CHAPTER ONE

ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts
The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and ‗logos‟. Psyche refers to
mind, soul or sprit while logos mean study, knowledge or discourse. Therefore, by combining the
two Greek words the term "psychology" epistemologically refers to the study of the mind, soul,
or sprit. Hence, “Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes …. Human
or Animal”
1.2. Goals of Psychology
Description: what is happening? Prediction: will it happen again?
Explanation: why is it happening? Control: modification or change in behavior

1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt set the foundations of modern psychology in 1879, by establishing the first
psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt's technique of introspection to scientifically
examine mental experiences helps to the study of human subjective experiences that were
previously under the field of philosophy alone.
1.3.1. Earlier School of Thought
The earlier schools that paved the way for further developments in modern psychology were
• Structuralism: focused on studying the conscious experience by looking into its individual
parts or elements.
• Functionalism: focused on what the mind does and how it does.
• Gestalt psychology: focused on studying the whole experience of a person rather than breaking
it into individual components.
• Behaviorist / Behavioral School: focuses on studying the behavior that is observable and overt.
1.3.2. Modern schools of psychology
The early schools of thought have generally laid the foundation for further developments in
psychology as a science. Those are,
A. Psychodynamic perspective D. Cognitive Perspective
B. Behavioral Perspective E. Biological Perspective
C. Humanistic Perspective F. Socio-cultural Perspective

1.4. Research Methods in Psychology

A. Major types of research methods
There are three major types of research methods,
Descriptive research - the researcher simply records what she/he has systematically observed.
Descriptive research methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.
Correlation research - is a research method that measures the relationship between two or more
variables. A variable is anything that can change or vary –scores on a test, the temperature in a
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room, gender, and so on. Nature of Correlation • Positive Correlation • Negative Correlation •
Zero Correlation
Experimental Research: it is a research method that allows researchers to study the cause and
effect relationship between variables. Experiments involve at least one independent variable and
one dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated, influential, experimental
factor. The dependent variable is the factor (behavior) that is measured in an experiment. It can
change as the independent variable is manipulated.
There are two groups in experimental methods: experimental group and control group.
B. Steps of scientific research
Step one - Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching in the surrounding for
which one would like to have an explanation.
Step two - Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings (perceiving
the problem), you might form an educated guess about the explanation for your observations,
putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested in some way.
Step three - Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research
methods and collects ample data (information) to accept or reject the proposed statement.
Step four - Drawing Conclusions - this is the step in which the researcher attempts to make
generalizations or draw implications from tested relationship
Step five - Reporting Results - at this point, the researcher would want to write up exactly what
she/he did, why she/he did, and what she/he found.
CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
2.1. The meanings of sensation and perception
Psychologists have traditionally differentiated between sensation and perception. Sensation is the
process whereby stimulation of receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the
skin sends nerve impulses to the brain. Perception is the process that organizes sensations into
meaningful patterns. It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order
and meaning.
2.2. The sensory laws: Sensory thresholds and sensory adaption.
There are certain sensory laws that explain how sensation works. Sensory threshold and sensory
adaptation are the two general laws of sensation.
Sensory threshold is the minimum point of intensity a sound can be detected. There are two laws
of sensory threshold: The law of absolute threshold and the law of difference threshold. The
absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect is called the
absolute threshold, or Limen, for example, a cup of coffee would require a certain amount of
sugar before you could detect a sweet taste.
The difference threshold: In addition to detecting the presence of a stimulus, you also detect
changes in the intensity of a stimulus. The minimum amount of change that can be detected is
called difference threshold.

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Sensory Adaptation
The tendency of our sensory receptors to have decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus
is called sensory adaptation. Sensory adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in
your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it.
2.3. Perception
Perception helps us to understand the major characteristics of the perceptual process: selectivity
of perception, from perception, depth perception, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusion.
2.3.1. Selectivity of perception: Attention
Attention is therefore the term given to the perceptual process that selects certain inputs for
inclusion in your conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
Paying attention is in general a function of two factors: external factors and intrnal factors.
external factors includes, size and intensity, repetition, novelty (or newness), and movement.
Psychologists have identified two important internal psychological factors: Set or expectancy
and motives or needs.
2.3.2. Form perception
Form-Perception is a perceptual phenomenon in which we perceive the shape, form or pattern of
any object.
Figure- Ground Relationship
Our perceptual tendency to see objects with the foreground as well as the background___ the
object is being recognized with respect to its back ground e.g. Black board and chalk.
Contours
Perceptual phenomenon in which we are able to maintain a difference of the form from its
background due to the perception of contours e.g. In observing the paper, which has two colors,
white and black__ there is no contour at all.

