fe2+(aq,1.0 mol dm-3)] jdhq i|yd fhfok úg fN!;sl wjia:dj yd mSvkh;a
[kso( H2(g, 1.0 bar)] ,sùu w;HjYH fõ'
220
f,day -f,day whk bf,lafg%davh
² ue.akSishï jeks ils%h f,day lene,a,la c, îlrhl .s,ajQ úg" f,day mrudKq
bf,lafg%dak uqod yßñka f,day whk f,i ødjK.; ùug hï keUqre;djla
olajhs' tys § msg jk bf,lafg%dak f,dayh u; /f|hs' flá ld,hl §" f,dayh
u; bf,lafg%dak w;sßla;hla yg .efkk w;r f,dayh" ødjKfha mj;sk
legdhk u`.ska ia;rhla wdldrhg jg lrkq ,nhs' tu legdhk thg jvd;a
<x ù meje;Sug keUqre;djla olajkafka f,day lene,a, u; mj;sk iDK
wdfrdamK u`.ska tajd wdl¾IKh lrkq ,eîu fya;=fjks' fuh oaú;aj ia;rhla
f,i ye¢kafjk w;r th (a) rEmfha oelafõ'
f,day l+r
(a) rEmh
² iuyr legdhk f,dayh u;ska bf,lafg%dak ,nd f.k h<s;a f,day mrudKq
f,i f,dayh lene,a, u; ;ekam;a ùug m%udKj;a ;rfï wdl¾IKhlg ,la
fõ' mrudKq f,day mDIaGh yer hdfï YS>%;dj yd whk" f,dayh iu`. kej;
iïnkaO ùfï YS>%;dj yßhg u iudk jk úg fuys .;sl iu;=,s;;djla
f.dvkexfõ' fuu wjia:dfõ § f,dayh u; ksh; iDK wdfrdamKhla mj;sk
w;r ta jgd ødjKfha ksh; f,day whk ixLHdjla mj;S' fl fia fj;;a" .;sl
iu;=,s;;dfõ § iudk YS>%;djlska whk wLKav j mDIaGh yer hdu;a" kej;
iïnkaO ùu;a isÿ fõ' f,dayh u; yd wdikak øj ia;rh w;r ckkh jk
úNjh bf,lafg%dav úNjh f,i ye¢kafõ'
² fldm¾ jeks wvq m%;sls%hdldÍ f,dayhla ie,elSfï § th wvq jYfhka whk

ksmojhs' iEfok whk o bf,lafg%dak h<s ,nd f.k f,dayh u; kej;
;ekam;a ùug jeä leue;a;la olajhs' tys § o iu;=,;s wjia:djla lrd t<efUk
kuqÿ wvq wdfrdamK m%udKhla f,dayh u; mj;sk w;r wvq whk m%udKhla
ødjKfha mj;S'
by; iu;=,; s ;d fol u ie,els,,
a g .;a úg ue.aki S hs ï ys iu;=,;
s ;d ,laIHh
fldm¾j, iu;=,s;;d ,laIHhg
jvd jï mig keUqre j msysgk nj meyeÈ,s fõ'
² IUPAC iïuq;shg wkqj iólrKfha jï miska bf,lafg%dak mj;sk mßÈ fuu

ish¨ iu;=,s;;d ,shkq ,nhs' fuu iïuq;s wkqj iEu úg u lghq;= lsÍu
ks¾foaY flf¾'
221
² f,day - wødjH ,jK bf,lafg%dav
ksoiqk ( le,u,a bf,lafg%davh
fuh fo jk w¾O
ix;Dma; KCl fldaIfha .s,ajhs'
ødjKh ²
úfNaolh (Seperator)
Pt bf,lafg%davh
le,u,a m,amh
riÈh
ksoiqk - is,aj¾ laf,darhsâ bf,lafg%davh

ß§ lïìh
ß§ lïìh u;
mj;sk AgCl
ix;Dma; KCl ødjKh
firñla" lajdÜia
² jdhq bf,lafg%davh
fyda ùÿre ;ka;=
ksoiqk - yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davh
ikaêh
1 atm mSvkh hgf;a

jk H2 jdhqj
² Redox bf,lafg%davh ma,eákï í,ela wdf,ams; Pt

bf,lafg%davh
[H+(aq)] = 1 mol dm- 3
jk HCl wï,h
222
ksoiqk Fe3+/Fe2+ bf,lafg%davh
ksYal%sh f,day ^kso(Pd/Pt)

fyda ldnka bf,lafg%davh
Fe3+(aq)/Fe2+(aq)
fldaI wxlkh ^cell notation&
• iEu úg u wefkdavh fyj;a TlaislrK w¾O fldaIh jï miska o lef;davh fyj;a
TlaisyrK w¾O fldaIh ol=Kq miska o ,shkq ,nhs' bf,lafg%dav hq., úoHq;a
jYfhka iïnkaO lrk ,o ,jK fia;=j iudka;r f¾Ld follska ksrEmKh
flf¾'
• fldaIh ksrEmKfha § tys w.% fo fl<jfrys olajkq ,efí' tla tla w¾O fldaIfha
bf,lafg%davh yd whk ødjKh w;r w;=re uqyqK; ;ks isria f¾Ldjlska fjka lr
olajkq ,nhs' tys wfkl=;a ix>gl fjka lrkq ,nkafka fldudj,sks'
ksoiqk : Pt(s)|Fe2+(aq, 1 mol dm-3),Fe3+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)
Hg(l),Hg Cl (s)|Cl-(aq, 1 mol dm-3)
2 2
• w¾O fldaIfha m%;sls%hdjg jdhqjla iïnkaO kï ma,eákï jeks ksYal%sh f,dayhla

w.%h f,i ls%hd lrñka m%;sls%hdj i|yd mDIaGhla imhhs' lef;davhla f,i;a"
wefkdavhla f,i;a" yhsârcka bf,lafg%davfha ksrEmKh ms<sfj<ska my; oelafõ'
H+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)|H2(g),Pt(s) Pt(s),H2(g)|H+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)
• fldaI lsysmhl iïu; ,sÅ; ksrEmK my; oelafõ'

Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq,1 mol dm-3 )||Cu2+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)|Cu(s)
Cd(s)|Cd2+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)||H+(aq, 1 mol dm-3)|H2(g),Pt(s)

² j.=j 14'2'1 ys i|yka bf,lafg%davj, o< ie,eiqï w¢kak'
² iu;=,s; wjia:dfõ f,dayh yd ødjKh w;r úNj wka;rhla mj;sk nj
i|yka lrkak'
² wod< m%;sl%shd iïu; wdldrfhka ,shd fmkajkak' ^TlaisyrK m%;sls%hdj"
m%;sj¾;H ,l=K yd fN!;sl wjia:d jeo.;a fõ'&
223
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'3 ( úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, .=K mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh

lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav úNjh w¾: olajhs'
² iïu; yhsârcka bf,lafg%davh ieie÷ï bf,lafg%davhla ^reference electrode&
f,i y÷kajd fohs'
² iïu; yhsârcka bf,lafg%davh rEmSh f,i ksrEmKh lrhs'
² iïu; bf,lafg%davh w¾: olajhs'
² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh uksk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh w¾: olajhs'
² bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav úNjh flfrys n,mdk idOl m%ldY lrhs'
² úoHq;a.dul n,h w¾: olajhs'
² úoHq;a.dul n,h ms<sn| ir, .eg¨ úi|hs'
² fldaIhl úoHq;a.dul n,h flfrys n,mdk idOl úia;r lrhs'
² fldaIhl úoHq;a.dul n,h m%dfhda.sl j ks¾Kh lrhs'
² iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNj Ndú; lr úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh f.dvk`.hs'
² úoHq;a ridhksl fYa%Ksfha f,day msysgk ia:dkh wkqj uQ,øjHj, meje;au"
ksiaidrKh yd ridhksl .=K ms<sn| iïnkaO;d f.dvk``.hs'
² le,u,a bf,lafg%davh yd is,aj¾-is,aj¾ laf,darhsâ bf,lafg%dav m%dfhda.sl
ieie÷ï bf,lafg%dav nj m%ldY lrhs'
² iu;=,s;;d úoHq;a-ridhksl fldaI i|yd WodyrK fohs'
² øj ikaêhla we;s yd øj ikaêhla fkdue;s fldaI y÷kajd fl n÷ oe hs myohs'
² ir, bf,lafg%dav iys; iu;=,s;;d úoHq;a-ridhksl fldaIj, bf,lafg%dav
m%;sl%shd yd fldaI m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
² fok ,o bf,lafg%davhl oaú;aj ia;rfha mj;sk úNj fjki tys bf,lafg%dav úNjh
f,i ie,efla' fuu ksrfmalaI j ueksh fkd yels h' th fjk;a bf,lafg%davhlg
idfmaCI j muKla ueksh yels fõ'
² fok ,o bf,lafg%davhl úNjh uekSu i|yd Ndú; lrkq ,nk okakd fyda w¾:
olajk ,o úNjhla iys; bf,lafg%davhla ieie÷ï bf,lafg%davhla" f,i ye¢kafõ'
iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNj iïu; yhsârcka bf,lafg%davhg idfmalaI j ukskq ,nhs'
iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davfha úNjh 0.00 V f,i w¾: oelafõ'
{[H+(aq)] = 1.0 mol dm-3" H2(g) mSvkh = 1 atm yd WIaK;ajh 298 K}
le,u,a bf,lafg%dv a h yd AgCl(s)|Ag(s) bf,lafg%dv
a h m%dfhda.l
s ieie÷ï bf,lafg%dv
a
f,i Ndú; flf¾' le,u,a bf,lafg%dv a fha yd AgCl(s)|Ag(s) bf,lafg%dv
a fha iïu;
bf,lafg%dav úNj ms<sfj<ska +0.22 V yd +0.2415 V fõ'
² iïu; ;;a;aj hgf;a § iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davhg(SHE) idfmalaI j ukskq
,nk fok ,o bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav úNjh tys iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh
kï fõ'
224
² Zn2+(aq)|Zn(s) bf,lafg%davfha iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNj uekSug ilia l< wegejqu
my; oelafõ'
ixLHdxl fjda,agógrh
- 0.76 V 12 iskl
a a
12
12 bf,lafg%davh
yhsvc% ka 12
12
1 atm, 298 K ,jK fia;=j 12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
ma,eákï bf,lafg%davh
yhsfv%dalaf,daßla wï,h iskala i,af*aÜ ødjKh

1 mol dm-3, 298 K 1 mol dm-3, 298 K
² úúO bf,lafg%davj, iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNj^TlaisyrK úNj& wdfrdayK

ms<sfj<g ilia lsÍfuka úoHq;a ridhksl fYa%Ksh ,efí'
² bf,lafg%dav úNjh flfrys n,mdk idOl
² WIaK;ajh
² úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha idkaøKh
² úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha iajNdjh
² mSvkh^jdhqjl&
² bf,lafg%dav j¾.h
² fldaIh ;=<ska Odrdjla .,d fkd hk wjia:dfõ § bf,lafg%dav hq., w;r
mj;akd úNj fjki úoHq;a.dul n,h (emf) f,i w¾: oelafõ'
² WIaK;ajh" úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha idkaøKh" bf,lafg%dav j¾.h yd úoHq;a
úÉfþoHfha iajNdjh úoHq;. a dul n,h flfrys n,mdk idOl hs' úoHq;.
a dul
n,h bf,lafg%dav hq., w;r mr;rfhka yd bf,lafg%davj, mDIaÀl
j¾.M,fhka iajdh;a; fõ'
² úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhl wNHka;r mßm:h iïmQ¾K lsÍu i|yd" bf,lafg%dv a
hq.,h mj;akd úoHq;a úÉfþoH" ,jK fia;=jla Tiafia fyda mdr.uH mg,la
$m%dÖrhla$iújr Nsolhla Tiafia fyda iïnkaO lrkq ,efí' ,jK fia;=j
f,i Ndú; flfrkafka ta.d¾ fh§fuka fc,s njg m;a lrk ,o KCl fyda
NH4NO3 jeks ,jK ødjKhlska mqrjk ,o k<hls' by; wdldrhg iïnkaO
úoHq;a ridhksl fldaI øj ikaêhla iys; fldaI f,i ye¢kafõ'
² fldaIhl bf,lafg%dav hq., ,jK fia;=jla fyda mdr.uH mg,hla$ m%dÖrhla$
iújr Nsolhla u`.ska fyda fjka lr fkdue;s úfgl th øj ikaêhla rys;
fldaIhla f,i ye¢kafõ'
225
² iïu; yhsârcka bf,lafg%davh yd wfkla iïu; bf,lafg%dav y÷kajd fokak'
fldaIhl iïu; úoHq;a.dul n,h y÷kajd fokak' is,aj¾-is,aj¾ laf,darhsâ
bf,lafg%davh wfkla bf,lafg%dav iu`. iïnkaO fldg úNj wka;r jd¾;d
lrkak'
² úoHd.drfha § úúO fldaIj, úoHq;a.dul n,h uek .ekSug isiqkag u`.
fmkajkak'
² wka;¾cd;sl iïuq;shg wkqj bf,lafg%dav úNj ukskafka iïu; yhsârcka
bf,lafg%dv
a fha úNjhg idfmalIa j h' fï wkqj iïu; is,j
a ¾-is,j
a ¾ laf,darhsâ
bf,lafg%davfha bf,lafg%dav úNjh 0'22 V fõ' ta wkqj wfkla iïu;
bf,lafg%davj, bf,lafg%dav úNj .Kkh l< yels h' fïjd wdfrdayK
ms<sfj<g ilia lsÍfuka úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh ,efnk nj fmkajkak'
² my; § we;s o;a; weiqßka Cu2+|Cu yd Zn2+|Zn bf,lafg%davj, bf,lafg%dav
úNjh .Kkh lrkak'
Ok w.%h RK w.%h ú'.d'n' /V

(lef;davh& ^wefkdavh& Ag(s),AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq)j,g
idfmalaI j wfkla
bf,lafg%davfha úNjh
t kï" Ecell = E cathode - Eanode
Cu(s)|Cu 2+(aq) Ag(s),AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq) + 0.12
Ag(s),AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq) Zn(s)|Zn2+ (aq) + 0.98
² bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd u`.ska fldaI m%;sl%shdj ,nd .kakd wdldrh;a" thg wod<
j Ecell = ER - EL fyda Ecell = EC- EA u`.ska fldaIfha úoHq;a.dul n,h ,nd
.kakd wdldrh;a meyeos,s lrkak'
² fldaIhl úoHq;.
a dul n,h flfrys úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha idkaøKh iy WIaK;ajh
n,mdk wdldrh ms<sn| .=Kd;aul j meyeÈ,s lrkak'
² uQ,øjHhlg úoHq;a ridhksl fYa%Ksfha ysñ ia:dkh yd tys ridhksl .=K

^TlaislrK yd TlaisyrK .=K&" meje;au yd ksiaidrK l%u ms<sn| iïnkaO;d
idlÉPd lrkak'
226
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'4 ( úúO fldaI j¾. ms<sn| úu¾Ykfha fhfohs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úúO j¾.j, m%dfhda.sl fldaI ^m%d:ñl fldaI" oaú;shsl fldaI" bkaOk fldaI&
y÷kajhs'
² m%dfhda.sl m%d:ñl fldaI i|yd ksoiqka fohs' ^veksfh,a fldaIh" f,la,dkaÉ
fldaIh&
² m%dfhda.sl m%d:ñl fldaIj, bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd yd fldaI m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
² Bhï ixpdhl fldaIh oaú;shsl fldaIhla f,i y÷kd .kshs'
² Bhï ixpdhl fldaIfha wdfrdamK úi¾ck l%shdj,sj,g wod< m%;sl%shd ,shhs'
² bkaOk fldaIhla wfkla fldaIj,ska fjka lr olajhs'
úIh lreKq meyeÈ,slr §ug w;aje,la

² úoHq;a Yla;sh iemehSfuka wdmiq ye/úh fkd yels fldaI m%;sl%shdjla iys;
fldaIhla zm%d:ñl fldaIhlaZ f,i ye¢kafõ'
idudkH f,la,dkaÉ fldaIh veksfh,a fldaIh
mßjdrl
Zn bf,lafg%davh ;U n÷k
fldma¾ i,af*aÜ
ødjKh
iújr n÷k
ldnka bf,lafg%davh
i,a*shqßla wï,h
iskala l+r
MnO2, ldnka"
NH4Cl, H2O
² úi¾ckh ùfuka wk;=re j M, u`.ska m%;sl%shl mqk¾ckkh l< yels fldaIhla

zoaú;shsl fldaIhlaZ f,i kï flf¾'
f,â welshqñf,agrh
ùÿre n÷k
f,â Tlaihsâ
f,â
úfNaolh
;kql i,a*shqßla
wï,h
227
fldaIh úoHq;a úÉfþoh (+) O%ejh (-) O%ejh (+) O%ejfha oS m%;sl%shdj (-) O%ejfha oS m%;sl%shdj fldaI m%;sl%shdj
lef;dav m%;sl%shdj
(lef;da dj) wefkdav m%;sl%shdj
(wefkda dj)
idudkH f,la,dkaÉ fldaIh NH4Cl/ZnCl2 C/MnO2 Zn 2NH4+(aq)+2MnO2(s)+2e Zn(s) 2MnO2(s) + Zn(s) + H2O(l)
-
Mn2O3(s) +H2O(l)+2NH3(aq) 2+
Zn (aq) + 2e Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + 2OH (aq)
veksfh,a fldaIh ZnSO4/CuSO4 Cu Zn Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) Zn(s) Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
228
fldaIh úoHq;a úÉfþoHh wefkdavh lef;davh úi¾ckfha § úi¾ckfha oS

wefkdav m%;sl%shdj * lef;dav m%;sl%shdj
dj*
f,â welshqñf,agrh ;kql. H2SO4 Pb PbO 2 Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e
PbSO4(s) + 2e PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
* wdfrdamKh lsÍfï § úreoaO ^miq& m%;sl%shdj isÿ fõ'

² bkaOk fldaI
m%;sl%shl wLKav j ndysßka iemefhk fldaIhla bkaOk fldaIhla f,i
ye|skafõ' vhsyhsârcka yd vhsTlaiscka" óf;aka yd vhsTlaiscka fï i|yd
nyq, j fhdod .efka' fuys § fhdod .efkk úoHq;a úÉfþoHhla jkqfha
200 0C ys mj;ajd .kq ,nk idkaø KOH ødjKhls' bf,lafg%dav f,i
iújr ldnkA$ksl,a bf,lafg%dav fndfyda úg Ndú; fõ'
vhsyhsârcka vhsTlaiscka bkaOk fldaIh i|yd m%;sl%shd fu fia h'
Tlail
s rKh( 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4H2O(l) + 4e
Tlaiy
s rKh( O2(g) + 2H2O(aq) + 4e 4OH-(aq)
fldaI m%;sls%hdj ( 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
úoHq;a
úÉfþoHh
Tlaiscka yhsârcka
Tlaiscka yhsârcka
iy c, jdIam
iújr ldnka bf,lafg%dav
² by; i|yka m%d:ñl fldaI úi¾ckh yd wdYs%; m%;sls%hd idlÉPd lrkak'

² m%dfhda.sl j Ndú; jk úúO j¾.j,g wh;a fldaI ms<sn| wOHhkh úoHq;a
ridhkfha b;d jeo.;a wxYhla njg fya;= meyeos,s lrkak'
² oaú;shsl fldaI wdfrdamKh lsÍfï oS yd úi¾ckh ùfï oS isÿ jk m%;sl%shd
fjk fjk u idlÉPd lrkak'
² idudkH bkaOk fldaIj, ieleiau yd ridhkh úia;r lrkak'
229
lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'5 ( úoHq;a úÉfþok ls%hdj,sfha § imqrd ,sh hq;= wjYH;d y÷kd
f.k *erfâ ksh;h fhdod .ksñka wod< .Kkh lsÍï isÿ
lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úoHq;a úÉfþokh hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ula oe hs meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² úoHq;a úÉfþokfha uQ,O¾u meyeÈ,s lrhs'
² ir, úoHq;a úÉfþoH moaO;sj, úoHq;a úÉfþoH M, mqfrdal:kh lrhs'
² *erfâ kshu m%ldY lrhs'
² *erfâ kshu u; mokï jQ ir, .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lrhs'
² úoHq;a f,daydf,amkh meyeÈ,s lr wdo¾Ykh lrhs'

² úoHq;a úÉfþokh hkq ú,Sk øjhla fyda WÑ; ødjlhl Èh lrk ,o øjHhla fyda
;=<ska ir, úoHq;a Odrdjla .uka lrùfï ls%hdj,sh hs' fuys m%;sM,hla f,i
bf,lafg%dav wi, ridhksl m%;sls%hd isÿ ùu yd ñY%Khla fjka ùu isÿ fõ'
² úoHq;a úÉfþokfha uQ,O¾u

² tla tla bf,lafg%davfha § whk-bf,lafg%dak w¾O m%;sls%hdjla isÿ fõ'
• iuia; m%;sl%shdj TlaislrK-TlaisyrK m%;sls%hdjls'
• TlaislrKh isÿ jk w.%h wefkdavh o" TlaisyrKh isÿ jk w.%h lef;davh o"
fõ'
• ndysr úoHq;a m%Njfha Ok w.%hg iïnkaê; bf,lafg%davh Ok bf,lafg%davh hs'
iDK w.%hg iïnkaê; bf,lafg%davh iDK bf,lafg%davh hs'
• ødjKfha wvx.= Ok wdfrdams; whk" iDK bf,lafg%davh u`.ska wdl¾IKh
lrkq ,nhs' iDK wdfrdams; whk Ok bf,lafg%davh u`.ska wdl¾IKh lrkq
,nhs'
• imhk ;;a;aj hgf;a § wod< whkj,g m%uqL;dj foñka udOHfha$wegejqfï
;sfnk úúO m%fNao TlaislrKhg fyda TlaisyrKhg fyda ,la fõ'
• ksYals%h bf,lafg%dav ^ldnka fyda me,eákï& Ndú;fhka c,h ^w,amdï,s; fyda

Ndiañl& úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍu
wefkdavfha oS ; 2H2O(l) O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
lef;davfha oS ; 2H2O(l) + 2e H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
• fldm¾ bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 ødjKhla úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍu
wefkdavfha oS ; Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
lef;davfha oS ; Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
• ksYal%sh bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 ødjKhla úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍu
wefkdavfha oS ; 2H2O(l) O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
lef;davfha oS ; Cu (aq) + 2e
2+
Cu(s)
230
• ksYal%sh bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh NaCl ødjKhla úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍu
wefkdavfha oS ; 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
lef;davfha oS ; 2H2O(l) + 2e H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
• ksYal%sh bf,lafg%dav fhdod ú,Sk NaCl úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍu
wefkdavfha oS ; 2Cl-(l) Cl2(g) + 2e
lef;davfha oS ; Na+(l) + e Na(l)
² *erfâ kshu
² úoHq;a úÉfþokfha § bf,lafg%davhla wi, ksoyia jk øjH m%udKh mßm:h
Tiafia .,d .sh úoHq;a wdfrdamK m%udKhg wkqf,dauj iudkqmd;sl fõ'
• fok ,o úoHq;a wdfrdamK m%udKhla i|yd hï f,dayhla ;ekam;a jk m%udKh
tu f,dayfha iul ialkaOhg iudkqmd;sl fõ'
^mrudKql ialkaOh$f,day whkfha wdfrdamKh u`.ska iul ialkaOh ,efí'&
merfâ ksh;h(F) = fm%dafgdakfha ujq,sl wdfrdamKh

