ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. Study of physical properties and identification of rock forming minerals referred

under theory.
2. Study of physical properties and identification of economic minerals referred
under theory.
3. Megascopic and microscopic identification of rocks & minerals
4. Megascopic and microscopic description and identification of igneous rocks
referred under theory.
5. Megascopic and microscopic description and identification of sedimentary rocks
referred under theory.
6. Megascopic and microscopic description and identification of metamorphic rocks
referred under theory.
7. Interpretation and drawing of sections for geological maps showing tilted beds,
faults, unconformities etc.
8. Geological cross sections and study of geological maps.
9. Simple Structural Geology problems.
10. Simple strike and Dip problems.
11. Study of models of geological structures and out crops patterns of different types
of rocks and land forms
MINERALS
Mineral
A mineral is a natural, inorganic, solid, homogeneous substance with definite chemical
composition and regular atomic structure (i.e., crystalline). Most of the minerals satisfy this
concept while a few exceptions also are there. [Common exceptions are: Some gemstones are
synthetic (i.e., not natural) Coal, Petroleum, Amber are organic; Petroleum, Natural gas,
Mercury are not solids; Amethyst, Fluorite show color variation (i.e., they are not
homogeneously), Isomorphs of Feldspars and Garnets do not have definite composition,
Limonite, Wad, and Bauxite are not crystalline). However, such exceptions are only a few.

Types of Minerals:
Minerals are grouped as Rock Forming Minerals and Economic Minerals. Rock forming
minerals are abundant and make up the common rocks. These are responsible for the virtues
of rocks. Economic minerals are of two kinds, namely:

Metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals: Metallic minerals like Hematite, Chromite,
Galena etc., are the common ore minerals. Non-metallic minerals are like Mica, Asbestos,
Talc, and Graphite. Though economic minerals are valuable, they do not have any civil
engineering importance because they are uncommon and hence do not influence the
properties of rocks. Hence study of rock forming minerals is more important from Civil
Engineering point of view.

Methods of Study of Minerals

Generally, the minerals are studies based on their atomic structure (X-ray analysis), chemical
composition (chemical analysis), optical properties (microscopic study) and physical
properties.

Laboratory Method of Study:

In the Laboratory, the minerals are described and identified based on their physical
properties. Physical properties are the simple observations made for a mineral (hand specific)
such as its shape, color, shining, hardness, density, transparency etc. These properties of a
mineral occur not by chance or coincidence but because of its definite chemical composition
and regular atomic structure which are distinctive and unique for any mineral. Hence study of
physical properties is very useful in mineral identification.
Advantages:
This method has many advantages as follows:
1. It is the simplest and immediate inferences are drawn because prior knowledge is the
only requirement.
2. It is least expensive, because no consumable are needed nor expensive laboratory
equipment is needed as in other methods.
3. It involves no loss of material unlike in other methods.
4. Repeated study is possible anywhere and any number of times.
5. It is suitable for study in the field itself (unlike other methods).
6. It is reasonably correct and hence the forerunner for the other methods too.

Different Physical Properties Studied and The Importance of Each Property in Mineral
Identification
In fresh, unaltered hand specimens, the physical properties examined are: Form, color,
streak, luster, fracture, cleavage, hardness, density, transparency, special property and
diagnostic properties.
 Experiment No. 1
Aim
1. Study different Physical Properties of Minerals.
2. Identification of minerals on the basis of their physical properties.

Mineral
A mineral may be defined as a natural, inorganic, homogenous, solid substance having a definite
chemical composition and regular atomic structure.

The following are the physical properties identified in the laboratory

1. Form
The form represents the common mode of occurrence of a mineral in nature. To some extent it
depends on the crystalline character of the mineral.

Form Description Example

Lamellar form Mineral appears as thin separable layers Different varieties of
Mica
Tabular form Mineral appears as slabs of uniform thickness. Feldspars, Gypsum
Fibrous form Mineral appears to be made up of fine threads. Asbestos
Pisolitic form Mineral appears to be made up of small Bauxite
spherical grains.
Oolitic form Similar to Pisolitic form but rains are of still Lime stones
smaller size.
Rhombic form Rhombic shape Calcite
Bladed form Mineral appears as cluster or as independent Kyanite
rectangular grains.
Granular form Mineral appears to be made up of innumerable Chromite, Magnetite
equidimensional grains of coarse or medium
or fine size.
Columnar form Mineral appears as long slender prism. Topaz
Prismatic form As elongated Apatite, quartz
 Spongy form Porous Pyrolusite
Crystal form Polyhedral, Geometrical shapes. Garnets, Galena
Massive form No definite shape for mineral. Jasper, Graphite
Concretionary Porous and appears due to accretion of small Laterite
Form irregularly shaped masses.
Nodular form Irregularly shaped compact bodies with curved Laterite
surfaces.

