INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE LITERATURE

- China possesses one of the world's major literary traditions. Its texts have been preserved for over 3,000 years.
Reverence for the past has influenced the preservation of these cultural sources, and may have influenced the invention
of woodblock printing in the 9th century and moveable type printing in the 12th century. The practice of collecting and
reproducing libraries has also played a major role in the transmission of literary tradition

-The principal genre of Chinese literature is poetry; early folk songs established the shi (shih) form that crystallized
during the Han dynasty and dominated for the next 1,200 years. Beginning with the simple complaints and longings
expressed in rhymed couplets of folk songs, this form gradually became more and more complex, or "regulated," until it
took years of study to master its formal rules of composition.

-The short story- which began to develop during the Tang dynasty, at first emphasized either historical events or
supernatural happenings which could not be related in a formal historical work. The notion of fiction as connected to
history persisted, yet more imaginative and rationally inexplicable, culminating in China's greatest novel, The Dream of
the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone, which is at once autobiographical and realistic, and at the same time
imaginative and mystical.

-Drama- one of China's least well-developed genres, had its origins also in popular entertainment. The high point of elite
drama was during the Yuan dynasty, when intellectuals dispossessed by the Mongol invaders turned to the composition
of drama both to productively employ their taste and erudition and also to covertly criticize the foreign government.
During the following centuries, dramas tended to become longer, and the opera dominated. Spoken drama was not
generally conspicuous until the 20th century.

-By the beginning of the 20th century, the movement to modernize and westernize China's literature became very
popular. The formal classical language, which by then survived only in written texts, was replaced by the vernacular
spoken language as a literary medium.

-In 1942 Mao Zedong, in his "Talks at Yenan on Literature and Art," emphasized to his fellow communist revolutionaries
that the goal of literature was neither to reflect the dark side of society nor to express the author's own private feelings
or artistic inspirations. During the Cultural Revolution period (1966-76), Mao's principle that literature and art should
serve the people and promote socialism was most rigidly adhered to. The fiction of Hao Ran (Hao Jan) constitutes an
excellent example of this tendency.

Development of Chinese Literature

Shang Dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC) — Development of Chinese Writing

The first dynasty for which there is historical record and archaeological evidence is the Shang Dynasty. It was a small
empire in northern central China. No documents from that country survive, but there are archaeological finds of
hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and oracle bones.

Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC) — Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature

The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis for Chinese religious and social belief stem
from what is called the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian
literature, and other prominent religious and philosophical schools all emerged during these two periods.

Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) — Literary Disaster and Legalism

An early form of Buddhism was also established in China at that time, but their temples and literature were destroyed
and even less is known about them. The emperor wanted to reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he
approved. He ordered the destruction of most books all over the empire. He even killed many Confucian philosophers
and teachers. He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or agriculture to survive. So the “Book Burning and
Burial of Scholars” was a literary disaster.

Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) — Scientific and Historical Texts

Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of China from before the Shang
Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The book’s prose was considered a model for writers in succeeding dynastic eras.
Another important historical text concerned the Han Dynasty itself.

Tang Dynasty (618-907) — Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry

The Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the west along the Silk Road, battled with the Tibetan
Empire, and experienced the growing influence of organized Buddhist religions. This era’s main contribution to Chinese
literature was in the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets. Dufu and Li Bai are often thought of as China’s greatest
poets.

Song Dynasty (960-1279) — Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry, Scientific Texts and the Neo-
Confucian Classics

The next dynasty is called the Song Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the imperial government officials
made remarkable scientific and technical advances.

Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC) — Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature

The Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they conquered the Shang Dynasty. Their
dynasty lasted for about 800 years, but for most of the time, their original territory was broken up into dozens of
competing kingdoms, and these finally coalesced into several big and warring kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) — Novels

It interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics called Journey to the West about a monk going to India
was written during this time of isolation. Maybe the thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then.
Novels were the era’s main contribution.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) — Novels and Pre-modern Literature

The Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty called the Qing Dynasty. The
Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-Confucian governing system of the Song and Ming eras.