= 1.602 x 10-19 C x 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
= 96 484 C mol-1
96 500 C mol-1
² úoHq;a f,daydf,amkh
² úoHq;a f,daydf,amkh hkqfjka woyia flfrkafka úoHq;h Ndú; lr tla f,dayhla
u; fjk;a f,day ia;rhla wdf,am lsÍu hs' fuh jvd ls%hdldÍ f,dayhla u;
ls%hdldÍ;ajfhka wvq f,dayhla ;ekam;a ùfï ls%hdjg jvd fjkia ls%hdjls'
• úoHq;a f,daydf,amkfha § .=Kd;aul núka by< wdf,amkhla isÿ ùu i|yd f,dayh
iu`. wdf,ams; ia;rh ;Èka ne£ meje;sh hq;= fõ' Bg wu;r j thg my; .=Kdx.
meje;sh hq;= h'
² Yla;su;a nj ² Èiakh
² ridhkslj ksYal%sh ùu ² Wiia hdka;s%l .=K
² isÿre yd bß ;e,Sï fkdue;s ùu
² >klfuys yd fmkqfuys taldldr nj
² .=Kd;aul núka by< ia;rhla wdf,amkh i|yd my; idOl WÑ; mßÈ md,kh
l< hq;= h'
² úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha iajNdjh yd .=Kd;aul nj
² WIaK;ajh
² pH w.h
² úNj fjki
² tlsfklg idfmaCI j wefkdavh yd lef;davh ia:dk.; lsÍu
² NdKavfha msßisÿ nj yd tys mDIaGfha iajNdjh
² whk idkaøKh
² Odrd >k;ajh
² mj;akd wfkl=;a whkj, iajNdjh
² wefkdavfha ixY=oaO;dj
² bf,lafg%davj, § m%;sls%hd folla fyda jeä .Kkla iu.dó j isÿ úh yels h'
WIaK;ajh" idkaøKh" fjda,aàh;dj yd bf,lafg%davj, iajNdjh fjkia lsÍfuka
tajd md,kh l< yels h'
231
² c,h úoHq;a úÉfþokh fldg vhsyhsârcka yd vhsTlaiscka jdhq tl;= lrkak'
tl;= jk jdhq mßud o< jYfhka uek tu jdhq m%udK yd .,d .sh úoHq;a
m%udKh w;r iïnkaO;dj m%udKd;aul j ii|kak'
² úoHq;a f,daydf,amkh fhdod .ksñka we¨ñkshï lïìhla u; Cu fyda Ag fyda
wdf,am lrkak'
² *erfâ kshu yd iïnkaO .eg¨ úi£ug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
232
ksmqK;dj 14'0 ( m%dfhda.sl jYfhka jeo.;a jk úoHq;a ridhksl moaO;s
úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'6 ( úLdokh md,kh l< yels l%u úuid n,hs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² úLdokh úoHq;a-ridhksl l%shdj,shla f,i y÷kajhs'
² úoHq;a-ridhksl wdldrfhka úLdokh md,kh lrhs'
² oaúf,day úLdokh úia;r lrhs'
² lef;daãh wdrlaIKh i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'
² wl¾uKH lsÍu úia;r lrhs'

oaúf,day úLdokh
² oaúf,day úLdokfha §" úoHq;a yd fN!;sl jYfhka iïnkaê; f,day hq.,la
úLdol úoHq;a úÉfþoHhl .s,ajd we;s w;r jvd m%;sls%hdYS,S f,dayh jeä
fõ.fhka úLdokh fõ'
zlef;daãh wdrlaIK M,hZ lrK fldg" hq.u a fhka wvq úLdok m%;f
s rdaë fyj;a
zil%shZ f,dayhl jeä jYfhka o jeä úLdok m%;sfrdaë fyj;a zWÉpZ f,dayh
wvqfjka o úLdokh fjhs' jeä u ydksh isÿ jkafka f,day hq., .efgk
ikaêhg hs' oaúf,day ikaêfhka wE;g h;a u úLdokfha YS>%;dj wvq fõ'
² lef;daãh wdrlaIKh
t kï" f,dayhla úoHq;a-ridhksl fldaIhl lef;davh njg m;a lsÍfuka th
úLdokfhka wdrlaId lr .ekSfï l%uYs,ma h hs' fuh isÿ lrkq ,nkafka wdrlaId
lsÍug we;s f,dayh" úoHq;a-ridhksl fldaIfha wefkdavh f,i l%shd lrk
jvd;a il%sh ^myiqfjka úLdokhg ,la jk& f,dayhla iu`. iam¾Y j ;eîfuks'
fndfyda úg" jdfka" c, yd bkaOk k<" .nvd gexls" ceáj, we;s jdfka l|ka"
keõ" uqyqfoka f;,a ,nd .kakd ;ekaj, bos lr we;s fõosld yd f.dvìu f;,a
<sx wdjrK wdosfha wdrlaIKh i|yd lef;daãh wdrlaIK moaO;s Ndú; fõ'
hlv .e,ajkhsia lsÍu fjk;a ksoiqkls'
² wl¾uKH lsÍu
fuys oS f,dayh u;" th ;j ÿrg;a úLdokh ùu je<eflk mßos oeä wl%sh
mDIaÁh mg,hla iajhxisoaO f,i iEoSug i,ikq ,efí' idudkHfhka fuu
mg,h wKq lsysmhl .klñka hq;a Tlaihsv fyda khsÜrhsv mg,hls' u, fkd
lk jdfka wl¾uKH lsÍug khsÜßla wï,h fhdod .; yels h' th mDIaGfha
wmøjH bj;a lr wdrlaIl Tlaihsâ mg,hla f,dayh u; ;ekam;a lrhs'
*a¨fjdÍka wdY%s; lghq;= i|yd ksl,a f,dayh fhdod .; yels h' fuys oS iEfok
ksl,a *a¨fjdrhsâ mg,h ksid f,dayh wl¾uKH fõ'
233
² f;;a f,day úLdokh úoHq;a ridhksl l%shdjla f,i y÷kajd fokak' il%sh;dj
w;ska tlsfklg fjkia f,day f;;a udOHhl oS tlsfklg iam¾Y j ;enQ úg
isÿ jk úLdokh úia;r lrkak' ;ks f,dayhl o úúO ia:dkj, jHqyfha
fjkia lï yd mßirfha isÿ jk fjkia lï ^WodyrK ( Tlaiscka idkaøKh&
ksid úLdokhg u`. mEfok nj fmkajd fokak' ue.akSishï ^fyda iskala& yd
hlv Ndú;fhka oaúf,day úLdokh ms<sn| mÍlaIKh isÿ lrkak'
² lef;daãh wdrlaIKh m%dfhda.sl j fhfok wjia:d fmkajd fokak' áka iy

iskala f,dayh u`.ska hlv wdrlaId lsÍfuys mj;sk fjki fmkajd fokak'
² úLdokh flfrys n,mdk idOl yd úLdok md,k l%u wOHhkh lsÍu i|yd
mÍCIK fufyhjkak'
234
ksmqK;dj 15'0 ( iuyr uQ,øjH yd ixfhda." iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr" ld¾ñl
j ksiaidrKh$ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'1 ( s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH yd ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"

ld¾ñl j ksiaidrKh$ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ridhksl l¾udka;hla ia:dmkhg wod< uQ,sl wjYH;d ,ehsia;= .; lrhs'
² l¾udka;hl wuq øjHhla f,i Ndú;hg .; yels iajdNdúl iïm;l ,laIKh
úia;r lrhs'
² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au úia;r lrhs'
² fidaähïj, ksiaidrKh ^vjqkaia fldaI l%uh& yd tys m%fhdack úia;r lrhs'
² ¨Kq" NaOH yd Na2CO3^fid,afõ l%ufhka& inka ksIamdokh úia;r lrhs'
² le,aishï ldnfkaÜ wuq øjH f,i fhdod .ksñka ms<siaiQ yqkq" úrxck l=vq yd
le,aishï ldnhsâ ksmoùu úia;r lrhs'
úIh lreKq meyeÈ,s lr §ug w;aje,la (

² ridhksl l¾udka;hla ia:dmkfha § iemsßh hq;= wjYH;d
² m%d.aOkh
² wuq øjH iemehqu
² Y%uh
² wmøjH l<ukdlrKh
² rdcH kS;s yd fr.=,dis
² ;dlaIKh
² n,Yla;sh ^úoHq;h" bkaOk wdÈ&
² m%jdyk myiqlï yd fj<|fmd<
² mßir ¥IKh md,kh lsÍu
² l¾udka;hl wuq øjHhla f,i Ndú; l< yels iajdNdúl iïm;l ,laIK
² §¾> ld,Sk j m%fhdackhg .; yels úYd, ixÑ; f,i meje;Su
² m%fõY myiqj
² by< ixY=oaO;dj
² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au

² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, by< m%;sl%shdYS,S;ajh ksid tajd mj;skafka ksoyia
uQ,øjH f,i fkd j ixfhda. f,i h'
kso ( wdlr ¨Kq NaCl
uqyqÿ c,h NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, CaSO4, Ca(HCO3)2 , MgSO4
is,aùka KCl
fnd/laia Na 2B 4O 7. 10H 2O
fnß,a 3BeO.Al2O3.6SiO2
ue.akihsÜ MgCO3
fvd,uhsÜ CaCO3.MgCO3
235
yqkq.,a
lsß.re~ CaCO 3
fn,s lgq
ðmaiï CaSO 4. 2H 2O
*a¨fjdiamd¾ CaF 2
wemghsÜ Ca5(PO4)3 x fyj;a 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2
(x = F, Cl, OH)
² fidaähï ksiaidrKh ^vjqkaia fldaI l%uh&

² fidaähï ksiaidrKh flfrkqfha ú,Sk NaCl úoHq;a úÉfþokh lsÍfuks'
CaCl2 tl;= lsÍfuka øjdxlh 600 0C olajd wvq lr .; yels h'
lef;davfha oS ( Na+(l)+ e → Na(l)
wefkdavfha oS( 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
² laf,daÍka jdhqj yd fidaähï f,dayh w;r m%;sl%shdj je<elaùug wefkdavh yd

lef;davh jD;a;dldr jdfka oe,a m%dÖrhlska fjka lr we;'
² fldaIh ;=<ska wvq úNj wka;rhla hgf;a by< úoHq;a Odrdjla hjkq ,efí'
wuq øjH we;=¿ lsÍu laf,daÍka
øj fidaähï
we;=<; jdfka wdia;rKhla

iys; .sks m%;sfrdaë
.fvd`M ì;a;h s
jdfka lef;davh ^-&
jdfka oe,
jdfka lef;davh ^--& ñksrka wefkdavh ^+&
fidaähï laf,darhsâj, yd
le,aishï laf,darhsvj, ú,Sk ñY%Kh
² fidaähïj, m%fhdack
² fidaähï jdIam ,dïmqj, fhdod .efka'
² øj fidaähï kHIaál m%;sl%shdldrlj, isis,kldrlhla f,i Ndú; fõ'
² B;¾ yd fnkaiSka jeks ldnksl ødjl úhe<Sfï § >k fidaähï Ndú; fõ'
² ldnksl ixYaf,aIK i|yd fhdod .efka'
² m%n, Tlaisydrlhla jk fidavduhsâ ^NaNH2& ksIamdokhg Ndú; fõ'
236
² s f.dkqfõ ixfhda. ld¾ñl j ksmoùu
² ¨Kq ksIamdokh
² ¨Kq ksmojkq ,nkafka ¨Kq f,ajdj, hs' Y%S ,xldfõ m%Odk ¨Kq f,ajd folla
yïnkaf;dg yd mq;a;,fï msysgd we;' ¨Kq f,ajdhla msysgqùug iqÿiq m%foaYhl
;sìh hq;= ,laIK my; oelafõ'
² uqyqo fyda l<mq wdYs%; ;eks;,d ìula
² c,h ldkaÿ fkd jk ueá iys; mi
² úhe<s iq<`. yd jeä iQ¾h ;dmh
² wvq j¾Idm;kh
² wuqøjHh f,i fhdod .kq ,nkafka uqyqÿ c,h hs'
uqyÿq
c,h
ujq ødjKh
^ìg¾ka&
m<uq jeks fo jeks ;=ka jeks

;gdlh ;gdlh ;gdlh
CaCO3(s) CaSO4(s) NaCl(s)
² f,ajdfha m<uq jk ;gdlhg uqyqÿ c,h fmdïm flf¾' iQ¾h ;dmh ksid uqyqÿ
c,h jdIamSNjkh fõ' uqyqÿ c,fha idkaøKh jeä j;a u CaCO3 wjlafIam
jk w;r th m<uq jk ;gdlh m;=f<a ;ekam;a ùug bv yßkq ,efí'
² b;sß jk ødjKh fo jeks ;gdlhg hefõ' tys oS jdIamSNjkh ;j ÿrg;a isÿ
fjñka ødjKfha idkaøKh ;j;a jeä ù CaSO4 wjlafIam fõ' th fo jk
;gdlh m;=f<a ;ekam;a ùug bv yßkq ,efí'
² bka miq ødjKh f; jeks ;gdlhg udre flf¾' jdIamSNjkh ksid ødjKfha
idkaøKh ;j;a jeä fjñka NaCl wjlafIam ùu we/fò' leg f,i fjka lr
.kakd ¨Kqj, wmøjH f,i Ca2+, Mg2+ yd SO42- wvx.= fõ'
² msßisÿ NaCl c,dl¾Il fkd fõ' tfy;a by; wdldrfhka ,nd .kakd ¨Kqj,
mj;akd wmøjH ksid th c,dl¾Il fõ' f; jk ;gdlfhka ,nd .kakd ¨Kq
msg; f.dv .id yh uila muK ;sfnkakg yßkq ,efí' fuu .nvd lsÍï
ld,h ;=< le,aishï yd ue.akSishï ,jK jd;fhka c, jdIam Wrd f.k ødjK
.; jk w;r NaCl >khla f,i b;sß fõ'
² KIO3 yd ñY% lsÍfuka whäkSlD; ¨Kq ksmofõ'
² ¨Kqj, m%fhdack
² wdydr rij;a lr .ekSu
² wdydr ixrlaIKh ^Wïn,lv" wÉpdre&
² fidaähï f,dayh" Na2CO3" NaHCO3 yd NaOH ksIamdokh
² fia,hska ksIamdokh
² whsiaj, øjdxlh my; fy<Su
² ìg¾ka ødjKfha Mg2+ yd Br- idkaøK by< neúka th Mg yd Br2 ksmoùug
Ndú; flf¾'
237
² fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ ksIamdokh
² laf,dafrd-we,al,S fldaI Ndú; lr c,Sh fidaähï laf,darhsâ ødjKhla úoHq;a
úÉfþokh lsÍfuka jdKsc jYfhka fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ ksmojkq ,nhs'
² ;=ka wdldrhl laf,dafrd-we,al,S fldaI we;'
² riÈh fldaIh ² m%dÖr fldaIh ² mg, fldaIh
² mg, fldaIh m%dÖr fldaIhg fnfyúka u iudk jk w;r tl u m%;sl%shdj isÿ
fõ' m%Odk;u fjki jkafka m%dÖrhla fjkqjg whk jrKSh mg,la u`.ska
mg, fldaIfha bf,lafg%dav hq., fjka lr ;sîu hs'
laf,daÍka yhsârcka
idkaø ¨Kq ødjKh

c,h we;=¿ lsÍu
we;=¿ lsÍu
Ndú; l< ¨Kq

ødjKh bj;g fidaähï
yhsfv%dlaihsâ
ødjKh bj;g
ghsfÜkshï ksl,a lef;davh
wefkdavh jrKSh mg,h
² mg, fldaIh Ndú;fha jdis kï ksmojk NaOHj, ixY=oaO;dj by< ùu" wvq
úoHq;a m%udKhla Ndú; ùu yd mdßißl n,mEï wju ùu hs'
² w¾O m%;sls%hd
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e (wefkdavfha §)
-
2H2O(l) + 2e 2OH (aq) + H2(g) (lef;davfha §)
² iuia; m%;sls%hdj
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
² wefkdavh ghsfÜkshïj,ska o lef;davh ksl,aj,ska o ;kd we;'
² nyqwjhúl whk yqjudre mg,hlska wefkdav yd lef;dav l=àr fjka lr
;sfí'
² mg,h ;=<ska legdhk yqjudre úh yels w;r th yryd Na+ whkj,g
wefkdavfha isg lef;dav l=àrh lrd .uka l< yels h'
² úoHq;a úÉfþokfha § wefkdavfha § wdfrdamK bj;a lsÍu;a" lef;davfha §
iemhSu;a" isÿ jk ksid l=àr fofla úoHq;a WodiSk;dj legdhk m%jdyh u`.ska
mj;ajd .kq ,nhs'
² OH- whk Cl2 iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍfuka ksIamdok ls%hdj,shg ndOd úh yels h'
tfy;a mg,h yryd wekdhk yqjudre fkd jk neúka OH- whk ixprKh
je<efla'
² NaOH ødjKh Nd.sl jYfhka jdIamSlrKh lr isis,a lrkq ,nhs'
² w;=reM, f,i Cl2 yd H2 ksmofõ'
238
NaOHj, Ndú;
² myiq m%n, Niauhla f,i ridhkd.drj, § Ndú; flf¾'
² ldnkavfhdlaihsâ yd wfkl=;a wdï,sl jdhq wjfYdaIKh lrhs'
² inka" lvodis" lD;s%u fiao yd idhï j¾. ksmoùug Ndú; lrhs'
² wm c,h msßhï lsÍfï § yhsfv%dlaihsv f,i ner f,day bj;a lsÍug yd
wdï,sl;dj bj;a lsÍug fhdokq ,efí'
laf,daÍkaj, m%fhdack
² iDcq j u fyda ixfhdað; wdldrhg frÈms<s" oej yd lvodis m,am úrxckh
i|yd fhoefõ'
² mdkSh c,fha úIîc yrKhg Ndú; fõ'
² tlai;a rdcOdksfha yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï, ksIamdokfhka 25% u isÿ flfrkqfha
laf,daÍka yd yhsv%cka jdhq Ndú;fhks'
² neyer,k øjHj,ska áka" ghsfÜkshï yd ue.akSishï ,nd .ekSug Ndú; fõ'
² laf,daßkSlD; rn¾" lDñkdYl" idhï yd T!IO ksIamdokfha § Ndú; fõ'
² fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhsâ jeks nyqwjhúl øjH ksmoùfï § fhfoa'
² inka ksIamdokh
² f;,a" fïoh fyda tajdfha fïo wï, yd wldnksl c, ødjH Niau ^NaOH,
KOH& wuq øjH fõ'
² ld¾ñl inka ksIamdokh mshjr yrlska hqla; h'
mshjr 1
² iefmdkSlrKh - fuys oS Ydl f;,a" fmd,a f;,a fyda i;a;aj fïo fidaähï
yhsâfrdlaihsâ iu`. ñY% lr r;a flf¾' fuys m%;sM,h jkafka oS¾> odu
ldfndlais,sla wï,j, ,jK jk inka h'
Ο
=
R C O CH2 CH2-OH
O
=
R C O CH + 3NaOH 3RCOO-Na+ + CH - OH
O inka
=
R C O CH2 CH2-OH
.a,sifrda,a
R = C17H35 /C15H31 / C11H23 (w;=reM,h)
mshjr 2
² .a,siÍka bj;a lsÍu - .a,siÍka fyj;a .a,sifrda,a inkaj,g jvd jákd
øjHhls' t fyhska thska jeä fldgi jákdlfuka jeä rEm ,djKH øjH
wdosh ksIamdokh i|yd fjka lr .efka' .a,siÍkaj,ska fldgila inkaj,
iqug nj yd uDÿ nj mj;ajd .ekSu i|yd tys u ;sfnkakg yßkq ,efí'
mshjr 3
² msßisÿ lsÍu - fuys oS inkaj, w;sßla; fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ m%udKhla
fjf;d;a th isÜßla wï,h jeks ÿn, wï,hlska WodiSk lrk w;r b;sß
j we;s c,fhka ;=fkka folla neyer lsÍfuka msßisÿ inka ,nd .efka'
239
mshjr 4
² ksudj - fuu wjika woshf¾ oS j¾K" ixrlaIl yd iqj|ldrl tl;= lr fj<|
fmd<g heùu i|yd leg fyda o~q njg m;a flf¾'
² NaOH fjkqjg KOH Ndú; l< yels h' KOH fh¥ inka iug ys;lr neúka
uDÿ inka ^<ore inka& ksmoùu i|yd m%Odk jYfhka KOH fhdod .kshs'
² inkaj, we;s RCOO-Na+ m%;sY;h" uq`M fïouh øjH ^Total fatty matter& f,i
ye|skf
a õ' ^TFM value&
² fidaähï ldnfkaÜ ksIamdokh ^fid,afõ l%uh&

² fï i|yd wuqøjH f,i n%hk
s a ødjKh îdkaøa NaCl ødjKh&" yqk.
q ,a yd wefudakh
s d
^fyan¾ l%ufhka ksmojkq ,nk& fhdod .efka'
² wefudakshd jdhqj n%hska ødjKfha øjKh flf¾' fï m%;sl%shdj ;dm odhl h'
t neúka wvq WIaK;aj m%;sl%shdjg ys;lr h'
² øjKfha ld¾hlaIu;dj by< kexùu msKi s m%;m
s j
% dy uQ,O¾uh Ndú;hg .efka'
NaCl(aq) ² wefudakhs dj,ska ika;Dma; jQ n%hk

s a ødjKh" yqk.
q ,a
r;a lsÍfuka ,nd .kakd CO2 iu`. m%;sl%shd
lrjkq ,efí' fï m%;sl%shdj o ;dmodhl jk
wg¨j w;r wvq WIaK;ajh m,odj jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ'
² fuys oS o l%shdj,sfha ld¾hlaIu;dj jeä lsÍug
m%;sm%jdy uQ,O¾uh fhdod .efka'
NH3(g) ² wg¨j ;=< my; oelafjk m%;sj¾;H m%;sl%shd isÿ

fõ'
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaCl(aq) + NH3(aq)
OH-(aq) + CO2(aq) HCO3-(aq)
² fo jeks m%;sl%shdfjka OH- whk bj;a
flfrk fyhska m<uq jk m%;sl%shdj jv jvd
wg¨j ol=Kg nr fjñka OH- whk ksmojhs'
tu ksid HCO3- idkaøKh by< hhs'
² HCO3- idkaøKh by< hk úg NaHCO3
iaMálSlrKh fõ'
CO2(g) Na+(aq) + HCO3- (aq) → NaHCO3(s)
² >k NaHCO3 fjka ùu myiq lsÍu i|yd wvq
WIaK;ajhl mj;ajd .kq ,efí'
² NaHCO3 fjka lr f.k r;a lsÍfuka Na2CO3 ksmojd .efka' msg jk CO2
h<s m%;spl%SlrKh flf¾'
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
² NaHCO3 iEoSfï Y=oaO m%;sl%shdj fu fia h'
NaCl (aq) + NH3(aq) + CO2(aq) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
240
² NH4Cl yd CaO fyda Ca(OH)2 wefudakshd mqk¾ckkh i|yd fhdod .efka' fï
wefudakshd h<s m%fhdackhg .efka'
CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l) fyda
Ca(OH)2(s) + NH4Cl(aq)→ CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
² iuia; m%;sl%shdj fu fia h'
2NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
wdrïNl
wdrïNl wdrïNl
øjH
øjH øjH
CaCO3(s) fyan¾ l%ufhka

NaCl(aq)
ksmojQ NH3
w os h r 1 w os h r 5
>
c,h wos h r 2
^fmda r Kq j & osh .eiQ yqkq iy
le,aishï CaO(s) tl;= Ca(OH)2(s) NH3(g) n%hska ødjKh
wefudakshï
ldnfkaÜ lsÍu iy wefudakshd
osh .eiQ laf,darhsâ ñY%Kh
lr lsÍu ñY% lsÍu
yqkq r;a lsÍu
CO2(g) NH4Cl(aq) NaCl(aq)/NH3(aq)
wos h r 3
wefudakSlD;
> n%hska ødjKh
<
iu`.
ldnkavfhdlaihsâ
ñY% lsÍu
NaHCO3(s)
woshr 4 (fmdarKqj)
fidaähï yhsârcka
ldnfkaÜ lr lsÍu
Na2CO3(s)
ksIm
a dos;h
241
² fidaähï ldnfkaÜj, m%fhdack
² fojqï fidavd f,i Ndú;h
² lÀk c,h uDÿ lsÍu
² inka ksIamdokh
² ùÿre ksIamdokh
² CId,l ksIamdokh
² lvodis ksIamdokh
² NaHCO3 j, ødjH;djg jvd KHCO3 ys ødjH;dj jeä fyhska by; l%h
s dj,sfha
oS KHCO3 wjlafIam fkd fõ' t fyhska fid,afõ l%ufhka K2CO3 ksmojd .;
fkd yels h'
² ms<siaiQ yqkq ksIamdokh ^CaO&

² fuu l%shdj,sfha oS fmdarKqfõ by<ska bkaOkôr& yd yqkq.,a we;=`M lrñka
udrefjka udrejg ;Ügq f,i wiqrkq ,efí' fmdarKqj m;=f,ka .sks oe,aùu
flfrk w;r .skak l%ufhka by<g me;sf¾'
² by< WIaK;ajh" CO2 fmdarKqj by<ska msg ùug i,iajhs' le,aishï Tlaihsâ
^ms<siaiQ yqkq& fmdarKqj ;=< b;sß fõ' isis,a ùfuka miq fmdarKqfõ m;=f,ka
ms<siaiQ yqkq bj;a lr .efka'
² fï l%ufha wjdis
² CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
le,aishï ldnfkaÜj, úfhdack WIaK;ajh ^900 0C& idfmalaI jYfhka
by< h' idudkHfhka orj,ska fï WIaK;ajh fkd iemefhk w;r CaCO3
uq`Mukska u úfhdackh fkd fõ'
² CO2 fmdarKqfjka iïmQ¾Kfhka msg fkd jk úg" th CaO iu`. h<s
ixfhdackh ù CaCO3 idohs' ^m%;sl%shdj m%;sj¾;H ksid&
² iEfok ms<siaiQ yqkq or w`M iu`. ñY% j mj;S'
² msg jk ;dmh ksid mdßißl ¥IKh we;s fõ'
² ksoyia jk CO2 j,ska jd;h ¥IKh fõ'
² ms<siaiQ yqkqj, m%fhdack

² osh .eiQ yqkq yd lsß yqkq ksIamdokh
² le,aishï ldnhsâ ksIamdokh
² mfiys wdï,sl;dj wvq lsÍu
² úrxck l=vq ksIamdokh
² wdï,sl jdhq wjfYdaIKh
² f.dvke`.s,s l¾udka;fha oS Ndú;hg .ekSu
² úrxck l=vq ksmoùu