2. Color
It is the usual body color of mineral.

Name of the Mineral Color

Olivine Olivine green

Biotite, Graphite, Magnetite Black

Chlorite Green

Garnet Red

Kyanite Blue

Amethyst Violet

Quartz Colorless, White, Green, Violet, Grey,

yellow, Pink, etc.
Feldspar White, Grey, Shades of Red, Green,
Dirty
white, etc.
Calcite Colorless, white, shades of Red, Grey,
Yellow, etc.
 3. Streak

The color of the mineral powder is called the streak of a mineral. This is tested by rubbing the
mineral on streak plate (An unglazed white porcelain plate). Generally, it has less importance in
mineral identification. Because all hard minerals irrespective of their color give white streak or a
mineral may show streak similar to its body color but of lighter shade. However, in some minerals it
is valuable in identification.

Name of the Mineral Body Color Streak

Hematite Steel Grey Cherry Red

Chromite Black Dark Brown

Magnetite Black Black

Graphite Black Black

Molybdenite Black Greenish Black

4. Lustre

Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral. It is of two types namely metallic
luster and non-metallic luster. Metallic luster is found on ore minerals while non-metallic luster
occurs in rock forming minerals. Metallic luster means the shining similar to that of a metal. If it
is less, it is called sub-metallic. Pyrite, Galena shows typical metallic luster. Hematite, Chromite,
Magnetite shows sub-metallic luster.
Non-metallic luster are of different kinds, such as silky (like silk), pearly (like pearl), vitreous
(like glass), greasy, resinous, dull etc. Typical mineral examples for these are: Silky luster –
Asbestos; Pearly luster – Mica/ Talc; Vitreous luster – quartz/Feldspar/calcite; Sub Vitreous luster
– Augite/Hornblende; Greasy luster – Graphite, Resinous luster – Flint/Chert/Agate/Jasper; Dull
luster (or earthly) – Magnesite/Bauxite/Olivine. Weathering reduces luster of a mineral.
 Lustre Description Example
Metallic Lustre It is the type of shining that Galena, Gold, Pyrite
appears on the surface of a
metal.

Sub metallic Lustre lf the amount of shining is Hematite, Chromite,

less when compared to Magnetite
metallic luster.

Vitreous Lustre Shining like a glass sheet. Quartz, Feldspar

Sub Vitreous Lustre Less shining when Pyroxenes

compared to vitreous lustre
Pearly Lustre Shining like a pearl Talc, Muscovite mica

Silky Lustre Shining like silk Asbestos

Resinous Lustre Shining like a resin Opal, Agate

Greasy Lustre Shining like grease Graphite

Adamantine Lustre Shining like a Garnet, Diamond

diamond
Earthy or Dull Lustre No Shining Bauxite, Magnesite

5. Fracture

Fracture is the nature of the randomly broken surface of a mineral. It is that broken surface
which is other than the cleavage surface. This property is also relatively less important in
mineral identification because most of the minerals show uneven fracture i.e., the surface is
rough or irregular. A few minerals like magnesite show even fracture i.e., the surface is
plain. Non- crystalline, dense and compact minerals such as flint, agate, opal, jasper show
conchoidal fracture i.e., the surface are smooth and curved (similar to broken glass paper
weight). Fibrous and bladed minerals like asbestos, kyanite, actinolite etc., show hackly
fracture i.e., their structure (broken ends) are very irregular (similar to the ends of a broken
wooden stick). This fracture study is useful in the identification of some minerals.
 Fracture Description Example
Even fracture If the broken surface Magnesite, Chalk
is plain and smooth.
Uneven fracture If the broken surface Hornblende, Bauxite
is rough or irregular.
Hackly fracture If the broken surface is very Asbestos, Kyanite
irregular like end of a broken
stick.
Conchoidal fracture If the broken surface is Opal
smooth and curved
Sub Conchoidal fracture If the curved nature is less Agate, Flint, Jasper
prominent.

6. Cleavage
It is the tendency of some crystalline minerals to break easily along certain directions or
planes. It is related to atomic structure and hence a diagnostic property. Cleavage direction is
that direction along which minerals are structurally weak and along that direction minimum
frequency of occurrence of atoms occur. Hence cleavage occurs only in crystalline minerals.
However, if the atomic structure of a mineral is such that there is no direction of weakness,
then such a crystalline mineral will not show cleavage as in the case of quartz, olivine, garnet
etc. The cleavage if present appears as a smooth, plain, shining surface on a mineral. Since
cleavage plane represents a plane of weakness in the lattice, innumerable parallel planes of
such weakness occur in the mineral. All such planes are described as a cleavage set.