Modern Era (1912-present) — Westernized Literature

Sun Yat-sen led a revolution that marked the end of Chinese dynasties in which a clan rules an empire. Of course, the big
change of Chinese society that happened with the change of government led to a change in literature.
 The Analects of Confucius

Compiled by disciples of Confucius in the centuries following his death in 479 B.C.E., The Analects of Confucius is a
collection of aphorisms and historical anecdotes embodying the basic values of the Confucian tradition: learning,
morality, ritual decorum, and filial piety. Reflecting the model eras of Chinese antiquity, the Analects offers valuable
insights into successful governance and the ideal organization of society.

 Confucius's teachings focus on cultural and peaceful pursuits and the characteristics of benevolent and culturally
distinguished government.
 The Analects of Confucius has shaped the thought and customs of China and neighboring countries for centuries.

Analects includes twenty books, each generally featuring a series of chapters that encompass quotes from Confucius,
which were compiled by his disciples after his death.

1. Book I serves as a general introduction to the various disciples in the work.

2. Book II deals largely with issues of governance.
3. Book III and IV are seen as the core texts, outlining Confucius's ideology.

Much of the work concerns itself with the concept of the Tao or the Way, the chun-tzu or the gentleman, Li or ritual, Te
or virtue, and Jen or goodness. There are additional terms in the work, but these comprise the core concepts.

WORKS OF CHINESE POETS (LI PO, LAO TZU, WANG WEI)

LI PO

Li Po ( Li Pai, Li Tʾai-pai), (701–62). Chinese Taoist poet. Although he spent a short period in Chʾangan (Sian/Xiʾan) as a
court writer (742–4), he spent most of his life wandering. Tradition makes him one of the ‘eight immortals of the wine
cup’, and he himself interpreted his wild behaviour as arising from the fact that he was ‘a banished immortal’: these are
immortals who do some wrong in heaven and are banished to earth for a life-time. Whatever the source, his poems
express a strong ecstasy, as well as sympathy with the misfortunes of others. He remains a very popular poet.

He is one of the most popular Chinese poets, was noted for his romantic songs on wine, women, and nature. His writings
reflect the grandeur of the T'ang dynasty at the height of its prosperity.

THE SUMMARY OF LI PO'S POEMS

"ALONE AND DRINKING UNDER THE MOON"

Li Po’s “Drinking Alone Beneath the Moon” celebrates spring, drinking wine, and achieving spiritual awareness. Li Po
himself was notorious for his consumption of wine, heralding it as creative inspiration for all of his artistic endeavors. In
the poem, Li Po takes readers through a series of claims that favor wine, giving it divine qualities and the blessing of the
heavens and earth.
 "BRINGING IN THE WINE"

Bring in the Wine” is one of his most famous works and filled with passionate spirits. With heartfelt love for drinking, Li
Bai saw alcohol as a blessing, not a sin. This poem describes his manic state of mind after drinking wine, during which he
forgot his existence, disgrace, and frustration temporarily.

"BEFORE THE CASK OF WINE"

Before The Cask of Wine’ is a beautiful lyric that emphasizes enjoying one’s youthful hours to the fullest. As one can’t
savor those moments in old age.

Lao Tzu

The name by which he is known is not a personal name but an honorific title meaning 'Old Man' or 'Old Master' and the
debate continues as to whether an individual by that name ever existed or whether Lao-Tzu is an amalgam of many
different philosophers.Lao-Tzu (l. c. 500 BCE, also known as Laozi or Lao-Tze) was a Chinese philosopher credited with
founding the philosophical system of Taoism. He is best known as the author of the Laozi (later retitled the Tao-Te-Ching
translated as “The Way of Virtue” or “The Classic of the Way and Virtue”) the work which exemplifies his thought.

THE FAMOUS WORK OF LAO TZU

The Tao-Te-Ching
In Chinese, “tao” means “path,” “te” means “virtue,” “ching” means “ancient text.” So this book is an ancient Chinese
text that lays out the path to virtue (in the eyes of the likely mythical Lao Tzu). It reads something like the Bible from an
ideas perspective, but with a definite zen/anti-establishment lean. Despite being contrarian for its time, it leaves the
reader with a calm, soothed feeling, not agitation.