² yqkq.,a ;dm lsÍfuka ms<siaiQ yqkq^CaO& ksmojd .efka'
² ms<siaiQ yqkqj,g c,h tl;= lsÍfuka osh .eiQ yqkq [Ca(OH)2](s) ksmojd .kakd
w;r th isis,a lrkq ,efí'
242
² N%uK fmdarKq ;=< ldur WIaK;ajfha § meh 12-15 w;r ld,hla f;;a->k-osh
.eiQ yqkq u;ska laf,darSka jdhqj hjkq ,nk w;r jßka jr >kh f¾lal
lsÍfuka th jdhqjg fyd|ska ksrdjrKh flf¾'
² m%;sm%jdy uQ,O¾uh Ndú;fhka m%;sl%shdfõ ld¾hlaIu;dj jeä flf¾'
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
3Ca(OH)2(s) + 2Cl2(g) → Ca(OCl)2.Ca(OH)2.CaCl2.2H2O(s)
² úrxck l=vqj, m%fhdack

² úrxck ldrlhla f,i
² úIîc kdYlhla f,i ^c,h msßisÿ lsÍu&
² le,aishï ldnhsâ ksIamdokh ^CaC2&

² ms<siaiQ yqkq" fldala iu`. úÿ,s W!Iaul ;=< 2000 0C l muK WIaK;ajhlg r;a
flf¾'
CaO(s) + 3C(s) → CaC2(s) + CO(g)
2CaO(s) + 5C(s) → 2CaC2(s) + CO2(g)
² CaC2 c,h iu`. m%;sls%hd lr C2H2 ksmojkq ,nhs'

CaC2(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + C2H2(g)
² le,aishï ldnhsâj, m%fhdack

² Tlaisweisg,Ska oe,a, ksmoùu
² Ydlj, u,a yg .ekaùu W;af;ackh lrùu
² m<;=re boSu W;af;ackh lrùu

² ridhk øjHhl úoHd.dr ms<sfh< lsÍu yd ld¾ñl ksIamdokh w;r fjki
idlÉPd lrkak'
² ridhksl l¾udka;hla id¾:l j wdrïN lsÍug yd mj;ajd .ekSug imqrd .;
hq;= wjYH;d idlÉPd lrkak'
² l¾udka;hl wuq øjHhla f,i fhdod .; yels iajdNdúl iïm;l ,laIK
isysm;a lrkak'
² wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH u;lhg kxjkak'
² s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iajdNdúl j mj;sk wdldr j.= .; lrkak'
² fidaähï ksiia drK l%h
s dj,sfha mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl uQ,O¾u idrdxY
lrkak'
² idudkH ¨Kq" fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ" inka" fidaähï ldnfkaÜ" ms<siaiQ yqkq"
úrxck l=vq yd le,aishï ldnhsâ ksIamdokfha mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl
uQ,O¾u iïmsKavkh lrkak'
² tla tla l¾udka;fha w;=reM, m%fhdack idlÉPd lrkak'
243
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'2 ( p f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iy ixfhda. ld¾ñl j ksiaidrKh$

ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² wefudakshd" hqßhd" khsÜßla wï,h" fmdiaf*aÜ fmdfydr yd i,a*shqßla wï,h
ksmoùu" tys oS Ndú; jk fN!;ridhksl uQ,O¾u tajdfha Ndú; úia;r lrhs'

² wefudakshd ksIamdokh ^fyan¾ l%uh&
² khsÜrcka yd yhsârcka jdhq wuqøjH fõ'
² khsÜrcka jdhqj ,nd .kafka jd;fha Nd.sl wdijkfhks'
² my; oelafjk l%u u`.ska kema;dj,ska fyda N+ñ jdhqfjka fyda yhsârcka ,nd
.efka'
C6H14(g) + 6H2O(g) → 6CO(g) + 13H2(g)
^kema;dj,&
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
^N+ñ jdhqfõ&
fyda Tlaiscka iu`. Nd.sl TlaislrKh (
C6H14(g) + 3O2(g) → 6CO(g) + 7H2(g)
^kema;dj,&
2CH4(g) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2(g)
^N+ñ jdhqfõ&
² khsÜrcka yd yhsârcka w;r m%;sl%shdfjka wefudakshd iys; iu;=,s; ñY%Khla

we;s fõ'
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) H = -92 kJ mol-1
² f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uhg wkqj jeä mSvkh yd wvq WIaK;ajh iu;=,s;;dfõ oS

wefudakshd m%udKh jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ'
² by< mSvk meyeos,sj u wefudakshd m,odj by< kexùug Wmia:ïNl jk
kuq;a wêl mSvkj,g Tfrd;a;= fok WmlrKj, kv;a;= msßjeh o wêl h'
fï ksid j¾;udkfha Ndú; jkqfha 250 atm m%Yia; mSvkhls'
² jeä wefudakshd weiajekakla ,eîug WIaK;ajh wvq úh hq;= h' tfy;a wvq
WIaK;ajj, oS m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj o wvq neúka th wd¾Ól jYfhka wjdisodhl h'
fï ksid Ndú;fha mj;skf a ka 450 0C l m%Yia; WIaK;ajhls' m%;l
s h
s% dj ;dmodhl
neúka isis,kh l< hq; =h'
² WIaK;ajh yd mSvkhg wu;r j fuys ,d W;afm%arlh o jeo.;a úp,Hhls' fuys
§ W;afm%r
a lh f,i hlv o W;afm%r a l j¾Ol f,i l=vd m%udKj,ska fmdgEishï
Tlaihsâ yd we¨ñkshï Tlaihsâ o Ndú; fõ'
244
² wvq wefudakshd idkaøK u.ska bÈß m%;sls%hdj Èß .ekafõ' t neúka mSvkhla
hgf;a NH3 isis,a lr øj NH3 bj;g .efka'
yhsârcka msßisÿ lsÍu

^CO, CO2 wdos iïmSvlh
khsÜrcka jdhq bj;a lsÍu&
>
;dm yqjudrej
>
m%;spl%SlrK
fmdïmh
W;afm%arl
mßj¾;lh
lkafvkairh
m%;sl%shd
s d
wefudakh
fkdl<
.nvd gexlshg
15'2'4 rEmh ( wefudakshd ksIamdok l%shdj,sh
wefudakshd ksIamdok ls%hdj,sh
² wefudakshdj, m%fhdack
² khsÜßla wï,h" fmdfydr yd khsf,daka ksIamdokh i|yd Ndú; fõ'
² fmÜfrda,shï l¾udka;fha oS fndr f;f,ys wdï,sl ixrpl WodiSk lsÍug
Ndú; fõ'
² c,h yd wmc,h msßhï lsÍfï oS pH md,lhla f,i" ødjK ;;a;ajfha oS
ÿn, wekdhk yqjudre frisk mqk¾ckkhg fhdod .efka'
² i,a*¾ wvx.= bkaOk oykfha oS msg jk i,a*¾ Tlaihsv WodiSk lsÍu i|yd
msgdr øjH md,l moaO;sj, Ndú;hg .efka'
² wdydr mdk" fmÜfrd-ridhk øjH yd YS; .nvd l¾udka; wdY%s; ld¾ñl
YS;lrK moaO;sj, YS;ldrlhla f,i Ndú; fõ'
² rn¾ l¾udka;fha oS iajdNdúl yd lD;%su rn¾ lsßj, wld, leá .eiSu
j<ld th ia:dhSlrKh lsÍu i|yd fhdod .efka'
245
² hqßhd ksIamdokh
² wefudakshd yd ldnka vfhdlaihsâ wuq øjH f,i fhdod .efka'
² hqßhd ksIamdokh mshjr follska hq;a l%shdj,shls'
øj wefudakshd yd øj
ldnkavfhdlaihsâ
(NH3 yd CO2)
1 mshjr
180-210 0C yd 150 atm hgf;a l%h
s d;aul jk
ixYaf,aIK m%;sl%shd l=àrhg we;=`M lsÍu
wefudakh
s ï ldnfïÜ
(NH2COONH4)
2 mshjr
l%ufhka wvq jk mSvk hgf;a l%shd;aul jk
úfhdacl .Kkdjla ;=<ska heùu
hqßhd ødjKh
CO(NH2)2 + H2O
jdIamSlrKfhka idkaøKh
hqßhd iaMál
hqßhd ksIamdokh
I NH3(g) + CO2(g) NH2COONH4(s)

II NH2COONH4(s) CO(NH2)2(aq) +H2O (l)
² m<uq jk mshjf¾ m%;sl%shdj fõ.j;a yd ;dmodhl jk w;r hqßhd ksIamdok

l¾udka;fha oS Ndú; jk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS m%;sl%shdj uq¿ukska u mdfya
iïmQ¾K;ajh lrd hhs'
² fo jeks mshjf¾ m%;sl%shdj jvd fifuka isÿ jk ;dmdjfYdaIl tlla jk
w;r iïmQ¾K;ajh lrd fkd hhs' t kï fuu mßj¾;kh 50-80]la muK
m%;sY;hlska isÿ fõ'
² hqßhdj, m%fhdack
² by< khsÜrcka m%udKhla^46]& wvx.= neúka m%lg >k khsÜrckSh
fmdfydrls'
² hqßhd-f*daue,aäyhsâ nyqwjhjlh ksmoùug .efka'
246
² khsÜßla wï,h ksIamdokh ^Tiaj,aâ l%uh&
² wefudakshd" jd;h yd c,h wuqøjH f,i Ndú; fõ'
wefudakshd
900 0C jeämqr jd;h yd ñY% fldg NO ksmoùu i|yd 850 0C l

muK WIaK;ajhla hgf;a ma,eákï-frdaähï W;afm%arlh u;ska
hefõ'
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
ñY%Kh isis,a flf¾' ^150 0C wvq WIaK;ajhl mj;ajd .efka'&
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
c,h yd jeämqr jd;h yd ñY% flf¾'
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)
² jd;fhka wefudakshd TlaislrKh ù khsÜßla Tlaihsâ iEoSu ;dmodhl

m%;sl%shdjls' jdhq .e,Sfï fõ.h iSreudre lsÍfuka WIaK;ajh 900 0C g ilid
tu w.fhys mj;ajd .efka'
² l%shdj,sh isÿ ùug ie,efikqfha by< mSvkhla hgf;a h' fï ksid msßh;a
wjldYh ;=<g jeä m%;sl%shl m%udKhla we;=`M jk w;r W;afm%arl mDIaGfha
tall ld,hla ;=< isÿ jk ix>Ügk ixLHdj jeä fõ' fuhska m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj
u| jYfhka jeä fõ'
² jeämqr jd;h fhoSfuka wefudakshdj, iïmQ¾K TlaislrKh ;yjqre flf¾'
² wvq WIaK;ajh ;dmodhl iu;=,s;;djla jk B <`. woshrg ys;lr neúka
ñY%Kh W;afm%arl mDIaGfhka bj;a jk úg Bg isis,a jd;h tl;= flf¾'
² jd;h yuqfõ oS HNO3 iEoSu i|yd khsÜrcka vfhdlaihsâ c,fha wjfYdaIKh
lsÍug fmr jdhq wêl f,i isis,a lsÍu wjYH fõ'
² 96] l muK mßj¾;khla i|yd fhda.H ;;a;aj jkafka
² 1- 9 atm mSvkh
² 850 - 1225 0C l WIaK;ajh
² 10] frdaähï wka;¾.; ma,eákï W;afm%arlh
² khsÜßla wï,fha m%fhdack

² fmdfydrla yd mqmqrk øjH ksmoùug wjYH wuq øjHhla jk wefudakshï
khsÜf¾Ü ksIamdokhg Ndú; fõ'
² l¾udka; i|yd wjYH jk khsÜf¾g ksmoùu
² NaNO3 uia jeks wdydr mßrlaIKh i|yd fhdod .efka'
² KNO3 fmdfydr yd fjä fnfy;a ksmoùug m%fhdackj;a fõ'
² AgNO3 PdhdrEm mg, yd lvodis iEoSug Wmfhda.S fõ'
² rdc wï,h ksmoùug
² mEiaiqï lghq;=j, § mDIaGh msßisÿ lsÍug
247
² f*diaf*aÜ fmdfydr ksmoùu
² f*dia*ria ish¨ Ôùkg w;HjYH fmdaIlhls'
² iqm¾f*diaf*aÜ Ydlj,g fhdokq ,nk jeo.;a f*dia*ria fmdfydrls' th
le,aishï vhsyhsârcka f*diaf*aÜj, Ca(H2PO4)2 yd ic, le,aishï i,af*aÜ
fyj;a ðmaiïj, (CaSO4. 2H2O) ñY%Khls'
² tmamdj, we;s wemghsÜ [3Ca3(PO4)2. CaX2 fyj;a Ca5(PO4)3X, X F/Cl/OH]
f*diaf*aÜ fmdfydr ksIamdokhg Ndú; l< yels fyd| wuq øjHhls'
² wemghsÜ wødjH h' th flá ld,Sk fnda. i|yd fhoSfï oS ødjH ;;a;ajhg m;a
lrkqfha mQ¾K yd Nd.sl w,amdï,kfhks'
² w,amdï,kh i|yd i,a*shqßla wï,h" khsÜßla wï,h" yhsârlaf,daßla wï,h
fyda f*diaf*dßla wï,h Ndú; l< yels h'
3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2(s) + 7H2SO4(aq) → 3Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 7CaSO4(s)

+ 2HX(aq) ---(1)
3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2(s) + 14HCl(aq) → 3Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 7CaCl2(s)

+ 2HX(aq) -----(2)
² ishqï j l=vq lrk ,o wemghsÜ" wï,h yd ñY% lr i;s 4-6 w;r ld,hla
;sfnkakg yßkq ,efí' fuys oS m%;sM,h jkafka isx.,a iqm¾f*diaf*aÜ ^SSP&
h'
² ^2& m%;sl%shdfõ M,j,g wefudakshï i,af*aÜ tl;= lsÍfuka c,dl¾Il fkd
jk fmdfydrla ,nd .; yels h'
CaCl2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)
i,a*shqßla wï, ksIamdokh îam¾Y l%uh&
i,a*¾
(1) jd;fha oykh
i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ, SO2

S(g) + O2(g) SO2(g)
(2) jeämqr jd;h yd ñY% lsÍu
(3) fjka fjka W;afm%arl ;Ügq y;rla yryd heùu
(450 0C ys we;s jefkaähï^V& Tlaihsâ leg)
i,a*¾ g%fhdlaihsâ, SO3

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
(4) idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,fha øjKh lsÍu
(5) m%fõifuka
T,shï fyj;a mhsfrdi,a*shqßla wï,h c,h iu`.
^Wl= iOQu øjh & ñY% lsÍu idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,h
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
248
² i,a*¾ fyda i,a*¾ wvx.= f,damia" jd;h yd c,h wuq øjH f,i Ndú; fõ'
i,a*hsv f,damiaj,ska f,â yd iskala jeks f,day ksiaidrKfha oS ksmofjk
i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ o Ndú; l< yels h'
² i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ yd Tlaic s ka w;r m%;l
s h
s% dj m%;j
s ¾;H h' i,a*¾ g%fhdlaihsâ
wLKav j i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ yd Tlaiscka njg ìf|hs' tu jdhqj,g h<s
m%;sl%shd ùug ie,fik mßos ñY%Kh W;afm%arl ;Ügq lsysmhla yryd hjkq
,efí'
² m,odj jeä lr .ekSu msKsi" wjidk W;afm%arl ;Ügq fol w;r oS i,a*¾
g%fhdlaihsâ bj;a flf¾'
² i,a*¾ g%fhdlaihsâ iEfok m%;sl%shdj ;dmodhl ksid;a tys oS jdhq wKq ;=kla
m%;sl%shd ùfuka jdhq wKq folla iEfok ksid;a iu;=,s;;dfõ oS jeä m,odjla
,nd .; yelafla f,a peÜ,sh¾ uQ,O¾uhg wkqj î& jeä mSvkhla yd îi& wvq
WIaK;ajhla hgf;a h'
² m%dfhda.sl j fhdod .kq ,nk m%Yia; WIaK;ajh 450 0C fõ' whym;a uÜgug
m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj wvq ùulska f;drj Ndú; l< yels wju WIaK;ajh fuh fõ'
by< WIaK;ajj, oS bkaOk msßjeh wêl ùu;a m%;sl%shd l=àrj, úLdokh jeä
ùu;a fujeks WIaK;ajhla Ndú; lsÍug n,mdk wfkla fya;= h'
² 450 0C WIaK;ajfha oS SO3 njg mßj¾;kh jk m%udKh 97] lg wdikak fõ'
fï by< m,odj jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh hgf;a oS o ,efnk neúka by< mSvk
fhoSu wkjYH h'
² ;dmodhl m%;sl%shdfõ m%.ukh;a iu`. moaO;sfha WIaK;ajh jeä fõ' fu úg
SO3 njg mßj¾;kh jk m%;sY;h wvq fõ' fï ksid W;afm%arl ia;r w;r oS
jdhq isis,a lsßu wjYH fõ' fuh isÿ lrkqfha isis,k c, k, u`.sks' fuys oS
iEfok yqud,h úoHq;a Yla;sh ksmoùug Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
² i,a*¾ g%fhdlaihsâ øjKh flfrkqfha c,fhys fkdj idkaø i,a*shqßla
wï,fhysh' wï,h fl<ska u c,fha øjKh l<fyd;a >k ÿudrhla we;s ùu
thg fya;=j hs' fuh ld¾hlaIu f,i >kSNjkh fkdfõ' ;jo" fuh mßir
¥IKhg o fya;=jls'
² T,shï m%fõYfuka c,h yd ñY%lr idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,h ksmofõ'
² i,a*shqßla wï,fha m%fhdack

² fmdiafmaÜ fmdfydr ksmoùu
² wefudakshï i,af*aÜ fmdfydr ksmoùu
² f¾fhdka we;=`M lD;%su fl|s yd ma,diaála ksIamdokh
² we,alhs,a yd weß,a i,af*dfkag wvx.= CId,l ksmoùu
² idhï" mqmqrk øjH yd T!IO ksIamdokh
² negß weisâ ksmoùu
² jdhq úh<Su ^Cl2)

² wefudakshdj," hqßhdj," khsÜßla wï,fha" f*diafmaÜ fmdfydrj, yd
i,a*shqßla wï,fha ksIamdok l%shdj,sj, mshjr yd wod< fN!;ridhksl
uQ,O¾u leá lr olajkak'
² Tlaisldrlhla f,i idkaø khsÜßla wï,fha ls%hdldÍ;ajh h<s isysm;a
lrkak'
² Tlails drlhla yd úc,ldrlhla f,i idkaø i,a*h s ß
q la wï,fha lsh
% dldÍ;ajh
h<s isysm;a lrkak'
249
ksmqK;dj 15'0 ( iuyr uQ,øjH yd ixfhda." iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"
ld¾ñlj ksiaidrKh$ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'3 ( d -f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iy ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"
ld¾ñl j ksiaidrKh$ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 02 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² Odrd W!Iaul l%ufhka hlv ksiaidrKh lsÍu úia;r lrhs'
² Odrd W!Iaulfha isÿ jk m%;sl%shd i|yd iólrK ,shhs'
² Odrd W!Iaul l%ufhka hlv ksiaidrKh lsÍu rEmSh f,i fmkajhs'

d -f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr
Ti b,aukhsÜ FeTiO3
rEghs,a TiO2
Fe ySughsÜ Fe2O3
ue.akghsÜ Fe3O4
whka *hsrhsÜia FeS2
isvrhsÜ FeCO3
Cu le,afldmhsrhsÜ CuFeS2
² hlv ksii
a drKh Ôdrd W!Iaul l%uh&
jäh we;=<g
^f,dami" fldala yd yqkq.,a&
jdhq msg ùu
hmiA" fldala
² hlv f,dami" fldala iy yqkq.,a
^Tlaisydrlh& yd yqkq.,a
^f,da fndr iEÿï øjHh&
wuq øjH fõ' fhdokq msg; jdfka
wdia;rKh
,nk CaCO3 m%udKh"
f,damfiys we;s is,slduh .sks .fvd`M
øjH m%udKh u; /f|a' wdia;rKh
Üjhr
WKq jd; Odrdj WKq jd; Odrdj

øj jQ f,da fndr f,da fndr ^msg;g&
øj hlv ^msg;g& øj hlv
250
² W!Iaulfha m;=f,ka WKqiqï jd;h we;=`M flf¾' fldala oykfhka ;dmh yd
CO ckkh fõ'
² jd;h we;=`M jk ia:dkfha WIaK;ajh 2000 K muK o" uqÿfkys WIaK;ajh

700 K muK o fõ'
² whka(III) Tlaihsâ" m%Odk jYfhka ldnka fudfkdlaihsâj,ska o ;rula ÿrg
ldnkaj,ska o TlaisyrKhfõ'
² øú; ldnka 3-4] wvx.= øj hlvj,ska ;kd .efkk hlv wuq hlv fõ'
ixY=oaO hlvj, øjdxlh 1535 0C fõ' tfy;a wmøjH wvx.= ùu fya;=fjka wuq
hlvj, øjdxlh 1015 0C fõ'
² CaCO3 úfhdackfhka CaO yd CO2 jdhqj we;s fõ' CaO is,sflag wmøjH
yd m%;sl%shd ù f,da fndr ^CaSiO3& idohs' øj ;;a;ajfha we;s f,da fndr" W!Iaul
m;=f,ys we;s øj hlv u; md fõ' W!Iaulh m;af,ka we;=`M flfrk jd;h yd
.eà hlv TlaislrKh ùu f,da fndr ksid je<eflhs'
² wuq hlvj, 3-4] ldnka o we;eï úg Si, P, S iy Mn jeks wmøjH o wvx.= h'
² my; oelafjk m%;sls%hd 700 K - 2000 K ;a w;r mrdihl § isÿfõ'
my< WIaK;aj (1000 0C g wvq&

3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) 2Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g)
Fe3O4(s) + CO(g) 3FeO(s) + CO2(g)
FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(l) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
by< WIaK;ajh (1000 0C g jeä&
2FeO(s) + C(s) 2Fe(l) + CO2(g)
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) → Ca(AlO2)2
f,da fndr