A mineral by virtue of its atomic structure may have one set/two sets/three sets/four sets r six
sets of cleavage. Typical mineral examples are one set = Talc/mica/Chloride; Two sets =
Feldspars/Kyanite; Three sets = Calcite/Galena, Fours sets fluorite; six sets = Sphalerite.
The cleavage surface may appear like a plain surface, if the mineral breaks along a single
(cleavage) plane or it may show stepped appearance, if the broken surface passes through a
number of parallel planes of weakness.
 Cleavage Example

One set of cleavage Mica, Chlorite, Talc

Two sets of cleavages Feldspars, Pyroxenes, Amphiboles

Three sets of cleavages Calcite, Dolomite, Galena

Four sets of cleavages Fluorite

Six sets of cleavages Sphalerite

No cleavage Quartz, Olivine, Garnet

7. Hardness

Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the mineral to abrasion or scratching. It is
determined with the help pH Moh's scale of hardness which consists of ten reference minerals
arranged in increasing order of hardness and numbered accordingly.

Name of the Mineral Hardness

Talc 1

Gypsum 2

Calcite 3

Fluorite 4

Apatite 5

Feldspar 6

Quartz 7

Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10

8. Specific gravity or Density

Specific gravity or Density of minerals depends on their chemical composition and atomic structure.
It is related to the specific gravity of a mineral. It is expressed as low, medium or high. Low density
means the specific gravity is less than 2.5. Medium density means the specific gravity is in between
2.5 and 3.5. High density means the specific gravity is more than 3.5.
In the lab, the specific gravity is not determined as such for this purpose, but by mere feel
and with a little practical experience it is possible to assess the density character. Minerals with low
density are very few and hence of no importance. Rock forming minerals (like quartz, feldspar,
mica, calcite etc.) have medium density. White ore minerals (like hematite, magnetite, pyrolusite,
galena etc.) have high density in general. Thus, this observation, though simple, is very useful
because by just tossing the hand specimen in hand its destiny character is known and the mineral
under study is inferred either as a rock forming mineral or as ore mineral.
It may be remembered that in general ore minerals not only have high density but have
metallic luster and opaque character. Rock forming minerals have medium density, non- metallic
luster and are not opaque.

Density Range Example

Low density Specific gravity less than 2.5 Gypsum (2.3), Graphite (2-
2.3)
Medium density Specific gravity between 2.5 Quartz (2.7), Feldspar (2.5)
and 3.5
High density Specific gravity greater than Chromite (4.5- 4.8)
3.5
9. Degree of transparency
Degree of transparency is tested along the thin sharp edges of mineral keeping it against a
powerful source of light. Depending upon the resistance offered by the minerals to the passage of
light through them the transparency is classified.
Degree of Transparency Example
Transparent Thin layers of Muscovite, rock crystal
Translucent Agate, Calcite
Opaque Galena, Pyrite
10. Special properties

Some minerals exhibit unique characters, which enable them to be identified easily

Name of the Mineral Special property

Talc smooth touch or soapy feel

Graphite Marks on a paper easily

Pyrolusite Soils the fingers

Halite Saline taste

Magnetite Strongly attracted by any ordinary magnet

Chalk Rough feeling of touch, adheres strongly to

the tongue

11. Applications:
QUARTZ FLINT

FELDSPAR AGATE

OLIVINE AUGITE
HORNBLENDE MUSCOVITE

BIOTITE ASBESTOS

CHLORITE KYANITE
 GARNET TALC

CALCITE PYRITE

HEMATITE CHROMITE
GALENA PYROLUSITE

GRAPHITE
 PROPERTIES OBSERVATION
1. Form : Tabular
Usually white, pink, grey or brown. Also colorless,
2. Colour : yellow, orange, red, black, blue, green.
Colorless/White
3. Streak :
Vitreous. Pearly on some cleavage faces.
4. Lustre :
Even to uneven
5. Fracture :
2 SETS
6. Cleavage :
6 to 6.5
7. Hardness :
2.5 to 2.8
8. Specific Gravity :
KaAlSi3O8
9. Chemical composition :
Crushed and powdered feldspar are important raw
materials for the manufacture of plate glass, container
glass, ceramic products, paints, plastics and many
other products. Varieties of orthoclase, labradorite,
oligoclase, microcline and other feldspar minerals
have been cut and used as
10. Applications : faceted and cabochon gems.
Microcline, moon stone, orthoclase, plagioclase
11. Varieties

Result: Based on above physical properties the given specimen is identified as FELDSPAR
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
OBSERVATIONS

Mineral-1