The Tao Te Ching summary

The Tao Te Ching is basically everybody's handy guide to Taoism. These eighty-one short chapters cover the ways of the
"Way" and lay out all the main ideas of one of the world's most old-school philosophies.
The main attraction in the TTC is the Tao itself, which is the great flow of everything—like everything. The Tao is the
mysterious, unnamable process through which everything in the Universe happens. Throughout the book, the great Tao
is held up as an example of how we all should try to live our lives.
The TTC tells us that the Tao has a ton of virtues; it's humble, non-judgmental, generous, flexible, and peaceful (for the
most part). The Tao is also the master at wu wei, or "unattached action," and if a person practices this as well, they can
effortlessly succeed in life. In the mind of the TTC, it's only through personal discipline and by releasing desire that we
can find these virtues and reach enlightenment in oneness with the Tao.
 WANG WEI

Wang Wei (701-761 C.E.) is often spoken of, with his contemporaries Li Po and Tu Fu, as one of the three greatest poets
in China’s 3,000-year poetic tradition. Of the three, Wang was the consummate master of the short imagistic landscape
poem that came to typify classical Chinese poetry. He developed a landscape poetry of resounding tranquility wherein
deep understanding goes far beyond the words on the page—a poetics that can be traced to his assiduous practice of
Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism.

Wang Wei (699-761)' is one of the great poets. His distinction would no doubt be more widely recognized, outside China
and Japan, had he not flourished during a period universally regarded as one in which Chinese poetry reached a zenith,
dominated by the reputations of Li Po (701-62) and Tu Fu (712-70). Their passions were overt: Li Po's might be called a
kind of romanticism, Tu Fu's, in modern parlance, 'involvement. Their poetry may speak more directly to western people
today than that of the inwardly passionate, contemplative Wang Wei, But this situation is perhaps even now changing.

THE CONCEITED COACHMAN

"The Conceited Coachman"

Once there was a coachman whose duty was to drive the carriage of Yen Tzu, The prime minister of the state of Chi. One
day, The coachman's wife saw her husband from their gate, looking very proud and conceited as he drove the four
horses. he sat with his head high, looking very much like a prince as he sat under the great carriage awning. When
coachman went home, his wife told him she wanted to leave him.

"But why?" asked the coachman husband. He could not recall any misdeed has done which could cause her to leave
him. "Yen Tzu is prime minister of Chi," she replied. "He is famed through out the state. But I saw him today,deep in
thought and not giving himself any airs. You are only a coachman, yet you looked so conceited and so pleased with
yourself. That's why I wanted to leave you, replied his wife.

After this, her husband behaved more modestly. When Yen Tzu surprise at his change, inquired the reason for his,
this coachman told him the truth. Then Yen Tzu recommended him for an official post or promotion.

Criticism:

The story above is a folktale. Folktales are the traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, passed
through the generations by word of mouth. A body of popular myth and beliefs relating to a particular place, activity, or
group of people. As we can notice the story came from China. It shows how important are the wives to their husbands in
China. It is their culture for the husbands to love and obey their wives. The Conceited Coachman showed a very nice
culture of China.
A LITTLE INCIDENT

The story "A Little Incident" was written by Lu Hsun. He was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet and literary critic. In this
story, the writer narrates the mentality of people who are not aware of others pains and sufferings. Even they are not
ready to listen and help them. In this materialistic world, people mind are occupied by technology. This leads to the un
empathetic situations in the world. The writer tries to convey the importance of empathy and helping tendency by one
little incident.

The Incident in Narrator’s Life:

The narrator talks about an incident that happened in six years before when he came to the capital from the village.
During that time, many events are occurred known as ”affairs of the state”. In our life we had seen or heard lot of things
that changed and affected our heart but most probably we doesn’t have a strong impact on them and we forget that
events by the running of time. But one little incident alone is deep with meaning to the narrator. He is unable to forget
the incident even now. The narrator begins, it was a winter day in the sixth year of the Republic and a strong Northern
wind blew furiously. He had to be wake up early and on the way to duties and encountered rarely anyone. After much
difficulty, he finally succeeded in hiring a rickshaw. He told the puller to take him to the southern gate. The wind
moderated its fury and its wake the streets were left clean of the loose dust. The puller ran quickly and approached near
to the south gate. At the time, somebody ran in front of them and got entangled in the rickshaw and fell down to the
ground.