² d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, meje;au idlÉPd lrkak'
² Ndú; fN!;ridhksl uQ,O¾u wjOdrKh lruka hlv ksiaidrKfha mshjr
idlÉPd lrkak'
² jdfka" u, fkdnef|k jdfka" ÖkpÜá yd isoaO hlvj, wvx.= uQ,øjH yd
Ndú; idlÉPd lrkak'
251
ksmqK;dj 15'0 ( iuyr uQ,øjH yd ixfhda." iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"
ld¾ñlj ksiaidrKh$ksmoùu iy Ndú; úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'4 ( nyqwjhjl øjH tosfkod Ôú;fha oS M,odhS j Ndú; lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 10 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² nyqwjhjl y÷kajhs'
² nyqwjhjl iajdNdúl yd lD;%su jYfhka j¾. lrhs'
² ixYaf,aIKh l%uh yd ;dmc .=K wkqj nyqwjhjl j¾. lrhs'
² nyqwjhjlj, jHqyh" .=K iy Ndú; úia;r lrhs'
² iajdNdúl rn¾j, jHqyh" .=K yd Ndú; úia;r lrhs'
² iajdNdúl rn¾ j,alkhsia lsÍu ms<sn|j úia;r lrhs'
² rn¾ ñY%K ilia lsÍfï ls%hdj,sh meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² ir, wKq" úYd, ixLHdjla tlsfkl iu`. iïnkaO fjñka idok úYd, wKq
j¾.hla f,i nyqwjhjl ye|skaúh yels h'
Wod ( n(C2H4) → nyqwjhjlh
² fïjd iajdNdúl nyqwjhjl iy lD;%su nyqwjhjl f,i j¾. l< yels h'
² iajdNdúl nyqwjhjl ^natural polymers) iajdNdúlj iÔj$ffcj moaO;s
;=< ksmofõ'
Wod ( iajdNdúl rn¾" fm%daàk" tkaihsu
² lD;%su nyqwjhjl ^synthetic polymers& ñksid úiska lD;%Su j ixYaf,aIKh
lrkq ,efí'
Wod ( fmd,s;Ska fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhsâ" fmd,stiagr" fg*af,daka"
fíla,hsÜ" khsf,daka" hQßhd-f*daue,aäyhsâ
² nyqwjhjl ixYaf,aIKh lrkq ,nk l%uh wkqj o j¾. follg fnosh yelsh'
² wdl,k nyqwjhjl âddition polymers&
² ix>kk nyqwjhjl ^condensation polymers&
² nyqwjhjlj, ;dmc .=K wkqj tajd j¾. l< yels h'
² ;dm iqÑld¾h nyq wjhjl ^thermoplastic polimers&
r;a lsÍfuka uDÿ njg m;a l< yels w;r" isis,a ùug bv yeßh úg oDV
;;a;ajhg m;afõ' uDÿ njg m;a lsÍu kej; kej;;a fndfyda jdrhla isÿ
l< yels h' odu w;r wdl¾IK ÿn, fõ'
ksoiqka - fmd,s;Ska" PVC " fmd,siaghsÍka
² ;dm ia:dmk nyqwjhjl ^thermosetting polymers&

ksmoùfï uQ,sl wjêfha § jrla yev .ekajQ miq iú jk w;r r;a lsÍfuka
kej; uDÿ njg m;a l< fkd yels h' ;s%udk jHqyhla ilia jk wkaoug
nyqwjhjl w;r yria odu idod f.k we;'
ksoiqka - fíla,hsÜ" hQßhd-f*daue,aäyhsâ
252
² wdl,k nyqwjhjl
fïjd iEfokqfha wika;Dma; talwjhj wdl,k m%;sl%shd u`.ska
nyqwjhùlrKfhks'
fmd,s;Ska
H H H H H H H H
H H
n C=C C C C C C C C C
H H
H H H H H H H H
t;Ska ^talwjhjlh& n
fmd,st;s,Ska
^fmd,s;Ska&
H H
C C
H H
mqkrdj¾;k tallh
² fmd,s;Ska rihlska yd .kaOhlska f;dr" ieye,a¨" úI rys;" idfmalaI j ñf,ka

wvq ;dm iqúld¾h nyqwjhjl øjHhls' weiqreï mg," is,su¨ ^trash bags&"
wdik wdjrK" fnda;,a" úúO n÷ka j¾." fi,a,ï nvq wdosh ksmoùug fhfoa'
fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhsâ ^PVC&
H H H H H H H
H
by< WIaK;ajh
n C=C
C C C C C C
H Cl by< mSvkh
H Cl H Cl H Cl
n
jhskhs,a laf,darhsâ ^talwjhjlh&
fmd,sjhskhs,a
laf,darhsâ
H H
C C
H Cl
mqkrdj¾;k tallh
² ;dm iqúld¾h nyqwjhjlhla jqj o" nyqwjhjl øjHfha mj;sk laf,daÍka

fya;=fjka PVC .sks .ekSïj,g ,la ùu b;d wvq h' t fuka u odu w;r
wdl¾IK n, fmd,s;Skaj,g idfmalaI j jvd;a Yla;su;a ùu fya;=fjka by<
oeä njlska hqla; h' ia:dhsldrl" ms/jqï øjH wdosh fhoSfuka m%fhdackj;a
wkaoñka ilia lr .; yels ùu PVCj, úfYaIs; .=Khls' c,k<" úÿ,s /yeka
wdjrK" ;=kS mg," wdik wdjrK" ìï we;=reï wdosh ksmoùug o PVC Ndú;
fõ'
253
fmd,siaghsÍka
² taldjhúlh jkafka iaghsÍka h'
H H H H H H
H H
n C=C by< WIaK;ajh
C C C C C C
H by< mSvk
H H H
iaghsÍka ^taldjhúlh& n
fmd,sig
a hsÍka
H H
C C
mqkrdj¾;k tallh
² úksúo fmfkk ùÿre jeks øjHhls' úfYaIfhka fmk wdldrhlg ilia lr
>kSNjkh lsÍfuka ^ßðf*daï& mßjdrl øjH iy weiqreï øjH ksmojkq ,efí'
fg*af,daka
fgÜrd*a¨fjdfrdtf;aka talwjhjlh fõ'
F F F F F F
F F
by< WIaK;ajh
n C=C C C C C → C C
F
by< mSvkh
F
F F F F F F
n
fgÜrd*a¨fjdfrdtf;aka fg*af,daka
F F
C C
F F
mqkrdj¾;k tallh
fuh" ;dm iqúld¾h nyq wjhjhla jqj o" tys wvx.= ye,ck ksid thg by<
WIaK;a;aj,g Tfrd;a;= Èh yels h'
fuh" we;=<; wdf,am lsÍfuka c,fhka f;;a fkd jk" fkd wef,k iq`M
msisk n÷ka ilia l< yels h' wêl WIaK;ajhlg Tfrd;a;= fok neúka .sks
wdrlaIl we÷ï i|yd o fhfoa' ridhksl l%shdldÍ;ajh b;d wvq neúka úLdol
ridhk øjH ish,a,g u mdfya Tfrd;a;= foa' t neúka ridhksl l¾udka; i|yd
fhfok WmlrKj, lmdg" uqød ^seals&" .EialÜ wdosh ieoSfï oS Wmfhda.S lr
.efka'
254
fmd,swhsfidm%ska îajdNdúl rn¾&
H CH 3 H H H CH 3 H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H
isoprene ^tal wjhjlh&
n
cis-polyisoprene
mqkrdj¾;k tallh
² ffjoH lafIa;%fha Ndú; jk w;a jeiqï" neÆka" gh¾" áhqí" fuÜg wdosh
ksmoùug Ndú; fõ'
iajdNdúl rn¾ j,alkhsia lsÍu
² iajdNdúl rn¾j, weoSfï .=Khg fya;=j" cis-fmd,swhsfidm%ska odu ;sîu hs'
tfy;a rn¾j, m%;Hia: .=Kh ld¾ñl j wjYH mßos fjkia lsÍug;a" rn¾
Yla;su;a lsÍug;a" thg nr wkqj 1] - 3] la w;r i,a*¾ m%udKhla fhdod r;a
lrkq ,efí' th rn¾ j,alkhsia lsÍu f,i y÷kajhs' t úg fmd,swhsfidm%ska
odu w;r S u`.ska yria nkaOk idok ksid tajdfha m%;Hia: .=Kh wvq jk w;r"
weoSfuka miq j uq,a msysgqug hEfï yelshdj o jeä fõ' nr wkqj 25] - 35] w;r
S fhdod rn¾ r;a l< úg tnkhsÜ ,efí' j,alkhsia l< rn¾ fkd wef,k iq¿
jk w;r by< m%;Hia:;dj jeks Wiia hdka;s%l .=Kj,ska hqla; fõ'
rn¾ ñY%K ilia lsÍu (Rubber compounding)

iajdNdúl fyda fjk;a rn¾ fyda úfYaI ld¾hhla i|yd t f,iska u Ndú;hg
.ekSu wmyiq h' tfy;a Bg fjk;a øjH WÑ; mßÈ ñY% lsÍfuka ^compounding&
rn¾ wjYH .=Kdx.j,ska hq;a m%fhdakj;a øjHhla njg mßj¾;kh lr .;
yels h' rn¾ ñY%K ilia lsÍfï § Ndú;hg .kakd øjH" tajdhska isÿ flfrk
ld¾hh wkqj j¾.SlrKh l< yels h' t fia ñY% flfrk m%Odk ls%hdldÍ øjH
my; oelafõ'
• m%;Hdia: wjhjl
• j,alkhsia lrk øjH fyj;a yria nkaOk idok øjH
• ;ajrl
• ils%hl$ukaol
• ls%hdj,s iydhl
• uDÿldrl yd iqÑldrl
• iú.ekakqï øjH $ms/jqï øjH
• wejeï m%;sfrdaOl
255
ksoiqkla f,i jdyl má (conveyor belts) wdjrK ie§ug my; øjH Ndú; fõ'
iajdNdúl rn¾ ^m%;Hdia: wjhjl&
ldnka í,ela ^ms/jqu&
iskala Tlaihsâ ^;ajrl&
iaáhßla wï,h
rn¾ meiqreï f;,a
friska
N - Cyclohexylbenzothiozole-2-sulphonamide (CBS)
i,a*¾ ^j,alkhsia lrk øjH&
ix>kk nyqwjhúl
² taldjhúl tlsfkl nkaOkh ùfï oS H2O, NH3 fyda HCl jeks l=vd wKqjla
bj;a ù iEfok nyqwjhjl ix>kk nyqwjhjl f,i ye|skafõ'
fmd,stauhsv
² CONH- LKavfhka wE÷Kq mqkrdj¾;k tall iys; nyqwjhjl fmdÿfõ
fmd,stauhsv f,i ye|skafõ' khsf,daka fmd,stauhsvhls' ñka jvd;a iq,N j
Ndú; jk nyq wjhjhla jk Nylon-6"6 ksmojkq ,nkafka 1-6-diaminohexane
iy hexanedioic acid ix>kk nyqwjhùlrKfhks'
O
O=
n H2N (CH2)6 N H2 + n C =
(CH 2) 4 C
HO
HO
1,6 - diaminohexane hexanedioic acid
O O
=
=
N (CH 2) 6 N C (CH 2) 4 C
n
H H
Nylon-6,6
by; vhsldfndlais,sla wï,h fjkqjg tys wï, laf,darhsvh Ndú; l< úg

nyqwjhùlrK l%shdj,sh jvd;a ld¾hlaIu fõ'
² ;dm iqúld¾h nyqwjhjlhla jk khsf,daka jHqyuh jYfhka iajdNdúl fiao"

f,dau wdoshg iudk ,laIK iys; lD;%su fl|s ksIamdokhg fhfoa' tfy;a
is,ala yd jQ,a fuka uDÿ nj wvq neúkq;a" iajdNdúl fl|s fuka c,h wdl¾IKh
fkd lrk neúkq;a" r`M Ndú;hg WÑ; fros j¾. ksmoùug .efka' khsf,daka
m%Odk jYfhka isks÷ ieye,a¨ frosms<s j¾. ksmoùu i|yd Ndú; fõ' t
muKla fkd j l,d," gh¾ kQ,a" jdykj, hka;% fldgia iEoSug ^gear wheels,
bearings& .efka' ud¿ oe,a wdosh i|yd Ndú; jk Yla;su;a kQ,a" c,fhka f;;a
fkd jk l+vdrï fros wdosh ksmoùu i|yd o khsf,daka fl|s fhdod .efka'
khsf,dakaj, Yla;su;a nj yd m%;Hia:;dj lrK fldg th isrerg ;o jk
we÷ï yd fïia wdosh ksmoùug b;d iqÿiq øjHhla fõ'
256
fmd,stiagr
O
=
tal wjhúl C O ldKa v fhka wE÷Kq mq k rdj¾;k ta l l iys ;
nyqwjhjl fmdÿfõ tiagr f,i ye|skafõ'
fgrs,Ska
Ethane-l, 2-diol (ethylene glycol) iy Benzene-1, 4- dicarboxylic acid (Terephthalic
acid) w;r ix>kk nyqwjhjlrKfhka fgr,Ska ksmofõ'
² fmß,Ska ;dm iqúld¾h nyq wjhjhls'

lmq iy f,dau jeks iajdNdúl fl|s i|yd wdfoaYlhla f,i Ndú; jk fl|s
ksmoùug fhfoa' Yla;su;a núka by< fuu fl|s *hsn¾ .a,dia ksIamdokfha oS
frisk jYfhka Ndú; fõ' frosms<s ksmoùug o fuu fl|s nyq, j Ndú; fõ'
PdhdrEm mg, iy pqïnl y~ mg ksmoùfï oS o fhdod .efka'
² fíla,hsÜ
idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,h yuqfõ *Sfkd,a yd f*daue,aäyhsâ ^fu;ke,a& m%;sls%hd
lr ;dm ia:dmk nyqwjhjlhla jk fíla,hsÜ idohs'
² fíla,hsÜ hkq yria nkaOkj,ska ne÷Kq ;%sudk nyqwjhjhls' ish ia:dkj,ska

p,kh ùug fyda tlsfkl yd t;Sfï ksoyila fyda ldKavj,g fkdue;s
neúka yria nkaOk iys; fíla,hsÜ ys jHqyh oDV núka hq;= fõ' úoHq;a
WmlrKj, mrudKql øjH ksmoùug Ndú; lrhs'
257
² hqßhd f*daue,hsâ
idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,h yuqfõ hqßhd yd f*daue,aäyhsâ m%;sls%hd lr ;dm
ia:dmk nyq wjhjlhla jk hqßhd - f*daue,aäyhsâ idohs'
² hqßhd - f*daue,aäyhsâ hkq yria nkaOk iys; ;s%udk nyq wjhjlhls' tajd ;dm
ia:dmk ma,diaála fyda wef,k iq¿ øjH f,i fyda Ndú; fõ'

² nyqwjhjl øjH ms<sn| isiqka f.a fmr oekqu úuikak'
² nyqwjhjl iajdNdúl$lD;%u
s " wdl,k$ix.Kk yd ;dm iqúld¾h$;dm ia:dmk
f,i j¾. lrkak'
² iq,N j Ndú; jk nyqwjhjlj, taldjhjlh" wkqNúl iQ;%h" .=K yd Ndú;
ms<sn| idlÉPd lrkak'
² rn¾ j,alkhsia lsÍfï ls%hdj,sh yd bka wfmalaIs; m%fhdack y÷kajd fokak'
² rn¾ ñY%K ilia lsÍfï jeo.;alu fmkajd fokak'
258
ksmqK;dj 15'0 ( iuyr uQ,øjH yd ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr" ld¾ñl
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'5 ( Ydl øjH u; mokï jQ iuyr ridhksl l¾udka; úu¾Ykh
lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² ldnka ixfhda.j, m%Njhla f,i Ydl ms<sn| úia;r lrhs'
² fi,shqf,daiaj, Ndú; i|yd ksoiqkla jYfhka lvodis ksIamdokh úia;r
lrhs'
² lvodis ksIamdokfha uQ,sl mshjr úia;r lrhs'
² Ydlj, jdIamYS,S ix>glj, ixlS¾K ñY%Khla f,i i.kaO f;,a y÷kajhs'
² i>kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh i|yd Ndú; jk yqud, wdijkfha uQ,O¾u meyeÈ,s
lrhs'
² U!IO f,i Ydlj, Ndú; y÷kd .kshs'
² T!Iëh ixfhda. ksiaidrKh i|yd Ndú; jk ødjl ksiaidrK ls%hdj,sh
úia;r lrhs'
² mSIaGfha yd iSksj, Ndú; i|yd ksoiqkla f,i t;fkda,a ksIamdokh úia;r
lrhs'
² wêfYdaIK yd úfNaok j¾Kf,aL l%uYs,amj, uQ,sl uQ,O¾u úia;r lrhs'
² i.kaO f;,a iïnkaOfhka jdhq j¾Kf,aL Ys,amfhys Ndú; úia;r lrhs'
² lvodis j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh Ndú; lr Ydl m;% j¾Kl ñY%Khla fjka lrhs'

² lvodis l¾udka;h
² lvodis l¾udkafha m%Odk wuq øjHh jkqfha oejuh øjH hs'
² Ydl ffi, ì;a;sfha m%Odk ixrplhla jk fi,shqf,daiaj,ska lvodis ksmofõ'
² fi,shqf,daia hkq .a¨fldaiaj,ska ieÈ f¾Çh nyq wjhjlhls' fi,shqf,daia
wKqj, wKql ialkaOh 250"000 - 1"000"000 muK mrdihl mj;S'
² fi,shqf,daia wKqjla i;= j ish .Kkla -OH ldKav mj;S'
² -OH ldKav w;r yhsârcka nkaOk iE§fï yelshdj ksid fi,shqf,daia wKq
tlsfklg <x j msysgñka fi,shqf,daia fl¢ wdldrhg ilia fõ'
² lvodis hkq ;=kS ia;rhla f,i jHdma; j mj;sk fi,shqf,daia fl¢ tl;=jls'
² wKql ialkaOh" 1000 - 10"000 mrdifha mj;sk ixlS¾K *Sfkda,sl øjHhla jk
,s.akska o" Ydl ffi, ì;a;sfha wvx.= fõ' Ydl ffi, ì;a;shl iúu;a nj
,nd §fï ld¾hfha § ,s.akska jeo.;a fjhs'
² oejuh øjHj,ska fi,shqf,daia ksmojd .ekSfï § c,Sh NaOH iu`. r;a lsÍfuka
,s.akska bj;a lrkq ,nhs' fuu ls%hdj,sfhka ,efnk w÷re meye;s øjh Black
liquor f,i ye|skafõ' fuh lvodis l¾udka;fha ,efnk m%Odk wmøjHh hs'
² ,s.akska bj;a ùfuka iEfok lvodis m,amh úrxckldrl u`.ska úrxckh
lrkq ,efí'
² fuu lvodis m,amhg CaO fyda Ökueá fyda msrjqï øjHh ^Filler& f,i tl;=
flf¾' j¾Kl yd lvodisfha l,a meje;aug fya;= jk ridhk øjH wdosh o fï
wjia:dfõ oS tl;= lrkq ,efí'
259
² wk;=re j m,amh frda,¾ hka;% ud¾.fhka f;rmqulg ,la lr" c,h bj;a
flf¾' wjYH muKg ;=kS lsÍu o" fï wjia:dfõ oS u isÿ l< yels h'
² c,h bj;a lsÍfuka miq úhe<Sfï l%shdj isÿ flf¾'
i.kaO f;,a ksIamdokh

² i.kaO f;,a hkq ixfhda.j, ixlS¾K ñY%K jk w;r tu ixfhda. w;r
yhsfv%dldnk" we,afldfyd," lSfgdak" we,aäyhsv" B;¾ yd tiagr fõ' i.kaO
f;,aj, ix>gl fndfyduhl mj;skqfha iSñ; c, ødjH;djls'
² i.kaO f;,a wvx.= iuyr Ydl fldgia l=¿ nvq jYfhka Ndú;d flf¾'
WodyrK ( l=re÷ - (cinnamon zeylanicum Ydlfha fmd;a;)
ly - (curcuma longa Ydlfha rhsfidauh)
.ïñßia - (piper nigrum Ydlfha M,)
² Ydlj,ska fjka lrkq ,nk i.kaO f;,a m%Ok jYfhka wdydr" T!IO yd iqj|
ú,jqka l¾udka;j, § Ndú; fõ'
ksoiqka (-
wdydr - idÈlald f;,a (myristica fragrans Ydlfha bÿKq M,j, uoh&
iqj| ú,jqka - iejekaord f;,a (vetiveria zizanioides Ydlfha uq,a&
T!IO - ñkaÜ f;,a ^ñkaÜ úfYaIj, m;%&
² 100 0Cg wvq WIaK;ajj, oS wdijkh lr fjka lr .; yels neúka fndfyduhla

i>kaO f;,a Ydlj,ska ksiaidrKh lrkq ,nkafka yqud, wdijkfhks' ^wod<
fN!;sl uQ,O¾u idlÉPd lrkak' t kï
uq¿ jdIam mSvkh } f;,aj, jdIam mSvkh + c,fha jdIam mSvkh&
² inka l¾udka;h ^15'1 mßYS,kh lrkak&'
² T!IO l¾udka;h
² ixYaf,aI;
s T!IO ksmoùu ixj¾Okh ùug fmr T!IO i|yd Y; j¾I .Kkdjla
mqrd m%Odk m%Njh jQfha Ydl øjH hs'
² wdhq¾fõoh jeks idïm%odhsl ffjoH fCIa;%j, Ydl ksiaidrl" T!IO f,i
Ndú; flf¾'
² kQ;k T!IO l¾udka;fha § T!IO jYfhka ls%hdldÍ ixfhda. Ydlj,ska
ksiaidrKh lr T!IO f,i wf,ú flf¾' WodyrK lsysmhla my; oelafõ'
ixfhda.h Ydl m%Njh Ndú;
Vincristine Catharanthus roseus ms<sld u¾Okh

Morphine Papaver somniferum fõokd kdYl" ks¾úkaol
Digitoxin Digitalis lanata yoj;a frda. i|yd m%;sldr
Artemisinin Artemisia annua uef,aßhd u¾Okh
² idudkHfhka >k øjH jk fu lS ls%hdldÍ ixfhda. Ydlj,ska ksiaidrKh

lrkq ,nkafka ødjl ksiaidrKh u`.sks'
² úúO ixfhda. úúO m%udKj,ska úúO øjdlj, Èh fõ'
260
² ksiaidrKh lrkq ,nk ixfhda. ia:dhS kï r;a lsÍu u`.ska ksiaidrK
ls%hdj,sh fõ.j;a l< yels h'
² ls%hdldÍ ixfhda.h fjka lr .; hq;= ødjl ksiaidrlh" úúO ixfhda.j,
ixlS¾K ñY%Khla jk w;r j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh t jeks ixfhda. ñY%K fjka
lr .ekSug Ndú; flfrk tla l%uhls'
j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh
² úúO wdldrfha j¾Kf,aL Ys,am mj;sk w;r ta iEu tll u .uka lrkq
,nk ip,k^.;sl& l,dmhla o" .uka fkd lrk ksYap,îaÓ;sl& l,dmhla
o" ;sfí'
² ip,k l,dmfha Èhe ù mj;sk úúO ixfhda. tu l,dmh iu`. úúO
fõ.j,ska ksYap, l,dmh u;ska .uka lrkq ,nk w;r ta wkqj tlsfklska
fjka fõ'
² ksYap, l,dmh is,sld jeks >k øjHhla yd ip,k l,dmh fylafiaka fyda
t;fkda,a fyda jeks ldnksl øjhla jk úg" ødjl wKq yd ødú; ixfhda.
wKq w;r mj;akd wka;¾ls%hd n,;a" ødú; ixfhda. wKq yd is,sld mDIaGfha
mj;sk wxY= w;r mj;akd wka;¾ls%hd n,;a u; ixfhda. ip,kh jk
fõ.h md,kh fõ' is,sld mDIaGfha mj;sk wxY= iyNd.s jk neúka fï
wdldrfha j¾Kf,aL Ys,am wêfYdaIK j¾Kf,aL Ys,am f,i ye¢kafõ'
² lvodis mDIaGhl isr jqKq c, wKq jeks øjhla ksYap, l,dmh o" c,fha
wødjH ldnksl øjhla ^ìhqgfkda,a jeks& ip,k l,dmh o" jk úg ldnksl
ia;rfha îp,k l,dmfha& yd c,fha ^ksYap, l,dmfha& ødú; ixfhda.fha
úfNaokh ùu u; ixfhda.fha ip,k fõ.h md,kh flf¾' fuu j¾.fha
j¾Kf,aL Ys,am úfNaok j¾Kf,aL Ys,am f,i ye¢kafõ'
² ñY%K úYaf,aIKh lsÍu i|yd j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh iq¿ mßudKfhka o"
ixfhda. fjka lsÍug$ ixY=oaO lsÍug uy mßudKfhka o" Ndú; flf¾'
² i.kaO f;,a jeks jdYamYS,S ixfhda. ñY%K" jdhq j¾Kf,aL Ys,amfhka fjka
lrkq ,nhs' fuys § ip,k l,dmh N2 jeks jdhqjla o" ksYap, l,dmh
>khla fyda mgq k<hl wka;¾.; øjhla o" fõ' jdhq j¾Kf,aL Ys,amfha §
k<h Tiafia ixfhda. .uka lrk fõ.h tajdfha ;dmdxl u; fuka u
ksYap, l,dmh iu`. mj;akd tajdfha wka;¾ls%hd u; o" ;SrKh fõ'
t;fkda,a ksIamdokh
² iqj| ú,jqka yd iqj|ldrl i|yd ødjl f,i t;fkda,a Ndú; fõ' ridhksl
m%;sls%hd i|yd udOHhla f,i o th Ndú; fõ' mßir ys;ldó mqk¾ckkh l<
yels bkaOkhla jYfhka o t;fkda,a ys Ndú;h jeä fjñka mj;S'
² t;s,Ska ic,kh u`.ska fyda hSiaÜ yuqfõ iSks fyda msIaGh meiùfuka fyda
ld¾ñl j t;fkda,a ksmojkq ,nhs' we,afldfyd,Sh mdkj, wka;¾.;
we,afldfyd,a újO Ydl m%Nj u`.ska ckkh flf¾'
ksoiqka - ñÈ ^jhska&" nd¾,s ^ìh¾&
ld¾ñl j we,afldfyd, ksmojkqfha meKs uKaäh (molasses) yd OdkH u`.sks'
² hSiÜ
a j,g idkaø t;fkda,a ødjKhl Ôjh mj;ajd .; fkd yels ksid t;fkda,a
m%;sY;h 12] muK fõ'
261
² meiùfuka ,;a c,Sh ødjK wdijkfhka by< we,afldfyd, uÜgï iys;
ksIamdok ,efí'
ksoiqka - n%ekaä ^40] muK& - jhska wdijkfhks'
wrlal= ^40] muK& - fmd,a rd wdijkfhks'
² c,Sh t;fkda,a Nd.sl wdijkfhka ,eìh yels Wmßu t;fkda,a idkaøKh
96'5] ls' fuh m%;sfYdaê; uOHidrh ^Rectified spirit& kï fjhs'

² i.kaO f;,a ,nd .efkk Ydl øjH" tajdfha wka;¾.;h ms<sn| f;dr;=re
/ia lr .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh i|yd yqud, wdijkh fhdod .efkk wdldrh;a" ta
iïnkaO uQ,O¾u;a idlÉPd lrkak'
² ødjl ksiaidrKfha uQ,O¾u yd T!Iëh ixfhda. ksiaidrKfha § tajdfha Ndú;
idlÉPd lrkak'
² l=re÷ f;,a ksIamdokhg yqud, wdijkh fhfok wdldrh iqÿiq wegjqula o
Wmfhda. lr f.k bosßm;a lrkak'
² úNd.^úfNaok& ix.=Klh ms<sn| oekqu h<s isysm;a lrkak'
² j¾Kf,aL Ys,amfha § úNd. ix.=Klfha fh§ï idlÉPd lrkak'
² iaÓ;sl l,dmh yd .;sl l,dmh hk mo myokak'
² j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh fhfok my; ir, ls%hdldrlu isÿ lrkak'
² c,h yd t;fkda,a ñY% lr Ydl m;% lsysmhla wUrd .kak'
² ødjKh fmrd ksiaidrlh fjka lr .kak'
² j¾Kf,aL lvodis fjkqjg ;Ska; fmdjk lvodis Ndú; lr ksiaidrlfha
wvx.= j¾Kl fjka lsÍug W;aiyd lrkak'
² i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKfha § jdhq j¾Kf,aL Ys,amfha Ndú; idlÉPd lrkak'
262
ksmqK;d uÜgu 15'6 ( Lksc iïm;a u; mokï jQ iuyr ridhksl l¾udka;

úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 05 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² fmdaÜ,kaâ isfuka;s ksIamdokh i|yd w;HjYH wuq øjH ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'
² fmdaÜ,kaâ isfuka;s ksIamdokfha oS isÿ jk m%Odk ridhksl úm¾hdi úia;r
lrhs'
² fmdaÜ,kaâ isfuka;s iú ùfï l%shdj,sh úia;r lrhs'
² rEghs,a fyda b,aukhsÜ fyda Ndú; lr Ti yd TiO2 ksiaidrK ls%hdj,sh úia;r
lrhs'
² fmÜfrda,shï ì|Sfï$ksmoùfï l%shdj,sh úia;r lrhs'

fmdaÜ,kaâ isfuka;s
² idudkHfhka isfuka;s ^cement& hkafkka lene,s fyda fldgia fyda tlsfklg
ne| ;nd ms~j
q la f,i ilia l< yels wdila; øjHhla woyia flf¾' f.dvke`.,s s
l¾udka;fha oS Ndú;hg .efkk iq,n;u isfuka;s ye|skafjkafka fmdaÜ,kaâ
isfuka;s hkqfjks'
² isfuka;s ksIamdokfha oS ;=ka wdldrhl wuqøjH Ndú; flf¾'
² yqKq .,a (CaCO3 & - pQ¾Kuh ix>gl (Calcareous component &
² ueá (Al2O3 . 2SiO2.2H2O) - uD;a;slduh ix>gl(argillaceous component&
² ðmaiï ^CaSO4.2H2O)- iú ùu md,kh flfrk øjH
² pQ¾Kuh øjHj,ska isfuka;s ixhq;shg CaO odhl flfrk w;r fuh tl;=
lrkq ,nkafka yqkq.,a f,i h' tys m%Odk jYfhka wka;¾.; jkafka CaCO3
h' yqkq.,a fjkqjg lsß.re~" fldr,a wdosh o Ndú; l< yels h' uD;a;slduh
ûeá& ixrplfhka SiO2" Al2O3 yd Fe2O3 isfuka;sj,g tl;= flf¾' ueá"
Y,al ^Shale& yd m;=re mdIdK ^Slate& Bg ksoiqka h'
² fmdaÜ,kaâ isfuka;s ksIamdokfha oS úhe<s l%uh yd f;;a l%uh hkqfjka l%u
folla Ndú; fõ'
² Y%S ,xldfõ Ndú; jk úhe<s l%ufha oS úhe<s ;;a;ajfha we;s wuq øjH Ndú;hg
.efka' yqk.q ,a yd ueá l=vq lr" úhe<d 1(5 wkqmd;fhka ñY% lr" N%uK fmdarKqjg
we;=`M flf¾' fuu fmdarKqj ;srig wxYl oyhl wdk;sfhka hq;a wlaIhla
jgd N%uKh jk ;dm iy wdia;rKhlska ^refractory& hq;a jdfka is,skavrhls'
we;=`M lrk ,o øjH fmdarKqj ;=< ^600-1500& 0C w;r WIaK;ajhlg r;a flf¾'
fï WIaK;ajfha oS ñY%Kfha ixrpl fol øj ùfuka f;dr j tlsfkl yd
nef|a' fï l%h
s dj,sh iskg
a ¾ lsÍu^sintering& hkqfjka ye|skf
a jk w;r tys m%;M
s ,hla
f,i la,skal¾ hkqfjka ye|skafjk l=vd m%udKfha leg iEfohs' ñY%Kh r;a
lsÍu i|yd N+ñ jdhqj" W÷ka f;,a fyda .,a w`.=re Ndú; fõ'
263
² N%uK fmdarKqj fldgia y;rlska iukaú; h'
² mQ¾j ;dmk l,dmh ^Preheating zone &
² NiaólrK l,dmh ^Calcining zone &
² la,ks l
a r idok l,dmh ^Clinkering zone&
² isis,k l,dmh ^Cooling Zone&
² mQ¾j;dmk l,dmfha oS ksoyia c,h bj;a fõ' 1000 0C muK WIaK;ajhla
mj;sk NiaólrK l,dmfha oS le,aishï ldnfkaÜ yd ueá úfhdackh ùu;a"
ldnksl øjH TlaislrKh ùu;a" isÿ fõ' la,skalr idok l,dmfha oS 1300 -
1500 0C l WIaK;ajhla hgf;a ksoyia Tlaihsv m%;sl%shd ù le,aishï is,sflaÜ
yd le,aishï we¨ñfkaÜ we;s fõ'
CaO 3 CaO.SiO2 (g%hsle,aishï is,sflaÜ- C3S)

+ +
SiO2 2CaO.SiO2 (vhsle,aishï is,sflaÜ- C2S)
+ +
Al2O3 3CaO.Al2O3 (g%hsle,aishï we¨ñfkaÜ- C3A)
+ +
Fe2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (fgÜrdle,aishï we¨ñfkdaf*rhsÜ)
² fmdarKqfjys my< fl<jßka ,nd .kakd la,skalr isis,a lr" ðmaiï kshñ;
m%;sY;h ^4 - 5]& iu`. fnda, fuda,la ;=< weUeÍug ,la lsÍfuka isfuka;s
ksmojd .efka'
² isfuka;sj, ne| ;nd .ekSfï yd iú ùfï .=Kh we;s jkafka" isfuka;s c,h
iu`. msßhï lsÍfï oS ksmofjk ic, M, ksid h'
kso ( 2Ca3SiO5 + 6H2O Ca3Si2O7.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2

(Ca3SiO5 = 3CaO.SiO2)
² isfuka;sj, iú ùu md,kh lrkafka ðmaiï ^CaSO4.2H2O & h' th fkdue;s

úg isfuka;s b;d blaukska iú fõ'
rEghs,a$b,aukhsÜ Ndú; lr Ti yd TiO2 ksiaidrKh
² YS% ,xldfõ ol=Kq uqyqÿ ;Srfha yd mq,auqfâ m%foaYfha yuq jk rEghs,a (TiO2) yd
b,a u khs Ü j, (FeO. TiO2) Ti iq , n j wvx.= fõ'
² TiO2j, by< øjdxlh yd by< ia:dhS;dj ksid ghsfÜkshï f,dayh ksiaidrKh

myiq fkd fõ'
ghsfÜkshï ksiaidrKh
² ldnka yd laf,daÍka iu`. Lksch 900 0C olajd r;a lrkq ,efí'
rEghs,a iu`. m%;sls%hdj (
264
b,aukhsÜ iu`. m%;sls%hdj(
² fjk;a wmøjH bj;a flfrk w;r Y=oaO øj TiCl4 fjka lr .efka'

² fidaähï fyda ue.akSishï fyda jeks m%n, Tlaisydrl f,day iu`. wd.ka jdhq
wdjrKhl § øj TiCl4 TlaisyrKh lrùfuka ghsfÜkshï f,dayh ksiaidrKh
flf¾'
² w;sßla; ue.akSishï f,dayh ;kql HCl wï,h iu`. m%;sls%hd lrjkq ,efí'
ish¨ u MgCl2 bj;a lr" ksmojQ ghsfÜkshï f,dayh l=Üá f,i fjka lr
.efka'
ghsfÜkshïj, m%fhdack
² ieye,a¨ nj" by< wd;kH m%n,;dj" by< øjdxl yd Ldokhg olajk
m%;sfrdaë;dj ksid ghsfÜkshï .=jka hdkdj, fldgia" wNHjldY hdkd yd
kHIaál wú /f.k hk .=jka hdkd ;ekSug Ndú; flf¾'
ghsfÜkshï Tlaihsâ ksiaidrKh

² TiO2 iqÿ meye;s jqj;a wmøjH meje;Su fya;=fjka fjk;a j¾Kj,ska hq;= j
iajdNdúl j olakg ,efí'
² TiO2 ,nd .ekSu i|yd my; l%uh Ndú; l< yels h'
² .,a w`.=re yd laf,daÍka jdhqj yuqfõ 900 0C g muK rEghs,a r;a lrkq
,efí'
FeCl3
² wmøjH bj;a lsÍfuka wk;=re j øj - Tlaiscka jdhqj yuqfõ 1200 oC g

muK r;a lrkq ,efí'
TiO2j, m%fhdack
² TiO2 j, i:dhS;dj ksid T!IO fm;sj, wdjrK ia;rh f,i fhdod
.efka' ;Sk;
a l¾udka;fha § iqÿ meye;s j¾Klhla f,i;a" m%Nd W;afm%r
a lhla
f,i;a Ndú; flf¾'
fndr f;,a yd fmÜfrda,shï ì|Su

² f;,a <sxj,ska ksiaidrKh lr .kq ,nk Lksc f;,a N, P yd S wvx.= úúO
yhsâfrdldnkj, yd pl%Sh ldnksl ixfhda.j, ixlS¾K ñY%Khls' fuh
fndr f;,a hkqfjka ye|skafjk w;r tys we;=<;a yhsâfrdldnk m%Odk j¾.
;=klg fnosh yels h'
² újD; odu we,aflak

² we,spl%Sh yhsâfrdldnk
² wefrdaueál yhsâfrdldnk
² fndr f;,a Nd.sl wdijkfha m%;sM,hla f,i hï WIaK;aj mrdihla ;=<

kgk yhsâfrdldnk ñY%Khlska hq;a Nd. fY%aKshla ,efí' tla tla Nd.h ;j
265
ÿrg;a Nd.sl wdijkhg Ndck lsÍfuka hï Nd.hl wvx.= ixfhda. fjka lr
.; yels h'
² úYd, wKq iys; yhsâfrdldnk fudag¾ r:j,g fl<ska u fhosh fkd yels h'
f;,a msßmyÿjl isÿ flfrk b;d jeo.;a ld¾ñl l%shdj,sj,ska tlla jkafka
tu úYd, wKq" l=vd wKqj,g ì| fy<Su hs' uq,a wKqj we,aflakhla jk w;r
m%;sM, wKq f,i ,efnkafka we,aflakhla yd we,alSkhls'
kso( C8H18(l) → C6H4(l) + C2H4(g) fyda

C8H18(l) → C5H12(g) + C3H6(g)
² ì£fï ls%hdj,s m%Odk wdldr ;=kla we;'
;dm ì|Su ( we,aflakh tys ;dmdxlhg jvd by< WIaK;ajhlg"

we;eï úg wê;ma; yqud,h iu`. ;;amr nd.hla muK r;a
flf¾'
W;afm%arl ì|Su ( is,sld" we¨ñkd" jeks W;afm%arlhla yuqfõ yhsâfrdldnkh
idfmalaI jYfhka wvq WIaK;ajhlg r;a flf¾'
yhsâfrd ì|Su ( yhsâfrdldnkh" by< mSvkhla hgf;a we;s yhsârcka jdhqj
;=< r;a flf¾'
² isfuka;s ksIamdokh i|yd fhdok wuq øjH YS% ,xldfõ iq,n j yuq jk ia:dk
is;shul ,l=Kq lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² b,aukhsÜ yd rEghs,a iq,n j yuq jk ia:dk YS% ,xld is;shul ,l=Kq lrkak'
² mq;a;,u yd .d,a, isfuka;s lïy,a o" imq.ialkao fmÜfrda,shï msßmyÿj o"
mq,auqfâ Lksc je,s fYdaOkd.drh o" ke/öu i|yd isiqka wOHdmk pdßldjl
fhdojkak'
266
ksmqK;dj 16'0 ( ridhk úoHd oekqu mDÓú mßirh wjfndaO lr .ekSu
i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 16'1 ( mDÓúfha Ôjh mj;ajd .ekSu msKsi mßir f.da,fha ixhq;sh
yd tys iïnkaO;dj úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² jdhqf.da,fha ixhq;sh y÷kd .kshs'
² c,f.da,fha ixhq;sh y÷kd .kshs'
² mDÓú lfndf,ys ixhq;sh m%ldY lrhs'
² m%Odk pl% - ldnka pl%h" Tlaiscka pl%h" khsÜrcka pl%h yd c, pl%h - w|shs'
² mdßißl iu;=,s;;dj flfrys jdhqf.da,fha" c,f.da,fha yd mDÓú mDIaGfha
m%Yia; ixhq;sfhys jeo.;alu jgyd .kshs'

² jdhqf.da,fha ixhq;sh
j.=j 16'1'1: uqyqÿ uÜgfï oS ¥IKh fkd jQ úh<s jd;fha m%Odk ix>glj, ixhq;sh
ix>glh mßudj wkqj m%;sY;h

N2 78.08
O2 20.99
Ar 0.94
CO 2 0.03
² fï yer" l=vd m%udKj,ska Ne, He, CH4, Kr, H2 jdhq o" l=vd úp,H m%udKj,ska
NH3, SO2, CO, NO2, O3, H2S jeks ¥Il o we;' ishhg y;rla muK we;s c,
jdIam ^l,ska l,g fjkia fõ'& taldldrj jHdma; ù fkdue;s w;r id.r yd
úYd, c,dY wdikakfha by< idkaøKhlska mj;S'
² N ≡ N nkaOkfha m%n,;dj fya;f
= jka N2 wKqjg ,efnk ia:dhS;dj lrKfldg"
jdhqf.da,fha khsÜrcka m%;sY;h by< fõ' Tlaiscka" khsÜrckaj,g jvd
m%;sl%shdYS,S h' t neúka jdhqf.da,fha O2 m%udKh" N2 m%udKhg jvd wvq h'
² Tlaiscka meje;au u`.ska jdhqf.da,h il%sh flfrk w;r mDÓúh u; Ôjfha
meje;au ;yjqre flf¾'
² CO2 iy H2O m%NdixYaf,aIK ls%hdj,sfha uQ,sl ix>gl fõ'
Wkak;dxYh wkqj jdhqf.da,Sh WIaK;ajh" ujq,sl ialkaOh yd mSvkh úp,kh

ùu'
² Wkak;dxYh jeä jk úg ialkaOh wvqjk w;r ta wkqj mSvkh o wvq fõ'
tfy;a WIaK;ajh wmj¾;kj,ag Ndckh fõ' fuu ;dm wmj¾;k mokï lr
.ksñka jdhq f.da,h ia;r lsysmhlg fnokq ,efí' mDÓúhg wdikak;u
ia;rh mßj¾;Sh f.da,h ^Troposphere& jYfhka o" Bg by<ska msysá ia;rh
ia;r f.da,h ^Stratosphere& jYfhka o ye¢kafõ'
267
c,f.da,fha ixhq;sh
² mD:sú mDIaGfhka 70] la c,fhka wdjrKh fõ' f,dj we;s c,fhka ñßosh
we;af;a b;d l=vd m%udKhla ^2'6]& muKs' c,fhka jeä m%udKhla ^97'4]&
we;af;a id.rj, h' ñßosfhka jeäuk;a fldgi ^76]& mj;skafka ñÿKq whsia
f,i .a,eishrj, yd O%ejdikak whsia jeiau f,i h' ñksid f.a mßfNdackh
i|yd ,nd .; yelafla bka b;d iq`M fldgila ^0'01]& muKs'
Ice-caps Ground 1.984%

Oceans and water
2.59%
glaciers
97.41%
1.984%
ish,q c,h ñßosh
16'1'1 rEmh ( mDÓúfha c, ixhq;sh yd ñßosfhys jHdma;sh
j.=j 16'1'2 mDÓú lfndf,ys yd iuia; mDÓúfha ixhq;sh
uQ,øjHh mDÓú lfndf,a m%;sY; iuia; mDÓúfha m%;sY;

ixhq;sh ixhq;sh
Tlaiscka (O) 46.71 29.3

is,slka (Si) 27.60 14.9
we¨ñkshï (Al) 8.07 2.4
whka (Fe) 5.05 36.9
le,aishï (Ca) 3.65 3.0
fidaähï (Na) 2.75 0.6
fmdgEishï (K) 2.58 -
ue.akSishï (Mg) 2.08 7.4
fjk;a 1.14 1.0
m%Odk pl%
ridhk øjH ,lajk úm¾hdi" úúO ia;rj, tajdfha iq,n;dj" tajdfhka we;s úh
yels mdßißl n,mEï" mßir ¥IKh iïnkaO .eg¨ md,kh lsrSu jeks lreKq
wjfndaO lr .ekSu i|yd ridhksl pl% ms<sn| oekqu b;d jeo.;a fõ'
268
ldnka pl%h
jdhqf.da,Sh
CO 2 m%NdixYaf,aIKh
Yajikh
yd
osrdm;a ùu
i;a;ajfhda Ydl
oykh
fifuka isÿ jk
osrdm;a ùu
fmdis, bkaOk
c,fha øú; CO2
wjidokh
øjKh
ldnfkaÜ mdIdK
16'1'2 rEmh ( ldnka pl%h
² mßir moaO;shl ldnka ;sr lrk tl u l%uh m%NdixYaf,aIKh hs'

² i;a;= wdydr Tiafia ldnka ,nd .ks;s'
² úfhdaclhka ldnka ,nd .kafka ñh .sh Ôùka ÔrKh lsÍfuks'
² ish¨ Ôùyq Yajikfha oS ldnka vfhdlaihsâ f,i ldnka jd;hg uqod yß;s'
² úfhdaclhka fkdue;s ;kays Ydl yd i;=ka ñh .sh úg tu foayj, we;=<;a
ldnka fmdis, bkaOk njg m;a fõ' fuh j¾I ñ,shk .Kka .; jk
l%shdj,shls' ^kso ( .eUqre id.rfha&
² oykfha oS fmdis, bkaOkj, we;s ldnka ksoyia flf¾'
² laIqø Ôùyq o ldnka pl%fha jeo.;a fldgila bgq lr;s' Tjqyq u< foayj,
we;=<;a ldnka blaukska jdhqf.da,hg ksoyia lr;s'
269
Tlaiscka pl%h
jdhqf.da,Sh
O2
Yajikh
wldnksl øjHj,
TlaislrKh oykh
kso; Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
m%NdixYaf,aIKh
wdydr Ydl
i;a;=
ldfndyhsâf¾g
Yajikh
mi yd c,dY CO 2 +H 2 O
16'1'3 rEmh ( Tlaiscka pl%h
² oykh ^ridhksl$ffcùh& yd Yajikh u`.ska jdhqf.da,Sh Tlaiscka bj;a jk

w;r tys oS ldnkavfhdlaihsâ ksoyia fõ' m%NdixYaf,aIKh u`.ska kej;
jdhqf.da,hg O2 ,nd fohs'
² Tlaisckaj,ska jeä m%udKhla Tlaihsv LKsc f,ig mDÓú lfndf,ys yd
m%djrKfhys ;ekam;a ù we;s kuq;a" tajd mdIdK yd ne£ we;s neúka Ndú;hg
.; fkd yels fjhs'
² Ndú;hg .; yels Tlaisckaj,ska jeä m%udKhla ,efnkafka m%NdixYaf,aI-
Kfhks' ta yer ysre t<sh u`.ska c, wKq ì£ hdfuka ^m%Nd úÉfþokh& o
Ndú;hg .; yels Tlaiscka ,efí'
270
khsÜrcka pl%h
jdhqf.da,Sh
N2 ld¾ñl
ffcùh ;srlrKh
jdhqf.da,Sh ;srlrKh
;srlrKh
khsÜßydÍ nelaàßhd
NO
wdydr
Ydl i;a;aj ftkaøsh øjHj,
fm%daàk NH 3
fm%daàk khsÜrcka
NO 2
fmdfydr
Ydl uq,a osrdm;a ùu
khsÜßydß nelaàßhd
osrdm;a ùu
NH 4+
mfiys khsÜrcka NO 2 -
NO3- f,i
khsÜßldÍ nelaàßhd
khsÜfrdnelag¾ (khsÜfrdfidfudkdia)
N+ .; c,hg
16'1'4 rEmh ( khsÜrcka pl%h
² nela à ßhd úis k a jdhq f .da , S h khs Ü rcka ;s r flf¾' we;eï nela à ßhd
^kso(weifgdnelag¾-Azotobacter& mfia ksoyia j Ôj;a fõ' rhsfidaìhqï-
Rhizobium jeks ;j;a j¾. mj;skafka f,.=ñfkdafia ^rks,& Ydlj, uQ,
.eg;sj, h' jdhqf.da,Sh khsg%cka wefudakshd njg o wk;=re j khsÜrhsg yd
khsÜf¾g njg o mßj¾;kh flf¾' fïjd Ydl úiska wjfYdaIKh lrkq ,en
fm%daàk ixYaf,aIKh i|yd fhofõ'
² Ydl fm%daàkj, wka;¾.; khsÜrcka wdydr odu Tiafia i;=ka fj; .uka
lrhs'
² Ôùka f.a urKfhka miq laIqø Ôù l%shdldÍ;ajh lrKfldg" foayj, ;snQ
khsÜrcka wefudakshï ixfhda. njg mßj¾;kh ù h<s mig tla fõ' i;a;=
ish wlaudfõ isÿ lrk weuhskya rKfhka jeämqr weuhsfkda wï, ì| ou;s's uQ;%
my lsÍu u`.ska tu khsÜrcka mig tl;= fõ'
² khsÜßldÍ nelaàßhd wefudakshï ixfhda. khsÜf¾g njg yrjhs' m<uq j
khsÜfrdfidfudkdia^nitrosomonas& nelaàßhd úiska wefudakshï ixfhda.
khsÜrhsg njg o wk;=re j khsÜfrdnelag¾a^nitrobacter& nelaàßhd úiska
khsÜrhsg" khsÜf¾g njg o mßj¾;kh flf¾'
² iQfvdfudkdia (Pseudomonas) yd ;fhdaneis,ia (Thiobacillus) jeks khsÜßydÍ
nelaàßhd úiska khsÜf¾g h<s jdhqf.da,Sh khsÜrcka njg m;a flf¾'
271
c, pl%h
jdIamSNjkh
mDÓú
jdhq f.da,h
lfnd,
j¾IKh
jdIamSNjkh N+ . ;
c,h
id.r
j¾IKh .x.d Tiafia .,d
hEu
16'1'5 rEmh ( c, pl%h
² fmdf<dfjys ;sridr meje;au i|yd mßirfha ;=,H;dj mj;ajd .ekSug

jdhqf.da,fha" c,f.da,fha yd mDÓú mDIaGfha m%Yia; ixhq;sh jeo.;a fõ' fï
iu;=,s;;dj ì| jeàu my; oelafjk .eg¨j,g fya;= fõ'
² ñksid f.a fi!LH msßySu
² Ydlj,g ydks meñKSu iy tajdfha j¾Okh wvd, lsÍu
² lsß.re~ f.dvke`.s,s iy f,dayuh jHqyj,g ydks ùu
² ,jK;dj$laIdÍh;dj jeä ùu
² mdIdK ÔrKh
² foaY.=Ksl fjkia ùï ^ksh`.$.xj;=r we;s úh yels h'&

² jdhqf.da,fha ixhq;sh j.= .; lrk f,i;a tla tla ixrplfha ujq, Nd.h
.Kkh lrk f,i;a isiqkag mjikak'
² mka;sfha isiqka lKavdhï lsysmhlg fnod" tla tla iajdNdúl pl%hla ms<sn|
jeäÿr lreKq tla /ia lsÍug ta ta YsIH lKavdhug Ndr fokak'
² mjrk ,o iajdNdúl pl%fha jeo.;alu idlÉPd lsÍug tla tla lKavdhug
mjrkak'
² tla tla lKavdhu úiska fidhd .;a lreKq uq`M mka;shgu bosßm;a lsÍug
wjia:dj fokak'
272
ksmqK;dj 16'0 ( ridhk úoHd oekqu mDÓú mßirh wjfndaO lr .ekSu
i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 16'2 ( udkj lsh

% dldrlï fya;f
= jka jdhqf.da,fha isÿ jk fjkialï
úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 06 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh fjkia lrk jdhq y÷kd .kshs'
² jdhqf.da,hg jdhq tl;= jk l%u úuihs'
² jdhqf.da,hg tl;= jk jdhqj, n,mEï meyeos,s lrhs'
² wï, jeis fya;=fjka mDÓú ixhq;sfha we;s jk fjkia ùï úia;r lrhs'
² jdhq ¥IKh ksid we;s jk n,mEï wju lsÍug .; yels ls%hdud¾. úia;r
lrhs'
² jdhq f.da,Sh ¥IKh fya;=fjka mek k`.sk fi!LHuh .eg¨ úia;r lrhs'

² CO(g) , H2S(g), SO2(g) , SO3(g), NO(g), NO2(g) yd CO2(g) jdhqf.da,h
S ixhq;h
s
fjkia lrk wldnksl øjH fõ' yhsâfrdldnk yd fyaf,dyhsâfrdldnk
we;=`M ldnksl øjH o ldnka wxY=" ¥ú,s jeks wxY=uh mod¾:h o jdhqf.da,Sh
ixhq;sh fjkia lsÍug fya;= fõ'
² iajdNdúl j ldnksl øjHj, ks¾jdhq ydhkfhka fuf;aka we;s jk w;r
jdhqf.da,Sh CO(g) hï m%udKhla fuf;aka TlaislrKfhka we;s fõ' fudag¾
r:j, tkaðfï isÿ jk wNHka;r oykh we;=`M ish¨ wiïmQ¾K oyk l%h s dj,sj,
oS CO(g) úfudapkh fõ'
² i,a*¾ wvx.= fmdis, bkaOk oykh" .sksl÷ úodrKh" i,a*¾ wvx.= ldnksl
øjHj, ffcùh osÍu" i,af*agj, TlaisyrKh yd f,day i,a*hsvj,ska f,day
fjka lr .ekSu hk l%h s dj, oS SO2(g) jdhqf.da,hg we;=`M fõ' SO2(g) Tlaics ka
iu`. m%;ls h
s% d lr SO3(g) idohs' jdhqf.da,h
S SO2(g), SO3(g) njg Tlail s rKh
ùfï YS>%;dj NO(g) u`.ska jeä lrhs'
² wl=Kq yd úÿ,s flàï" ffcùh l%shdj,s jeks iajdNdúl ixisoaê ksid o ¥Il
m%Njj,ska o NOx(g) ^ NO(g) iy NO2(g) & jdhqf.da,hg we;=`M fõ' NOx(g)j,ska
nyq;rh ksmfokafka fmdis, bkaOk oykfha oS h' NOx(g)j,ska jeäuk;a
m%udKhla jdhqf.da,hg we;=`M jkafka wNHka;r oyk tkaðkaj,sk's wefudakh s d
jdhqj TlaislrKfha § o NOx(g) iEfoa'
² H2S(g) ys iq,n u m%Nj jkafka i,a*¾ wvx.= ldnksl øjHj, laIqÿÔù ÔrKh
yd i,af*ag whkj, TlaisyrKh hs'
² yhsâfrdldnk úYd, jYfhka bkaOk f,i fhdod .efka' tajd fl<ska u fyda
wiïmQ¾K oykfha w;=re M, f,i fyda jdhqf.da,hg meñfKa' jdykj,
wmd,s; msgdr ÿfuys we,aflak" we,alSk yd wefrdaueál yhsâfrdldnk wvx.=
fõ' c,fha we;s ldnksl øjHj, ks¾jdhq úfhdackfha oS úYd, m%udKj,ska
fuf;aka we;s fõ'
273
yß;d.dr wdprKh
² iQ¾hhd f.ka ,efnk Yla;sh yd mDÓúfhka wdmiq úlsrKh flfrk Yla;sh
w;r wkjr; wjia:d iu;=,;
s h úiska mDÓúfha WIaK;ajh ;sr flf¾' mDÓúfha
WIaK;ajh md,kh flfrk tla hka;%Khla jkafka yß;d.dr wdprKh hs'
² ikakhkfhka" ixjykfhka yd úlsrKfhka mDÓúfhka ;dmh neyer fõ'

úlsrKh u`.ska neyer ùug m%:u" mDÓú ;dmfhka fldgila ikakhkh yd
ixjykh u`.ska j,dl=`M fj; iïfm%aIKh fõ'
² ixjykfha § ;dmh ixl%duKh jkafka c,fha jdIamSlrK tka;e,amsh f,i h'

c, jdIam >kSNjkfha § tys we;=<;a ;dmh ksoyia fõ'
² mDÓúfhka ;dmh neyer lrk úlsrK §¾> ;rx. wdhdufhka hqla; jk w;r
úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sfha wfOdarla; l,dmhg wh;a h'
² neyer jk ish¨ úlsrK bj;a j h;a kï" mDÓú mDIaGfha WIaK;ajh -16 0C jkq
we;' ^pkaøhd f.a WIaK;ajh o fuh u fõ'&
² úIu mrudKql wKq yd iuyr iu mrudKql wKq Ô3& yß;d.dr jdhq f,i
ls%hdlrkq ,efí'
² ta wkqj ldnka vfhdlaihsâ" c, jdIam" fuf;ak"a vhskhsÜrcka Tlaihsâ" ´fidak"a

i,a*¾ vfhdlaihsâ yd laf,dafrd*a¨fjdfrdldnka mDÓúfhka ksl=;a jk
úlsrKj,ska jeä fldgila Wrd f.k bka wvla muK h<s mDÓú mDIaGh fj;
m%;súlsrKh lrhs' fuh mDÓúh WKqiqï j ;nd .ekSug;a tys Ôjhg ys;lr
foaY.=Khla mj;ajd .ekSug;a fya;= fõ' fuh yß;d.dr wdprKh hkqfjka
ye|skafjk w;r Bg odhl jk jdhq" yß;d.dr jdhq f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
jd;h ¥IKh ùfuka we;s jk .eg¨ f;areï .ekSu
1' f.da,Sh WKqiqï ùu

² yß;d.dr jdhq tajdfha ;sìh hq;= Wmßu uÜgï blaujd hd yels h' t úg
mDÓúfha WIaK;ajh jeä fõ' fuh zf.da,Sh WKqiquZ kñka ye|skafõ'
² f.da,Sh WKqiqï ùfï m%Odk N+ñldj bgq lrkafka CO2 (g) h' fï i|yd n,mdk
wfkl=;a m%fNao kï NOx, CFC jeks tajd h' CFC uÜgu my< jqj o tys wdhq
ld,h jeä ksid;a" IR lsrK Wrd .ekSfï yelshdj jeä ksid;a f.da,h
S WKqiuq g
tys odhl;ajh jeä h'
² O%ejdikak whsia jeiau osh ùu;a" uqyqÿ c,h m%idrKh ùu ksid my< uÜgïj,
msysá rgj,a c,fhka hg ùu;a f.da,Sh WKqiqfuys m%;sM, fõ' f.da,Sh WKqiqu
by< hdfuka mfia c, jdIam bj;a ùu ksid ldka;drlrKh we;s fõ' ñßÈh
c,dY is£ hhs' ffcj úúO;ajh fjkia lrk w;r ld,.=Kl s rgdj, fjkialï
we;s lrhs'
² jdhqf.da,Sh CO2 ie,lsh hq;= m%udKhla c,fha Èh fõ' t úg mDÓú f.da,h
CO2 u`.ska WKqiqï jk m%udKh hï ;rulg wvq fõ' fl fia fj;;a WIaK;ajh
jeä jk úg CO2 Èh jk m%udKh wvq jk w;r ødú; CO2 h<s jdhqf.da,hg
meñfKa'
274
² jdhqf.da,Sh CO2 jeä jk úg m%NdixYaf,aIKh jeä fõ' fuh f.da,Sh WKqiqï
ùfï hym;a m%;sM,hls'
² YS% ,xldj iulh wdikak ¥m;la ksid ñys;,h WKqiqï ùfï m%;sM,h jvd;a
m%n, f,i n,mdhs'
2' wï, jeis

² jdhqf.da,fha we;s wdï,sl jdhq c,fha Èh ùfuka c,h wdï,sl fõ' fï
wdï,sl;dj r|d mj;afka
(i) wdï,sl jdhqj c,fha Èh jk m%udKh
(ii) iEfok wï,fha m%n,;dj
fu fia jdhq f.da,fha CO2 m%;sY;h by< jqj o tys wdï,sl;dj b;d wvq ksid
(pH 5.1-5.8) th wï, jeis fia fkd i,lhs' tfy;a tys we;s SOx yd NOx l=vd
m%udKhla jdhq f.da,fha meje;=K o t u`.ska c,hg ,efnk wdï,sl;dj by<
h' (pH 4-5) t jeks j¾Id wï, jeis fia ie,fla'
² jdhqf.da,Sh SO2(g)j, m%;sl%shd

i ) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO3- (aq)
HSO3-(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
ii) jdhqf.da,fha we;s Tlaisldrlj,g SO2 , SO3 njg m;a l< yels h'
Tlaisldrl
SO2(g) SO3 (g)
•
O2(g), O(g), O H(g) yd fmfrdlaihsvj,g Tlaisldrl f,i lghq;= l<
yels h' iuyr ,jK u`.ska Tlail
s rKh W;afm%r
a Kh flf¾' iEfok SO3(g),
H2O ys Èh ùfuka H2SO4(aq) iEfoa'
iii) SO2 iy Tlaisldrl îdudkHfhka O2 & hk fol u jeis c, ìxÿjl Èh úh

yels h' jeis ìxÿj ridhk øjH fol tlg tl;= lsÍfuka TlaislrK
ls%hdj,sh i|yd myiqlï i,ihs'
2SO2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + O2(aq) 2H2SO4(aq)

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) 2H3O (aq) + SO42-(aq)
+
² t f,i u NOx(g) jdhqf.da,fha oS m%;sls%hdjg ,la fõ'

2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
2NO2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + O2(aq) 4HNO3(aq)
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3- (aq)
275
² wï, jeis Ydlj,g ydkslr jk w;r jeõ wdÈfha jik uiqka f.a urKhg o
fya;= fõ' i,a*shqrsla yd khsÜßla jeks wï, mfia we;s we¨ñfkda is,sflaguh
øjH Èh lr yßñka Al3+ whk c,hg uqod yßhs' fuh u;aiHhka f.a lru,aj,
l%shdldÍ;ajhg ndOd muqKqjhs'
² mi yryd .,d hk wï, jeis c,h fmdaIl bj;a lrk w;r we¨ñkshï whk
ksoyia lrhs' fï ksid Ydlj,g Ca2+ yd Mg2+ jeks w;HjYH fmdaIl fjkqjg
we¨ñkshï whk wjfYdaIKh fõ'
² yqkq.,a ksê" lsß.re~ m%;sud" f,dayuh jHqy" md,ï" keõ yd fudag¾ jdyk o
wï, jeisj, n,mEug ,la úh yels h'
wï, jeiafiys mdßißl n,mEï

² fvd,uhsÜ" yqkq.,a yd lsß.re~ wdosh wdï,sl c,fha øjKh fõ'
² uDÿ wdï,sl ;;a;aj hgf;a oS(
CaCO3(s) + H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
MgCO3 (s) + H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
CaCO3.MgCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+ (aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)
fï f,ig wødjH foa ødjH njg m;a fõ'
² m%n, wdï,sl ;;a;aj hgf;a §

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CaCO3.MgCO3(s) + 4H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
² mdIdK yd je,s wdY%s; fjk;a fndfyda ,jK o wï, jeiafia øjKh fõ'
iajdNdúl j isÿ jk isoaê odufha § mi l%ufhka wdï,sl fõ' Ydl úiska mdxY=
ødjKfha legdhk bj;a flfrk w;r tajd H+ úiska úia:dmkh fõ' fï ksid
i,a*hsv jeks Lksc" wï, njg TlaislrKh fõ' wvq pH w.fha oS H+ úiska
mfia we;s wfkl=;a legdhk úia:dmkh flf¾' Al3+" Ca2+" Mg2+ muKla fkd
j ner f,dayj, legdhk o fu fia H+ úiska úia:dmkh fõ' fuu whk fia§
bj;a j hdu u`.ska Ydlj, fi!LHu;a j¾Okhg wjYH fmdaIl ,eîu j<ld
,kq ,nhs' mi ;=<ska .,k wdï,sl c,h ksid Al3+ yd fjk;a Lksc laISrKhg
,la jk w;r mdIdK ÔrKhg o th fya;= fõ' fï iu`. c,fha Ca2+ yd Mg2+
idkaøKh by< f.dia c,fha lÀk;ajh jeä fõ' u;=msg c,fha wdï,sl;dj"
,jK;dj" khsÜrcka yd ner f,day whk idkaøKh o ta iu`. jeä fõ'
3' m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj

² fudag¾ r:j,ska ksl=;a flfrk ÿfuys NOx iy fkd oejqKq yhsfv%dldnk
(CxHy) wvx.= fõ' ysre t<sh yuqfõ yd 15 0C g by< WIaK;ajj, § tajd ´fidaka
we,a ä yhs v " fmfrdla i s weis á ,a khs f Ü% g (PAN), fmfrdla i s fnka i s , a
khsfÜ%g(PBN) hkdÈhg mßj¾;kh fõ'
276
² fuu ridhk øjH iQ¾hdf,dalh yuqfõ ksmofjk neúka fuh m%ldY-ridhksl
OQñldj f,i ye¢kafõ'
² m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj ly meyehg yqre ;sñrhls' th fmkSug ndOd lrk

w;r weiaj, oeú,a, we;s lrhs'
² OQñldjla ^smog& hkq ÿfuys ^smoke& yd óÿfuys ^fog& ixfhdackhls'
² m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj iEÈfï wdrïNl m%;sl%shdj jkafka NO iy O njg

NO2 úfhdackh ùu hs'
² m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj iEoSfï mshjr my; oelafõ'

î& NO2 iQ¾hdf,dalh wjfYdaIKh lr m%NdúÉfþokh ùu
NO2 NO + O
îi& fuys § ksmofjk mrudKql Tlaiscka O2 wKq iu`. iïnkaO ù

a) ´fidaka ksmofõ'
O + O2 + M O3 + M
^M hkq wu;r Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh lrkq ,nk ;=ka jeks øjHhls' M
jd;fhys wvx.= wxY=jla fyda jdhqjla fyda úh yels h'&
b) OH uqla; LKav ksmofõ'

•
O + H2O 2OH
•
(iii) ksmojqkq O H u.ska jd;fha wvx.= wfkl=;a ridhk øjH LKavl njg
m;a lrk w;r tajd we,aäyhsv" PAN, PBN wdÈh ksmojk m%;l
s h
%s d iuQyhla
wdrïN lrhs'
m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj, n,mEï (

² ñksidf.a fi!LHh yd ikSmrlaIdj flfrys jk n,mEï (
m%ldY-ridhksl OQñld Yajik moaO;shg n,mdk w;r leiai" y;sh jeks
frda.dndOj,g fya;= fõ'
² øjHj,g ydks ùu (
oaú;aj nkaOkj, úLKavkhg fya;= jk ksid ´fidaka rn¾j, yd frosj,
.=Kd;aul w.h wvq lrk w;r j¾Kl úrxckh lrhs'
² jdhqf.da,h flfrys we;s lrk n,mEï (

thfrdfid, wxY= wdf,dalh m%lsrKh lrñka fmkSug ndOd we;s lrhs'
² Ydl flfrys we;s flfrk n,mEï (

m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldfjka we;s jk fndfyduhla M, Ydlj,g úI iys;
h' m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldfjys M, u`.ska Ydl j¾Okh wvd, lrkq ,nhs'
fuh wdydr ksIamdokh flrys n,mdkq ,nhs'
277
4' ´fidaka ia;rh laIh ùu
² ia;r f.da,fha ´fidaka ia;rhla we;' fu u`.ska" mdrcïnq, lsrK wêl f,i
mßj¾;S f.da,hg we;=`M ùu j<lhs'
² O2(g) yd O3(g) iïnkaO jk m%;sl%shdj,ska iuyrla kï;

a) iQ¾h mdrcïnq,(UV) lsrK O2 (g) ú>gkh lrhs'
b) mrudKql Tlaisckaj,ska Ô& fldgila vhsTlaiscka wKq Ô2& iu`.

ixfhdackfhka g%hsTlaiscka wKq Ô3& we;s fõ'
O (g) + O2(g) + M O3(g) + M ;
c) O3(g) u`.k
s a úúO ixLHd; iys; mrcïnq, lsrK wjfYdaIKh lr úfhdackh
fõ'
O3 (g) O2 (g) + O(g) ; ∆H > 0
d) O3 wKq O mrudKq yd m%;sl%shd ù O2 wKq idohs'

O3(g) + O(g) 2O2(g)
iajdNdúl ;=,H;dj úiska ´fidaka ia;rh ksh; >klñka hqla; j mj;ajd .kq
,efí'
² ∆H<0
yd fjk;a uqla; LKa vl iu`. isÿ jk m%;sl%shdj, § ´fidaka
úkdY fõ' fuu LKavl W;afma%rl f,i ls%hd lrñka oyia .Kkla O3 wKq
úkdY lrkq ,nhs' ia;r f.da,fha § isÿ jk W;afma%ß; ´fidaka ì| fy<Su
´fidaka ia;rh CIh ùu f,i y\qkajkq ,efí'
(1) x 2 + (2) + (3) x 2;
² laf,dafrd*a¨fjdfrd ldnkaj,ska ksmofjk laf,daÍka LKavl ´fidaka úhk

CIh ùug odhl jk m%Odk ix>glhla f,i y\qkd f.k we;' fuu
laf,dafrd*a¨fjdfrd ldnka mßj¾;S f.da,fha § ia:dhS jk uq;a ia;r f.da,fha
§ UV lsrK yuqfõ lKavl idohs'
278
² mdrcïnq, lsrKj, m;kh yd wefia iqo u;= ùu w;r;a" ñksidg je<ef|k
udrl jQ yd udrl fkd jkakd jQ p¾u ms<sld w;r;a" m%n, iyiïnkaO;djla
mj;S' tu ksid ´fidaka ia;rh wmg wdrlaIdj imhhs'
CO2 úfudapkh wju lsÍu

by;ska i|yka lrk f.da,Sh m%Yak ksid we;s jk mdßißl yd fi!LH n,mEï
wju lsÍu i|yd ¥Il jdhq úfudapkh wju l< hq;= h' t jeks m%;sld¾h
ls%hdldrlï lsysmhla my; oelafõ'
² bkaOk oykh wju lsÍu

fudag¾ r: Odjkfha oS" l¾udka;j, § yd bjqï msyqï jeks tosfkod
flfrk f.orfodr lghq;=j, § mßirhg úYd, ldnka vfhdlaihsâ
m%udKhla ksoyia fõ' fïjdhska iuyrla md,kh l< yels h' ksoiqkla
f,i uy u`. osfjk jdyk ixLHdj wmg úYd, f,i wvq l< yels h' úÿ,s
ÿïßh yd úÿ,s fudag¾ r: iys; ld¾hlaIu fmdÿ m%jdyk fiajdjla we;s
lsÍu fuhg tla úl,am úi÷ula fõ' ldnkaj,g yhsârcka wkqmd;h wvq
bkaOk oykfha § ksl=;a jk CO2 m%udKh wvq h' f*dis, bkaOk Ndú;h
fjkqjg kHIaál yd iQ¾h Yla;sh jeks fjk;a Yla;s m%Nj Ndú; lsÍu
;j;a Wml%uhls' jdyk mÍlaId ksis mßÈ isÿ lsÍu;a wjYH úg msßisÿ
bkaOk muKla ^wmøjH ke;s& oykh lsÍu;a Wmldrj;a úh yels fjk;a
ms<shï fõ'
² Ydl u`.ska CO2 wjfYdaIKh
² Yajikfha § yd ñksid f.a fjk;a lghq;=j, § neyer flfrk ldnka

vfhdla i hs â " m% N dixYa f ,a i Kfha § yß; Ydl úis k a ;s r flf¾'
m%NdixYaf,aIl Ôùyq yß;m%o W;afm%arlh f,i f.k ldnka vfhdlaihsâ
yd c,h" ldfndyhs â f¾Ü njg mßj¾;kh ls Í ug iQ ¾ h úls r K
m%fhdackhg .ks;s'
yß;m%o
iQ¾h Yla;sh
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2(g)
² m%NdixYaf,aIKfha § Tlaiscka w;=reM,hla f,i ksmfok neúka yß;

Ydl úiska wm jd;h msßisÿ lsÍula o flf¾'
² ksj¾;k jeis jkdka;r WKqiï
q h; f;;a h' fï ;;a;j
a m%NdixYaf,aIKhg
w;sYhska ys;lr fõ' jdhqf.da,Sh CO2 uÜgu by< hEug n,mdk tla
idOlhla jkafka fï jkdka;r úkdY lsÍu hs' t neúka jk j.dj yd
jk ixrlaIKh CO2 uÜgu md,kh lsÍug we;s fyd| u l%u jkafka h'
CO úfudapkh wju lsÍu

² mQ¾K oykh
bkaOkj, wiïmQ¾K oykh ksid ksmofjk ldnka fudfkdlaihsâ m%Odk
¥Ilhls' úYd, jYfhka CO meñfKkafka fudag¾ jdykj, msgdr ÿu;a
iu`. h'
² ksoiqkla f,i" ìhqfÜka oykfha § yhsâfrdldnka ujq,hlg Tlaiscka
ujq, 6'5la wjYH fõ' ;sfnkafka Tlaiscka ujq, yhla muKla kï m%;sM,h
f,i CO ujq,hla we;s fõ'
279
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
C4H10(g) + 6O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + CO(g) + 5H2O(g)
² jd;$bkaOk wkqmd;h îalkaOh wkqj& l%uj;a j mj;ajd .ekSu iïmQ¾K

oykhg fhduq lrhs'
TlafÜkaj, iïmQ¾K oykh i|yd iólrKh fu fia h'
4C8H8(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
iólrKfha iafgdhslfs hdñ;sh wkqj ^jd;fha ialkaOh$bkaOkfha ialkaOh&

wkqmd;h 14 (7 nj fy<s fõ' fuh jd;$bkaOk wkqmd;h hs'
² ire ñY%Khla ^rich mixture& ^t kï iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl wkqmd;fhka fokq

,nk w.hg jvd jeä yhsâfrdldnka bkaOk m%udKhla fkdfyd;a wvq jd;
m%udKhla we;s ñY%Khla& CO yd wiïmQ¾K f,i oykh jQ ldnksl M,
jeämqr wvx.= msgdr ÿï we;s lsÍug fya;= fõ' bkaOk m%udKh wvq fkdfyd;a
w;sßla; jd;h iys; nd, ñY%Khla ^lean mixture& CO m%udKh wvq tfy;a
jeä khsÜrcka Tlaihsv ^NOx& m%udKhla iys; msgdr ÿula fohs' msgdr ÿu
md,kh i|yd we;s fyd| u l%uh jkafka wekaðu iqir lsÍu ^jd;h yd
bkaOk w;r wkqmd;h m%Yia; uÜgul jk mßos iSreudre lsÍu& yd ¥Il"
ydks rys; M, njg yrjk W;afm%arl mßj¾;lhla ^Catalytic converter&
Ndú; lsÍu h'
² CO uÜgu my; fy<Su i|yd we;s fyd| u l%uh jkafka wNHka;r oyk
tkaðkaj, msgdr ÿu md,kh lsÍu h'
² Tlail
s rKh W;afm%r
a Kh lr CO jdhqf.da,fhka bj;a lrk tkaihsu we;eï
mdxY= laIqøÔùka i;= h'
wdï,sl jdhq úfudapkh wju lsÍu

² khsÜrcka yd i,a*¾ hk uQ,øjH fol u úúO wdï,sl Tlaihsv idok nj
isiqkag isys .kajkak' t neúka N yd S wvx.= ´kE u øjHhla jd;fha oykh
lsÍu SO2 yd NOx ksmojhs' khsÜrcka mrudKq fol w;r we;s m%n, nkaOkh
ksid jdhqf.da,Sh khsÜrcka m%;sl%shdYS,S fkd fõ' tfy;a WIaK;ajh 900 0C g
jeä kï tu nkaOkh ì|S NOx ^NO yd NO2& iEosh yels h' tkaðkaj,
wNHka;r oykh" ÿïjeá oykh yd wdydr msisk W÷kaj, oykh we;=`M fndfyda
oykj, § oyk WIaK;ajh 900 0C blaujhs' úÿ,s flàï yd wl=Kq .eiSï wdY%s;
j iajdNdúl j o fuh isÿ fõ' SO2 yd NOx tl;= ùu wju lsÍug we;s fyd|
u l%uh kï oyk l%shdj,sfha WIaK;ajh wvq lsÍu yd N yd S wvx.= bkaOk
oykh wvq lsÍu hs' my; § we;s l%u o jdhqf.da,hg wdï,sl jdhq ksoyia ùu
wju lsÍug Ndú; l< yels h'
280
² wjfYdaIK l%u
Niau yd m%;sl%shd lrùfuka wdï,sl jdhq WodiSk l< yels h' jd;fhka wdï,sl
jdhq neyer lsÍu i|yd fhdod .; yels yqkq .,a ^CaCO3 & yd ue.akSishï
Tlaihsâ ^MgO& jeks iajdNdúl Niau wm i;= j we;' fuys § iEfok M,"
jákd ld¾ñl ridhk øjHhla jQ i,a*shqßla wï,h njg m;a l< yels h'
I. yqkq .,a yd yqkqj,ska hq;a Wl= ñY%Khla ^slurry& wdï,sl jdhq bj;a lsÍug
^scrub& Ndú; l< yels h'
CaCO3(s) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) →CaSO3(s)
2 CaSO3 (s) + O2 (g) + 4 H 2O(l) → 2 CaSO4.2H 2O(s)
II. ue.akSishï
Tlaihsâj, Wl= ñY%Khla o ^slurry& wdï,sl jdhq wjfYdaIlhla
^scrub& f,i fhdod .; yels h'
MgO(s) + SO2(g) → MgSO3(s) MgO(s) + SO2(g)
MgSO3 ;dm lsÍfuka ,efnk MgO m%;spl%SlrKh l< yels h' by<
idkaøKhlska we;s SO2 " i,a*shqßla wï,h ksmoùug fhdod .; yels h'
III. fidaähï i,a*hsÜ ødjKhla o 'scrubbing' i|yd fhdod .; yelafla h'
Na2SO3(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) → 2NaHSO3(aq)
iEfok NaHSO3 r;a lsÍfuka ,efnk Na2SO3 m%;spl%SlrKh l< yels

w;r SO2 i,a*shqßla wï, ksIamdolhskag wf,ú l< yels h'
yhsâfrdldnk yd tajdfha w¾O oykfha M,j, úfudapkh wju lsÍu

² fudag¾ r: msgdr ÿfuys ¥Il jdhq wju lsÍu'
jdykj, msgdr ÿfuys wvx.= m%Odk;u ¥Il jdhq jkafka CO, NOx yd fkd
oejqKq fyda wv jYfhka oejqKq yhsâfrdldnk h' w¾O oykhg fya;=j Tlaiscka
W!k;dj hs' fuh" by; úia;r lrk ,o jdykfha iqir lsÍu ^tunning up&
hkqfjka ye|skafjk jd;-bkaOk wkqmd;h iSreudre lsÍfuka wvq lr .; yels
h' jdykj, msgdr k< ;=< W;afm%arl mßj¾;l iú lsÍfuka tajdfha msgdr
ÿfuys we;s úI jdhq m%udKh wvq lr .; yels h' ld¾hlaIu W;afm%arl
mßj¾;lhlska CO yd fkd oejqKq yhsâfrdldnk" CO2 yd c,h njg
Tlails rKh úh hq;= w;r NO yd NO2 khsÜrcka yd Tlaic s ka njg Tlaiy
s rKh
úh hq;= h' W;afm%arl mßj¾;kh" jdykj, ihs,kairhg iú lrkq ,nk
WmlrKhls' tys W;afm%r a l mDIaG u; § mshjr follska Tlail
s rK yd Tlaiys rK
m%;sl%shd isÿ fõ' mßj¾;lh ma,eákï jeks wl%sh f,dayhl ;=kS ia;rhlska yd
fldm¾ Tlaihsâ fyda fl%dañhï Tlaihsâ jeks wka;ßl uQ,øjH Tlaihsvj,ska
hqla; h' WKqiqï msgdr ÿu fï W;afm%arl msi f.k .uka lrhs'
281
2NO(g) + 2 CO(g) → N2 (g) + 2 CO2(g)
2 CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g)
C7H16(g) + 11 O2(g) → 7 CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)
;=ka ux W;afm%arl mßj¾;l ^Tlaiscka fudksgr wka;¾.;& msgdr ÿfuys we;s

ydkslr CO, NOX yd CxYy idfmalaI jYfhka Wmøj rys; N2, CO2 yd H2O
njg mßj¾;kh lrhs' W;afm%arl mßj¾;l" W;afm%arlfha WIaK;ajh 200 0C
muK jk ;=re l%shd;aul fkd fõ' t fyhska tajd tkaðu WKqiqï jk f;la
wl%sh h'
fhdað; bf.kqï- b.ekaùï ls%hdldrlï(

• ;u m%foaYfha jdhqf.da,hg jdhq uqod yefrk wdldr y÷kd .kakd f,i isiqkg
mjikak'
• ip, yd wp, m%Nj fjk fjk u ,ehsia;= .; lsÍug yd tajd mßirh flfrys
we;s lrk n,mEu y÷kd .ekSug isiqkg iydh jkak'
• jdhqf.da,Sh ¥IKhg tajdfha odhl;ajh idlÉPd lrkak'
• jdhqf.da,fha we;s ¥Il jdhq wju l< yels wdldrh ms<sn| idlÉPd lrkak'
• laf,dafrd*a¨fjdfrdldnka yd tajdfha Ndú; ms<sn| jeäÿr f;dr;=re /ia lrk
f,i isiqkg Wmfoia fokak'
282
ksmqK;dj 16'0 ( ridhk úoHd oekqu" mDÓú mßirh wjfndaO lr .ekSu
i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 16'3 ( c,f.da,h iy mdkSh c,h wmú;% ùu ms<sn| úu¾Ykh

lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 08 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² c, ¥Il m%Nj y÷kd .kshs'
² c,fha .=Kd;aul nj ms<sn| mrdñ;s yd tajd kshdukh lsÍfï l%u y÷kd .kshs'
² c,h msßisÿ lsÍfï l%u úia;r lrhs'
² úúO úIîc kdYk l%shdj,s úia;r lrhs'
úIh lreKq meyeos,s lr §ug w;aje,la (

² c, ¥Il m%Nj
² .Dyia: iy i;a;aj wmøjH
² frda.ldrl- nelaàßhd iy jhsri
² lD;%su ridhk øjH ^m<sfndaOkdYl" fmdfydr wdÈh&
² wj,ïì; >k wxY=
² nerf,day
² l¾udka;Yd,dj,ska ksl=;a flfrk WKqiqï c,h
c,fha .=Kd;aul nj
fN!;sl mrdñ;s
(i) WIaK;ajh
WIaK;ajh 40 0C g wvq úh hq;= h' WKq c,h ffcùh l%shd fõ.j;a lrhs'
th øú; Tlaiscka m%udKh wvq lrk w;r t khska c,c Ôùka flfrys
o n,mdhs'
(ii) pH w.h
mdßißl n,mEu
² pH w.h 6'0 - 9'0 w;r mrdih ;=< ñßosh uiqka f.a yd ks;,jdiS
wmDIaGjxYSka f.a (bottom dwelling invertebrates) Ôú;h iqrlaIs; h'
² jd;fha we;s CO2 yd SO2 jeks jdhqj, øjKh ksid o ld¾ñl wmjdy
ñY% ùu ksid o c,fha pH w.h fjkia fõ'
² m%fhdackj;a N+.; c,fha idudkH pH w.h 6'0 - 8'5 mrdifha msysghs'

pH w.h 6'5 g jvd wvq c,h wdï,sl jk w;r úLdol fõ' fï
wdï,sl;dj WodiSk lsÍug fidavd w`M fhdod .efka'
² lDIsl¾ufha § fvd,uhsÜ o Ndú; fõ' th fifuka c,fha wdï,sl;dj

WodiSk lrhs'
2H+(aq) + CaCO3.MgCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)
^fvd,uhsÜ&
283
(iii) ikakdhl;dj
² ikakdhl;dj" c,Sh ødjKhl úoHq;a Odrdjla ikakhkh lsÍfï yelshdj
ms<sn| ñkquls'
² ikakdhl;dj" my; oelafjk idOl u; /|S mj;S'
1' whkj, idkaøKh 2' whkj, ip,;dj
3' TlaislrK wjia:dj 4' c,fha WIaK;ajh
² ikakdhl;dj } 1
m%;sfrdaOh
ikakhk;dfjys tallh Ω -1 fyj;a S îSukaia& fõ'

fuh whksl n,fhys ñkqula jk kuqÿ bka mj;akd whk y÷kd .ekSula
fkd flf¾'
(iv) wdú,;dj
c,fha we;s wjidÈ; øjH c,dY m;=, fj; wdf,dalh úksúo hEu j<lhs'
fuh m%NdixYaf,aIK ls%hdj,sh wvd< lrk w;r ks¾jdhq mßirhla we;s
lrñka c,hg ÿ¾.kaOhla f.k fohs'
(v) øú; Tlaiscka m%udKh yd c,fha .=Kd;aul nj

² ijdhq Ôùka f.a mßjD;a;h
s i|yd Tlaic
s ka wjYH fõ' th we;eï ridhksl
m%;sl%shd flfrys o n,mdhs'
² jd;fha we;s Tlaiscka c,fha øjKh fõ' Tlaiscka ksmojk l%shdj,sh
jkafka m%NdixYaf,aIKh hs'
² WIaK;ajh by< h;a u øú; Tlaiscka idkaøKh wvq fõ'
² ksu.ak c,c Ydl (submerged green plants) yd w,af.a úiska Èjd ld,fha
§ c,dYj, øú; Tlaiscka m%udKh jeä flf¾'
² Èrd m;a jk ftkaøsh øjH c,dYj, Èhe ù we;s Tlaiscka mßfNdackh
lrhs'
² ridhksl Tlaiscka b,aü (COD)

² my; oelafjk ldnksl wmøjH TlaislrKh ridhksl jYfhka isÿ lsÍug
mg dm-3 j,ska wjYH Tlaic
s ka m%udKh ridhksl Tlaic
s ka b,aü f,i ye|skf
a õ'
² mdúÉÑ jk Tlaiscka m%udKh myiqfjka m%udKkh lsÍug fkd yels neúka

úoHd.dr ks¾Kh i|yd vhslfa rdafïÜ Ndú; flf¾' fuu ks¾Kkfha § ksheosh"
wdï,SlD; fmdgEishï vhslafrdafïÜ ødjKhla iu`. kgjkq ,efí' fuys oS
TlaislrKhg Ndck jk ish¨ ldnksl øjH vhslafrdafïÜ iu`. m%;sl%shd
lrhs' idudkHfhka is,aj¾ i,af*aÜ W;afm%arlhla f,i tl;= lrkq ,efí'
² Wla; ;;a;aj hgf;a vhslafrdafïgfhka c,fha wvx.= laf,darhsv" laf,daÍka
njg TlaislrKh úh yels h' tfy;a laf,darhsv" ú>gkh fkd jk" u'lshqßla
laf,darhsâ njg m;a lsÍfuka fuh j<lajkq ,efí' m%;sl%shd fkd jQ jeämqr
vhslafrdafïÜ m%udKh ks¾Kh lrkq ,nkafka whkaÎI& wefudakshï i,af*aÜ
iu`. wkqudmkh lsÍfuks'
284
² wï, udOHfha § (
² ldnksl øjH" wdï,sl vhslafrdafïgfhka TlaislrKh fõ kï ;
² ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,aü$ffcj Tlaiscka b,aü ^BOD&

(CHO)n(aq) + O2(g) xCO2(g) + yH2O(l)
laIqøÔùka úiska isÿ lrkq ,nk by; TlaislrKh i|yd wjYH Tlaiscka
m%udKh ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,aü hkqfjka ye|skafõ'
² ffcjridhksl Tlaiscka b,a¨fuys w.h ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd mdúÉÑ jQ øú;

Tlaiscka m%udKh fhdod .; yels h'
² ødú; Tlaiscka Ndú; lrk øjH" BOD w.h flfrys n,mdhs' ñksia yd i;a;aj
wmøjH" wdydr weiqreï" lïy,aj,ska bj; ,k oE" bj; ,k uia" ud`M wdoS ¥Il
t jeks øjH i|yd ksoiqka fõ'
² c, ksheoshla Tlaisckaj,ska ika;Dma; jQ l,ays ødú; Tlaisckaj, wdrïNl

idkaøKh ks¾Kh l< yels h' th 20 0C l WIaK;ajh hgf;a okakd ld,hla"
idudkHfhka osk myla îfc!IKh l< úg c,fha laIqøÔùyq ldnksl øjH
TlaislrKh lr;s' c,fha b;sß j we;s Tlaiscka m%udKh ueksh yels h' t
u`.ska wod< c,uQ,fha m%fhdackhg f.k we;s Tlaiscka m%udKh fyj;a BOD
w.h .Kkh l< yels h'
ødú; whksl ixfhda.

lÀk;ajh
² lÁk;ajhg fya;= jQfha ødú; whk j¾. hs' ^m%Odk jYfhka Ca2+ yd Mg2+&
fuys § Ca yd Mg whk m%Odk jYfhka ie,els,a,g ,la flfrk w;r
wfkl=;a f,dayj, ødjH;dj wvq neúka tajd fkd i,ld yef¾' tu ksid Ca
yd Mg mss<sn| muKla fuys § i,lkq ,efí' lÀk c,h fi!LHhg ydkslr
fkd fõ' fia§u i|yd jeä inka m%udKhla jeh ùu tys wjdishls' th Wvq
uKaä iEoSug fya;= jk w;r msiSfï § t<j`M oeä njg m;a lrhs' ;j o" th
fndhsf,arej, yd WKq c, ;dml yd k< ;=< Y,al ^scales) we;s ùug fya;= fõ'
iajdNdúl j N+.; c,fha ixhq;sh" Bg miqìï jQ N+ úoHdj" mdIdKh ;=< ksoka
j mej;s ld,h" N+.; c,fha mQ¾j ixhq;sh yd we;eï wjia:dj, .,d hk
ud¾.h u`.ska ;SrKh fõ' c,Orhla ^N+.; c,h ord .kakd iújr" mdr.uH
mdIdKhla& ;=< c,h .,d hkafka u;=msg c,h .,d hk fõ.hg jvd wvq
fõ.hlsks' t neúka ld,hla iu`. c,Orhla ;=< mj;akd c,fha ixhq;sh
fjkia jkafka fkd ie,lsh yels ;rï w,am f,i h'
Ca2+(aq) / Mg2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) → CaCO3(s) +MgCO3 (s) + CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
^Y,al&
285
hlv ^Fe&
² hlv f,damia iys; mdIdK ;Ügq c,fha wvx.= hlvj, m%d:ñl m%Njh fõ'
o¾YSh jYfhka hlv c,fha ødú; j mj;sk w;r u;=msgg f.k wd úg hlv
u, f,i wäfhys ;ekam;a fõ' Ôj;a ùu i|yd hlv u; hefmk" hlv
Tlaiys rKh lrk nelaàßhd ;j;a hlv m%Njhls' r;= meyeh" we÷ïj, me,a,ï
we;s lsÍu" f,dayuh rih yd c, k< moaO;sj, meyehla fjkia lsÍu hlv
wvx.= c,fha iq,n;u ,laIK fõ' fuhg fya;=j c,fha hlv idkaøKh
0.3 mg dm-3 g jvd jeä ùu hs' hlv ksid mdkSh c,fha rih fjkia fõ'
*a¨fjdrhsv ^F-&
² Y%S ,xldfõ úúO m%foaYj, N+.; c,fhys *a¨fjdrhsâ úúO m%udKj,ska yuq
fõ' iaÓr o;a tk iufhys" *a¨fjdrhsâ o;a flfrys n,mdkafka h' >¾u
l,dmSh rgj,a i|yd *a¨fjdrhsâ whk ixhq;sh 0'6 mg dm-3 fkd blauúh hq;=
h'
khsÜf¾g ^NO3-&
² khsÜf¾g m%Odk jYfhka N+.; c,fha yuq jk iq,n ¥Ilhls' reêrfha Tlaics ka
mßjyk l%hs dj,shg ndOd muqKjq k neúka" by< khsÜf¾Ü idkaøKh úfYaIfhka
udi yhg jvd wvq jhia we;s <orejkag ydksodhl fõ' khsÜf¾g ms<sld
ldrlhla o fõ' fmdfydrj, yd ñksia iy i;a;aj u,-uQ;%j, khsÜrcka
m%udKh wêl h' laIrKh u`.ska fïjd N+.; c, ixÑ; lrd mßjykh fõ'
úfYaIs; mdxY= nelaàßhd u`.ska wefudakshd" khsÜf¾g njg mßj¾;kh lrhs'
f*diaf*ag
² ridhksl fmdfydr yd lD;%su CId,l u`.ska c,hg f*diaf*aÜ whk tla fõ'
khsÜf¾Ü whk yd f*diaf*aÜ whk ksid c,fha iqfmdaIK ;;a;ajhla Woa.;
jk w;r bka w,af.a j¾Okh jeä flf¾' fuys m%;sM,hla f,i c,fha ødú;
Tlaiscka m%udKh my< jefÜ'
² c,h msßisÿ lsÍfï l%u

wjidokh yd fmÍu
² >k wxY=j, wj,ïnkhla" idkaø oshdrejla ^slurry& f,i fjka ùug ie,eiaùu
hs' wjidokfhka miq Wvq.sh ødjKh ^supernatant liquid& meyeos,s h'
² wmjdyh" c, ud¾.j,g uqod yef¾; ke;fyd;a oaú;shsl msßhulg Ndck
flf¾'
leá .eiSu
² úYd, c, iemhqï fhdackd l%uj, § we¨ñkshï ,jK ^we,ï& fhdod uv
iys; .x.d c,h leá.eiaúh yels h'
² c,h úYd, gexlsj, .nvd lr ;nd Al(III) fyda Fe(III) fyda fhdod leá
.eiaúh yels h'
² fuys § we¨ñkshï yhsâfrdlaihsvfha fyda whka(III) yhsâfrdlaihsvfha fyda
fc,ákSh wjlafIamhla iEfoa' th m;=,g ls|d nei ;ekam;a ùfï § o
wj,ïì; øjH o wjlafIamh iu`. frdka fndr f,i ;ekam;a fõ'
² je,s fmryka yryd c,h fifuka jEiaiSug i,ikq ,efí'
1' isyska je,s 2' o< je,s
3' fndr`M 4' .,a
286
² fmÍfï oS c,fha wj,ïì; wxY= yd laIqøÔùka bj;a fjhs' fndfyduhla
fmryka u`.ska c,fha we;s wys;lr ridhk øjH o neyer flfrhs'
úIîc kdYl l%shdj,sh

² laf,daÍka Ndú;h
Cl2 , ClO2 yd laf,dafrdweók úIîc kdYl f,i Ndú; lrhs' tajd nelaàßhd
úkdY lrkafka TlaislrKh u`.sks' wjfYaI laf,daÍka ;j ÿrg;a nelaàßhd
j¾Okh ùu j<lajhs' tfy;a w;sßla; laf,daÍka ldnksl øjH iu`. m%;sl%shd
lr g%hsfyaf,dafuf;aka yd laf,daßkSlD; *Sfkda, jeks ydkslr øjH idohs'
² ´fidaka Ndú;h
´fidaka o nelaàßhd úkdY lrkafka TlaislrKfhks' tfy;a th blaukska
úfhdackh fõ' nelaàßhdj,ska jeäÿrg;a wdrCId lsÍu ´fidaka u`.ska isÿ fkd
lrhs' t neúka ´fidakj,ska úIîc kdYkh lrk c,h blaukska m%fhdackhg
.; hq;= h' ;j o ´fidakj,ska w;=re wdndO we;s fkd jk ksid th ñksia
l%shdldrlï i|yd jvd fhda.H fõ' laf,daÍka fuka fkd j ´fidaka .nvd lr
;nd .ekSu wkjYH h' t fia u th myiqfjka ckkh l< yels h'
² mdrcïnq, lsrKj, Ndú;h

fï lsrK nelaàßhd yd jhsri hk fo fldÜGdih u úkdY lrhs' ´fidakj,ska
fia u fu u`.ska o nelaàßhdj,ska jeäÿr wdrCIdjla fkd ie,efia'

² c, ¥Il m%Nj y÷kd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² mka;sh lKavdhï ;=klg fnod tla tla lKavdhug c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh
ks¾Kh flfrk úp,H folla ms<sn| úuid ne,Sug fhduq lrkak'
² fuu idOl u`.ska c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh ks¾Kh jkafka fl fia oe hs idlÉPd
lsÍug iy úYaf,aIKh lsÍug bv i,ikak'
287
ksmqK;dj 16'0 ( ridhk úoHd oekqu" mDÓú mßirh wjfndaO lr .ekSu
i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d uÜgu 16'4 ( mi wmú;% ùu iy >k wmøjH ms<sn| úu¾Ykh lrhs'
ld,Éfþo ( 04 hs'
bf.kqï M, (
² iajdNdúl fhoejqï yd mfia ire nj úia;r lrhs'
² mdxY= ¥IK m%Nj y÷kd .kshs'
² lDIs ridhk øjH yd úoHq;a-wmøjH (e-wastes) y÷kd .kshs'
² wmøjH l<ukdlrK l%u úia;r lrhs'
úIh lreKq meyeÈ,s lr §ug w;aje,la

iajdNdúl fhoejqï yd mfia ire nj
² mi hkq m%fhdackj;a f,day" bkaOk yd Ydl fmdaIl hkd§ iajdNdúl m%d.aOkhla
f,i ie,elsh yels jeo.;a m%Njhls'
² fuu mdxY= iïm;a úúO iajdNdúl yd udkj l%shdj,s i|yd Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
² mi jeo.;a wmøjH .nvd ia:dkhla f,i l%shd lrñka mfia ire nj /l .kS'
² m%;splS%lrK l%shdj,sh f,dj mqrd taldldÍ f,i l%shd;aul fkd ùu wjdikdjls'
² we;eï m%foaYj, le<sli< f.dv .eiSfuka ydksodhl mßirhla ks¾udKh ù we;'
;j o" mi we;eï wjYH fmdaIlj,ska ySk h' t jeks wjia:dj, § mig lDIs
ridhk øjH jeks lD;%su øjH tl;= l< hq;= fõ'
² f.dv .eiS we;s wmøjHj,ska ydksodhl øjH CIrKh ùu ksid mfia ire nj
ydhkh fõ' th úúO Ôùka f.a meje;aug o ;¾ckhls'
mdxY= ¥Il m%Nj

ksfjiaj,ska neyer lrk wm øjH
² wdydruh wmøjH" ñksia nysi%dùh M," wm c,h" f. j;= li< yd ma,diaála øjH
fuhg we;=<;a fõ'
lDIsridhk øjH
m,sfndaO kdYl
² m,sfndaOlhska u¾Okh lsÍu" j<ld ,Su" úkdY lsÍu" m,jd yeÍu fyda n,mEu
wju lsÍu fyda i|yd Ndú; lrk øjH m,sfndaO kdYl hs' tajd m%Odk wdldr
folls'
² iajdNdúl m,sfndaO kdYl
fldfydU ksiaidrlh fï i|yd ksoiqkls'
² lD;%su m,sfndaO kdYl
² Ndú; jk m%Odk m,sfndaO kdYl j¾. jkqfha j,a kdYl yd lDñ kdYl hs'
² j.dj iu`. wdf,dalh iy fmdaIl i|yd ;r`. jÈk me<Eá" j,a kdYl u`.ska
úkdY lrkq ,nhs'
² lDñ kdYl u`.ska j.djg ydks muqKqjk lDñ i;=ka úkdY flf¾'
² lDñ m,sfndaOlhskag j.djg wdldr follska ydks isÿ l< yels h' f.dúhd úiska
wiajkq jYfhka fk<d .ekSug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk Ydl fldgia Tjqka úiska ld
oukq ,nhs' m;%j,g ydks lsÍfuka Ydl wdydr ksIamdok ls%hdj,shg n,mdkq ,nk
m%NdixYaf,aIKh wvd< flf¾'
288
² lDñ kdYl ^lD;%su& m%Odk ldKav ;=klg wh;a fõ'
² laf,daßkSlD; yhsâfrdldnk
kso( DDT ^vhslaf,dafrdvhsf*ks,a g%hslaf,dafrdtf;aka&
² ldnksl f*diafmag kso( fu,;shka
² ner f,day ,jK kso( fldm¾ vhs;fhdaldnfïÜ
² wdo¾Y m,sfndaO kdYlhl ;sìh hq;= ,laIK
² b,lal m,sfndaOh muKla úkdY lsÍu
² mßirfha oS yd mdxY= - c, moaO;sj, oS myiqfjka ffcj ydhkhg Ndckh ùu
² m,sfndaOfha m%;sfrdaO j¾Okh fkd lsÍu
² ñksidg úI fkd ùu yd ,dn odhl ùu
² m,sfndaO kdYl Ndú;fha oS u;= jk .eg¨
² wdydrj, m,sfndaO kdYl ;ekam;a úh yels h' th ñksidg ydkslr úh
yels h' wêl ud;%dj,ska fhoSfï oS úI úh yels h'
² l,a mj;sk m,sfndaO kdYlj, ffcj ixpdhkh fya;= fldg f.k wdydr
oduj, wkqhd; uÜgïj, tajdfha idkaøKh wkql%ufhka jeä fõ' t neúka
wjidk mqreflys m,sfndaO kdYl idkaøKh b;d by< úh yels h'
² m,sfndaO mßirhg ydks muqKqjhs' m,sfndaO kdYl fndfyda úg m,sfndaOh
muKla fkd j Wmøj rys; yd m%fhdackj;a Ôùka o úkdY lrhs'
² hï ld,mßÉfþohl oS m,sfndaOlhska" tu kdYlj,g m%;sfrdaë úh yels h'
we;eï m,sfndaO kdYl wLKav Ndú; lsÍu" iajdNdúl jrKh u`.ska m,sfndaO
kdYlh flrys olajk m%;f s rdaOh jeä lsÍug fya;= fõ' t úg m,sfndaO kdYlh
M, rys; fõ' m,sfndaO kdYl iajdNdúl úf,damSka o úkdY lrhs' fuhska
fmrg;a jvd jeä jHikhla isÿ úh yels h'
² udrl ud;%h - (Lethal Dose Value - LD50) m,sfndaO úfYaIhl .ykfhka 50] la
urKhg m;a lsÍug wjYH ridhksl ud;%dj udrl ud;%h f,i ye|skafõ'
² fmdfydr
² fmdfydrj,ska Ydlhlg wjYH Lksc yd fmdaIl iemefhk neúka tys
j¾Okh fõ.j;a flf¾' kso( NPK
² Ydlj,g jvd;a jeo.;a Lksc whk jkafka khsÜf¾Ü" f*diaf*aÜ yd
fmdgEishï h' fï yer w,am m%udKj,ska wjYH jk wxY= ud;% uQ,øjH o fõ'
fmdfydrl we;s NPK ixhq;sh N%, P2O5%, yd K2O%, f,i m%ldY flf¾'
² fmdfydr" iajdNdúl yd lD;%su hkqfjka fo j¾.hls' ta fo j¾.fhys u
tajdg wdfõKsl jdis we;'
² iajdNdúl fmdfydr ldnksl øjHj,ska iukaú; fõ'
² iajdNdúl fmdfydßka mq`M,a mrdihlg wh;a fmdaIl iemefhk w;r tajd
ksoyia jkafka l,a mj;sk m%;sM, we;s lrñka fifuks' tajd mßirhg
ydkslr jkafka wvqfjka jk w;r ldnksl j.d i|yd fhda.H h'
² iajdNdúl fmdfydr ,dnodhS fjhs'
² t fia u thska mfiys jHqyh ^jhkh& oshqKq fõ'
² ldnksl fmdfydr m%jdykhg yd fhoSug jeä uqo,la jeh jk w;r
fmdaIlj, m%Yia; ;=,khlska o f;dr h'
² lD;%su fmdfydr wldnksl fõ' tajdfha ixY=oaO ridhk øjH ^kso( NH4NO3)
l=vq fyda fm;s wdldrhg wka;¾.; fõ' Ndú; l< hq;af;a l=vd m%udKj,sks'
² lD;%su fmdfydr jyd l%shd;aul jk iq¨ h; fhoSug yd m%jdykhg myiq h'
b,lal .; Lksc whk iemehSu i|yd tajd fhdod .; yels w;r iemehsh
hq;= tla tla Lksc m%udKh ksje/os j md,kh lsÍug o yels h'
289
² lD;%su fmdfydr mfia ;=,H;dj flfrys n,mdhs' t fia u myiqfjka fiaoS
hEu ksid u;=msg c, m%Njj, iqfmdaIKhg fya;= fõ'
² lD;%su fmdfydr N+.; c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh flfrys n,mdhs'
ksoiqk - mfia khsÜf¾Ü m%udKh'
ner f,day
² mdúÉÑhg .;a yd wn,s f,day" mdúÉÑ lrk ,o WmlrK yd jdyk
² CISrKh jk ner f,day mdkSh c,hg tl;= jk w;r mi o ¥IKh lrhs'
² mdkSh c,h iy wdydr Tiafia YÍr .; jk ner f,day fi!LH .eg¨
.Kkdjlg fya;= fõ'
² Bhï jeks ner f,day YÍrh ;=< talrdYS ùu nqoaêh wvq lsÍug fya;= fõ'
úoHq;a-wmøjH (e-wastes)
² zúoHq;a-wmøjH hkq mdúÉÑ lrk ,o fyda l,a bl=;a jQ fyda mß.Kl"
bf,lafg%dksl WmlrK" cx.u ÿrl:k" rEmjdyskS" Yío úldYk moaO;s"
CFL n,an hkd§ úoHq;a$bf,lafg%dksl Wmdx. we;=¿ úoHq;a$bf,lafg%dksl
WmlrK yd tajdfha wu;r fldgiaj,ska neyer flfrk oE hs'
² úoHq;a wmøjH ksid we;s jk n,mEïj,g uqyqK §ug isÿ ù we;s ixj¾ê;
rgj,a" tajd wfkl=;a rgj,g neyer lsÍfuka .eg¨j ,sys,a lr .ekSug
jEhï lr;s'
² ;dCIKfha fõ.j;a fjkia ùu" wvq wdrïNl msßjeh yd blaukska h,amskQ
;;ajhg m;a ùu hk lreKq" zúoHq;-a wmøjHZ fõ.fhka j¾Okh jk .eg¨jla
njg m;a lr we;' fmr Èk bf,lafg%dksl isysk hka;%h wo Èk jk úg
mdßißl wdmodjla njg m;a ù we;'
² mß.Klhla l,a bl=;a ùfï idudkH ld,h wjqreÿ y;la jk w;r" rEmjdyskS
hka;%hla" YS;lrKhla yd frÈ fia§fï hka;%hla i|yd th wjqreÿ 15ls'
cx.u ÿrl:khla h,amskSfï idudkH ld,h wjqreÿ tlyudrla muKs'
² úoHq;a-wmøjH u`.ska ksoyia flfrk ydkslr ridhk øjH iuyrla kï
f,dayuh Bhï ^negß" mßm: mqjre" rEmjdyskS hka;%j, we;s lef;dav lsrK
k,&" riÈh ^WIaK;ajudk" WIaK;aj md,l" úi¾ck myka" ixfõol"
m%;sfhdacl yd iaúÉÑ&" leâñhï ^negß yd cx.u ÿrl:k&" fnß,shï
^mß.Kl" úoHq;a ÿrl:k WmlrK yd iajhxl%sh bf,lafg%dksl WmlrK&"
wdiksla ^wdf,dal úfudapl vfhdav&" fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhsâ ^mß.Kl
wdjrK yd flan,a& yd nyqlaf,daßkSlD; nhs*Skhs, ^mßKdul& wdÈh hs'
wmøjH l<ukdlrKh
3R l%uh ^Reduce, Reuse and Recycle - wju lsÍu" m%;sNdú;h yd
m%;p
s l%l
S rKh&
wju lsÍu yd m%;sNdú;

wmøjH /ia ùu wvq lsÍfï jvd;a u m,odhS l%uh jkafka tajd W;amdokh
je<elaùu hs' kj ksmehqula lsÍu i|yd w;suy;a øjH yd Yla;s m%udKhla
jeh fõ' ta i|yd fmdf<dfjka øjH ksiaidrKh l< hq;= h; ksmehqu
290
tl,ia l< hq;= h; ;j o th wf<ú lrk ia:dk fj; m%jdykh l< hq;=
h' fï wkqj iajdNdúl iïm;a iq/lSug" mßirh wdrCId lr .ekSug iy
ñ,uqo,a msßuid .ekSug we;s jvd;a u m,odhS ms<sfj; jkafka Ndú;h
wvq lsÍu iy h<s Ndú;hg .ekSu hs'
wfkl=;a ksIamdok i|yd wuqøjH f,i Ndú; lsÍu

² >k wmøjH fkdfhl=;a ksIamdok i|yd Ndú; l< yels h'
² iï moï lrk ia:dkj,ska neyer flfrk wmjdyfha wvx.= lafrdañhï iys;
wmøjH MgO fh§fuka Cr(OH)3 f,i wjfCIam l< yels w;r th iï
moï lsÍug u m%;sNdú; l< yels h'
Yla;s W;amdokh i|yd wuqøjH f,i Ndú; lsÍu

² úh<s le<sli< bkaOkhls' Y%S ,xldfõ le<sli<j,ska 80% la muK ldnksl
øjH fõ' tajd Yla;s ckkh i|yd Ndú; l< yels h'
(CH2O)n+ O2 CO2+ H2O + ;dmh
;dmh l¾udka; i|yd fhdod .; yels h'
m%;p
s l%l
S rKh
² wkjYH oE f,i i,ld neyer flfrk øjH tla /ia lr" meiqreï fldg"
kj ksIamdok njg m;a lsÍfï l%shdj,sh m%;spl%SlrKh hs' m%;spl%SlrKh
ksid m%cdjg;a" mßirhg;a" w;a jkafka ,dNhls'
² fndfyda rgj,a f.j,ska neyer flfrk wm c,h m%;spl%SlrKh lrhs' Y%S
,xldfõ we;eï l¾udka; uyd mßudK jYfhka N+.; c,h Ndú;hg .kakd
ksid c,h m%;spl%SlrKh lr ta i|yd fhdod .ekSug Èß.ekaùu fhda.H fõ'
ixhq;sh wkqj Y%S ,xldfõ le<sli<j,ska 80% la muK ldnksl øjHjk
neúka >k wmøjH úoHq;h ckkh lsÍu i|yd myiqfjka m%fhdackhg .;
yels h'
² f,day jákd iïm;ls' f,day wmøjH j<,d oukq fjkqjg tajd /ia fldg
m%;spl%SlrKh i|yd fhdod .ekSu m,odhS l%shdjls' ñka ,efnk m%;s,dN fo
wdldr fõ' mrK hlv tl;= fldg øj fldg kej; Ndú;h i|yd fhdod
.ekSfï § N+.; j we;s hlv ksê wdrCId fõ' wfkla w;ska wn,s hlv
m%;spl%SlrKhg wjYH Yla;sh" w¨;ska u ksêhlska hlv ,nd .ekSfï
l%shdj,shg wjYH jk Yla;shg jvd fnfyúka wvq h'
² ùÿre" lvodis yd ma,diaála o m%;spl%SlrKh l< yels h'
² Wla; øjH tla /ia lr" m%Nj wi, § u fjka flf¾ kï" m%;spl%SlrKh jvd
myiq fõ'
m%;spl%SlrK l%shdj,sfha jdis

² Yla;sh ixrCIKh ùu
² iajdNdúl iïm;a wdrCId ùu
² wmøjH neyer lsÍfï msßjeh wvq ùu
² th m%dfoaYSh wêldßj,g wdodhï ud¾.hla ùu
291
fldïfmdaiaÜ lsÍu
wuq^fkd úhe¿Kq& Ydl ffcjialkaOhl C:N wkqmd;h 100(1 ls' >k wjia:dfõ
we;s ldnksl øjH laIqøÔùka ^nelaàßhd yd os,Sr& úiska úfhdackh lrkq ,nk
w;r tys oS we;s jk yshquiaj, C:N wkqmd;h 10(1 ls' mfiys we;s ldnksl
øjHj, wkqmd;h by< kï" ldnksl øjH úfhdackh lrñka fmdaIl
m%;spl%SlrKh lrk Ôùka f.a .=Kkh md,kh lrk idOlh khsÜrcka úh
yels h' mig msÿre ^C:N wkqmd;h } 80(1& tl;= flf¾ kï idudkHfhka C:N
wkqmd;h my< oeóu i|yd khsÜrckSh fmdfydrla tl;= flf¾' C:N wkqmd;h
wvq lsÍug fldïfmdaiaÜ lsÍu o fhdod .; yels h' fldïfmdaiaÜ f.dvla ;=<
f;;ukh yd jd;h iu`. ldnksl øjH .nvd lr ;eîfï oS ldnka vfhdlaihsâ
yd c,h neyer jk w;r" khsÜrcka" laIqøÔùka f.a weuhsfkda wï, yd fm%daàk
f,i b;sß fõ' fldïfmdaiaÜj,g fmdfydr tl;= lsÍu laIqøÔù .ykh jeä
lr osrdm;a ùfï fõ.h by< kexùug fya;= fõ'
Ôj jdhq ksIamdokh
o¾YSh jYfhka Ôj jdhqj hkq Tlaiscka rys; mßirhl ldnksl øjH ì|
fy<Sfï § ksmofjk jdhqjls' ñh .sh Ydl iy i;a;aj fldgia" i;a;aj u, yd
uq¿;eka f.j,ska neyer flfrk li< jeks ldnksl wmøjH wdÈh Ôj jdhq
bkaOkh ksmoùu i|yd Ndú; l< yels h' Ôj jdhqfõ iïNjh ftkaøsh
øjHhla jk neúka th ffcj bkaOkhls'
Ôj jdhqj ksmojkqfha ffcj ydhkhg Ndckh úh yels ffcjialkaO" fmdfydr"

u, wmjyk" kd.ßl li<" yß; wmøjH" Ydl øjH iy fnda. hkdÈfhys
ks¾jdhq Ô¾Kh fyj;a meiùu u`.sks' m%Odk fldg u Ôj jdhqj iukaú;
jkqfha fuf;aka jdhqfjks' ta iu`. tys ldnkavfhdlaihsâ jdhqj o c, jdIam
iy w,am jYfhka yhsârcka i,a*hsâ jdhqj wdÈh o wka;¾.; fõ'
fhdað; bf.kqï-b.ekaùï l%shdldrlï

² m%foaYfha mdxY= ¥IKhg fya;= jk ldrl y÷kd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² ùÿre" ma,diaála yd lvodis tl;= lsÍfï uOHia:dkhla we/öug isiqka fhduq
lrkak' fjka lrk ,o >k wmøjH tys f.keú;a ndr §ug isiqka Èß .kajkak'
² mdi, i|yd fhda.H >k wmøjH l<ukdlrK moaO;shla ixj¾Okh lsÍug isiqka
fhdojkak'
² mi yd c,dY flfrys ;Èka n,mdk lDIs-ridhk øjH yd l¾udka; ms<sn|
f;dr;=re /ia lrkakg isiqka fhduq lrkak'
² úoHq;a-wmøjH ms<sn| ;lafiare lsÍu i|yd úoHq;a yd bf,lafg%dksl WmlrKj,
Ôj ld,h ms<sn| o;a; f.dkq lsÍug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
292
mdi, mokï lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skaùu
bf.kqu-b.ekaùu iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%h s dj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekaùfuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= úiska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixj¾Okh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixj¾Okh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isÿjk& we.hSï
uq,O¾u wkqj we.hSu isÿúh hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekaùu flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kqï-b.ekaúï l%shdj,sh wdrïNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk ´kEu wjia:djl
oS isÿúh yels nj f;areï .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kqï m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekaùu iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixúOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mokï lr.;a we.hSï jevms<sfj, yqÿ úNd. l%uhla fyda mÍlaIK meje;aùula fyda
fkdfõ' th y÷kajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekaùu;a jeä oshqKq
lsÍu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ùula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag móm j isáñka Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy ÿn,;d y÷kdf.k tajdg ms<shï fhdoñka isiqkaf.a Wmßu j¾Okh <Õd lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kqï-b.ekaùï l%shdldrlï ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"

.=rejrhd isik
q a w;r .ejfiñka Tjqka bgqlrk ld¾h ksÍlaIKh lrñka ud¾f.damfoaYl;ajh
imhñka lghq;= lsÍu mdi, mokï lr.;a we.hSï jevms<f s j, l%h
s d;aul lsÍfï oS wfmalI
a d
flf¾' fuys oS YsIHhd ksr;=re j we.hSug ,laúh hq;= w;r" YsIH yelshd ixj¾Okh
wfmalaIs; wkaoñka isÿjkafka oehs .=rejrhd úiska ;yjqre lrkq ,eìh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekaùu u.ska isÿúh hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelSï ,nd foñka tajd isiqka
úiska ksis mßos w;am;a lr f.k ;sfí oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis ud¾f.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSfï ^;lafiare lsÍfï& fhoS isák .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
ud¾f.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu ud¾f.damfoaY fmdÿfõ y÷kajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
^Feedback& yd bosß fmdaIKh ^Feed Forward& hkqfjks' isiqkaf.a ÿn,;d yd fkdyelshd
wkdjrKh lr.;a úg Tjqkaf.a bf.kqï .eg¨ u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
yelshd iy m%n,;d y÷kd .;a úg tu olaI;d jeä oshqKq lsÍug bosß fmdaIKh;a ,nd oSu
.=re ld¾hh fjhs'
bf.kqï-b.ekakï q l%hs dj,sfhaa id¾:l;ajh i|yd mdGud,dfõ wruqKq w;frka ljr wruqKq
ljr uÜgñka idlaid;a l< yels jQfha oehs y÷kd .ekSu isiqkag wjYH fjhs' we.hSï
jevms<fs j, Tiafia isikq a <.d lr .;a m%ùK;d uÜgï ksYp
a h lsÍu fï wkqj .=rejrekaf.ka
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk w;r isiqka yd fouõmshka we;=¿ fjk;a wod< md¾Yjj,g isiq m%.;sh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re ikaksfõokh lsÍug .=rejreka fhduqúh hq;= h' fï i|yd fhdod.; yels
fyd| u l%uh jkafka ika;;sl j isiqka we.hSug md;% lsÍug bv m%ia:d i,ik mdi,
mokï lr.;a we.hSï l%uhhs'
293
hf:dala; wruqK iys; j l%shd lrk .=rejreka úiska ;u b.ekakqï l%shdj,sh;a isiqkaf.a
bf.kqï l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ld¾hlaIu lsÍu msKsi jvd fyd| ld¾hlaIu;dfjka hqla;
bf.kqï" b.ekakqï iy we.hSï l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' fï iïnkaOfhka isiqkag iy
.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fõY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fïjd fndfyda
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; úNd. fomd¾;fïka;=j úiska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh úiska
o f;dr;=re iïmdokh lrk ,o l%ufõo fjhs' tfyhska tajd iïnkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a ù we;ehs wfmalaId flf¾' tu m%fNao fufiah(
01' mejreï 02' jHdmD;s
03' iólaIK 04' .fõIK
05' ksÍlaIK 06' m%o¾Yk$ bosßm;a lsÍu
07' lafIa;% pdßld 08' flá ,sÅ; mÍlaIK
09' jHQy.; rpkd 10' újD; .%ka: mÍlaIK
11' ks¾udKd;aul l%shdldrlï 12' Y%jK mÍlaIK
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlï 14' l:kh
15' iaj ks¾udK 16' lKavdhï l%shdldrï
17' ixl,am is;shu 18' oaú;aj c¾k,
19' ì;a;s mqj;am;a 20' m%Yak úpdrd;aul jevigyka
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a 22' újdo
23' idlÉPd uKav, 24' iïuka;K %
25' laIKsl l:d 26' N+ñld rx.k
y÷kajd oS we;s fuu bf.kqï" b.ekakqï iy we.hSï l%u iEu tllau iEu úIhhla
iïnkaOfhka ieu úIhh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u
úIhhg" úIh tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a úh hq;=h; j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
fuu .=re ud¾f.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kqï m%.;sh ;lafiare lsÍu
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kqï-b.ekakqï yd we.hSï m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sfí' tajd
.=rejreka úiska iqÿiq mßos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsÍu msKsi fhdod .;
hq;= fjhs' tajd Ndú; fkdfldg u. yeÍu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfõoksl
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| j¾Okhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%o¾Ykh lsÍu;a
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'
294
bf.kqï" b.ekaùï yd we.hSï ls%hdj,sh §¾> lsÍfï WmlrK - 12 fYa%Ksh
1'0 we.hSï wjia:dj ( jdrh 1" WmlrKh 01

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 1'1 isg 1'5 olajd
3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( Wm mrudKql wxY= wkdjrKh lr .ekSfï
fyda uQ,øjH j¾.SlrKfha fyda b;sydih
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idys;H úu¾Ykh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • úúO ikaksfõok udOH Ndú;fhka bf.kqï
b.ekaùu i|yd yqrej ,nd §u'
• úoHd{hskaf.a ld¾h Ndrh meiiqug
,lalsÍug fhduq lsÍu'

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 1'4
3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( úIh ks¾foaYfha wod< ikaOdrh
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • úúO ikaksfõok udOH Ndú;fhka bf.kqï
b.ekaùu i|yd yqrej ,nd §u'
• ksmqK;d uÜgug wod< ikaOdrh ms<sn| oekqu"
wjfndaOh yd Ndú;h by< kexùu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ixl,am is;shï
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • m%d:ñl wdl¾IK n, j¾.SlrKh ms<sn|
oekqu yd wjfndaOh jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( isiq ks¾udK m%o¾Ykh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • ¨úia jHQy yd ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak
hq.,a úl¾IKjdoh weiqfrka wKqj, yev
mqfrdal:kh lr iqÿiq øjH f;dard .ksñka
tajdfha wdlD;s ks¾udKh lsÍu'
295
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ridhksl .Kkh lsÍu
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • wKq yd mrudKq iïnkaO fN!;sl rdYs fhdod
.ksñka ridhksl iq;% f.dv kexùu'
• ñY%Kj, ixhq;s úúO wdldrj,ska m%ldY lsÍu'
• wod< ksh; fhdod .ksñka rdidhksl
.Kkhka isÿ lssÍu'
• ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK wdYS%; .Kkhka isÿ
lsÍu
1'0 we.hSï wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 WmlrKh 01

3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( úIh ks¾foaYhg wod< ikaOdrh
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%Yak úpdrd;aul jevigyk
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • mod¾:fha wjia:d ms<sn|j yd úfYaIfhka u
jdhq ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh jeä ÈhqKq
lsÍu'
• wNsfhda.d;aul m%Yak ilia lsÍfï l=i,;d
,nd §u'
• m%Yak úpdrd;aul jevigykla fufyhùfï
yelshdj ixj¾Okh lsÍu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%YAK iy ms<s;=re fmd;a
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • mrsmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh weiqfrka jdhq ms<sn|
.Kkhla isÿ lsÍfï l=i,;d jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( .Kkh lsÍï
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • tka;e,ams rEm igyka yd ;dm ridhksl pl%
Ndú;fhka úúO ls%hdj,s wdYS%; tka;e,ams
úm¾hdi .Kkh lsÍfï yelshdj jeä ÈhqKq
lsÍu'
• fndaka - ydn¾ pl%h wdOdrfhka whksl
ixfhda.hl iïu; W;amdok tka;e,amsh
.Kkh lsßfï yelshdj jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu
296
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mÍCIK
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjHj, ridhksl
m%;sls%hd" ixfhda.j, ;dm ia:dhSs;dj yd c,fha
øjH;dj ms<sn| mÍCId lsÍfï yelshdj ,nd§u'
• ridhk øjH yd ridhkd.dr WmlrK Ndú;h
ms<sn| l=i,;d ixj¾Okh lsÍu'

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 6'6 iy 6'7
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl mÍCIK
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • CrO42-, Cr2O72- yd MnO4-hk Tlais
wekdhkj, Tlaisldrl f,i yeisÍfï
yelshdj mÍCId lsÍu'
• ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, j¾Kh flfrys n,mdk
idOl ks¾Kh lsÍu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idlÉPd uKav,
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • úúO fCIa;%j,ska ksoiqka f.k yer olajñka
ffoksl ðú;fha § ldnksl ridhkh jeo.;a
jk wkaou u;= lr,Su'
• idlÉPdjlg iïnkaO ù woyia m<lsÍfï
yelshdj m%.=K lsÍu'

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ixl,am is;shu
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • ldnksl ridhk úoHdfõ ks¾foaYhg wod<
iudjhúl;dj ms<sn| wjfndaOh m%.=K lsÍu'
• iudjhúl jHQy w;r mj;akd úúO;ajh y÷kd
.ekSug fhduq lsÍu'
297
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 8'3< 8'4" 9'1" 9'2" 10'1 yd 10'4
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( ixl,am is;shu
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • ldnksl ridhk úoHdfõ we;s m%;sls%hd j¾.
y\qkd .ekSu
• m%;sls%hd j¾. .ek wjfndaOhla ,nd f.k tajd
ms<sn| ikaikaokd;aulj úuid ne,Su'

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 10'1" 10'2" 10'4 yd 10'6
4'0 WmlrK iajNdjh ( m%o¾Yk
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh m%o¾Ykhla
weiqßka bÈßm;a lsÍu'
• ;ud ,o oekqu úúO l%uYs,am Tiafia wka whg
,nd§ug fhduq lsÍu'

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 10'1" 10'2 yd 10'3
3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( fjkalr y÷kd .ekSfï mÍCId Ndiañl;d
iei£u'
4'0 WmlrK iajNdjh ( m%Yak úpdrd;aul jev igyk
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • m%;sls%hd ms<sn| wjfndaOh weiqfrka ixfhda.
fjkalr y÷kd .ekSu ms<sn| oekqu yd
wjfndaOh jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu'
• m%Yak úpdrd;aul jev igyklg iyNd.sùfï
yd fufyhùfï yelshdj ixj¾Okh lsÍu'
298
bf.kqï" b.ekaùï yd we.hSï ls%hdj,sh §¾> lsÍfï WmlrK - 13 fYa%Ksh

3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( úIh ks¾foaYhg we;=<;a ikaOdrh
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( nqoaê uKav, idlÉPd
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • tosfkod Ôú;fha w;aú|sk l%shdj,sj, YS>%;d
iei|Su
• idlÉPdjlg iyNd.sùfï oS woyia m< lsÍfï
l=i,;dj ixj¾Okh lsÍu'

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 12'2" 13'1" 13'5 iy 13'6
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( .Kkh lsrSu
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • YS>%;d kshuh weiqßka .Kkh lsÍu
• fok ,o moaO;shla i|yd iu;=,s;;d kshuh
fhoSu yd .Kkh lsÍu'
• wï," Niau yd ,jK ødjK pH w.h .Kkh
lsÍu'
• fykav¾ika iólrKh weiqßka .Kkh lsÍu

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlï
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • úúO iu;=,s; moaO;s wdY%s; j m%dfhda.sl
l%shdldrlï lsÍfï yelshdj ,ndoSu'
• ridhk øjH yd ridhkd.dr WmlrK Ndú;
lsÍfï l=i,;d ixj¾Okh lsÍu'
1'0 we.hSï wjia:dj ( jdrh 2 WmlrKh 01

5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • m%d:ñl yd oaú;shsl fldaI ms<sn| .fõIKh
lsÍu'
• tu fldaIj, ld¾hlaIu;d iei|Su'
299
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • f,day úoHq;a ridhksl fYa%Ksfha msysgk
ia:dkh yd tajdfha ksiaidrKh w;r mj;sk
iïnkaO;d y÷kd.ekSu'
• ffoksl cSú;fha oSúoHq;a f,daydf,amkfha
Ndú; y÷kd .ekSu

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl jev
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • Ydl m;% ksiaidrlhl wvx.= j¾Kl lvodis
lvodis j¾Kf,aL Ys,amh u.ska fjka lsÍu'
• myka is`M mÍlaIdj u`.ska f,day whk y÷kd
.ekSu

5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • ,xldfõ l¾udka; ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh
jeä oshqKq lsÍu
• wNsfhda.d;aul .eg`M ilia lsÍfï l=i,;dj

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d uÜgï ( 16'1 isg 16'4
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • mdrißl iu;=,s;dj mj;ajd .ekSfï
jeo.;alu u;= lsÍu
• idlÉPdjl oS woyia m< lsÍfï l=i,;dj
oshqKq lsÍu

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlï
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( • m%dfhda.sl mÍlaId c,fha .=Kd;aul nj
ks¾Kh lsÍu
• mdßißl jYfhka c,fhys jeo.;alu wjfndaO
lsÍu
• ridhk øjH yd ridhkd.dr WmlrK Ndú;
lsÍfï l=i,;d ixj¾Oh lsÍu
300

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