Organization in form Perception

Organizing raw sensory stimuli into meaningful experiences involve “cognition”, a set of mental
activities that includes thinking, knowing, and remembering. The Gestalt psychologists studied
such organization intensively in the early part of this century. What are some of the laws of
perceptual organization?
Law of Closure, Law of Proximity, Law of Continuity, Law of Similarity and Law of Simplicity
Depth perception
Depth perception depends on the use of binocular cues and monocular cues. There are two kinds
of binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence. The two kinds of binocular cues require the
interaction of both eyes. Retinal disparity is the degree of difference between the images of an
object that are focused on the two retinas. The closer the object, the greater is the retinal
disparity.

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The second binocular cue to depth perception is convergence, the degree to which the eyes turn
inward to focus on an object. As you can confirm for yourself, the closer the objects are the
greater the convergence of the eyes.

Binocular cues require two eyes, whereas monocular cues require only one. One monocular cue
is accommodation and the other cue is motion parallax.
The remaining monocular cues are called pictorial cues because artists use them to create depth
in their drawings and paintings. This cues includes, linear perspectives, texture gradients,
interposition, relative size, etc.
2.3.4. Perceptual Constancies
1. Size Constancy: refers to our ability or tendency to perceive objects as remaining of the same
size despite having distance from the observer.
2. Color Constancy: refers to the perception of color of the object remaining the same in spite of
changes in lighting conditions.
3. Shape Constancy: Means the shape of the object remains the same in spite of some changes
in its orientation.
2.3.5. Perceptual Illusion
Visual Illusion also known as optical illusion is misperception, or false perception. There are
various types of illusion of which the most famous is Muller- Lyer Illusion. The visual illusion
in which the two lines of the same lengths appear different because of the change in position of
arrows at each end of two lines__ arrows pointing out appear shorter than the arrows pointing
inwards.

CHAPTER THREE
LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING
3.1.1. Definitions of learning
Among the different definitions of learning, the one that is appropriate for this course can be
stated as "a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience or
practice. dear students, plee refer to your introduction to Psychology and life Skills Module for
the Characteristics of learning, Principles of learning and Factors Influencing Learning part.
3.3. Theories of Learning and their Applications
There are three theories to be discussed in this section includes, classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, observational and cognitive learning theories.
3.3.1. Behavioral Theory of Learning
Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all organisms, and
provide explanations which focus on consequences. There are two major behavioral theories of
learning. They are known as classical and operant Conditioning.
3.3.1.1. Classical conditioning theory

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Historical background: In 1879 Ivan Pavlov, the Russian physiologist and pioneer of classical
conditioning, began his research work on the digestive process, primarily that of dogs. Please
refer your psychology module for Pavlov’s experiment.
Classical Conditioning theory is a type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts
eliciting a response that was originally the response to a natural stimulus i.e., a stimulus that was
meant to produce that response; it so happens because the neutral stimulus had been closely
associated with the natural stimulus.
Basic Terminology in Classical Conditioning/ Stages and Extensions of Classical Conditioning
includes, Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization and Discrimination
Operant conditioning
It is a type of learning in which a voluntary response becomes stronger or weaker depending on
its positive or negative consequences. The organism plays an active role and ‘operates’ on
environment to produce the desired outcome. Operant conditioning forms an association between
a behavior and a consequence. Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences
Something Good can start or be presented: behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+).
Something Good can end or be taken away: behavior decreases = Negative Punishment (P-).
Something Bad can start or be presented: behavior decreases = Positive Punishment (P+).
Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement (R-).
B.F Skinner, the very renowned proponent of operant conditioning, argued that to understand
behavior we should focus on the external causes of an action and the action‘s consequences. To
explain behavior, he said, we should look outside the individual, not inside.
In Skinner‘s analysis, a response (―operant‖) can lead to three types of consequences: such as a)
A neutral consequence b) A reinforcement or c) punishment.
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous Versus Partial Schedules: Continuous Schedule Reinforcing the behavior every
time it is repeated. Partial Schedule The behavior is reinforced but not every time. There are
four types of intermittent schedules are Fixed-ratio schedules, Variable-Ratio Schedule, Fixed
Interval Schedule and Variable Interval Schedule
A basic principle of operant conditioning is that if you want a response to persist after it has been
learned, you should reinforce it intermittently, not continuously.
3.3.2. Social Learning Theory (observational learning) theory
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model
the behavior of someone else: 1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model. 2.
Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way
of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is
the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. 4. Motivation: learners
must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
3.3.3. Cognitive Learning Theory
This theory focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning that gives importance to
cognition for understanding and explaining learning. There are two types of learning.
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1. Latent learning: is learning that occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when
conditions for its appearance are favorable.
Insight Learning: It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem. It
doesn‘t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its occurrence. Sometimes, for
example, people even wake up from sleep with a solution to a problem that they had not been
able to solve during the day.

Chapter Four
Memory
Memory is the power of retaining what one has learned and the power of retrieving it for
future use.
The process of Memory involves three basic steps: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval
Encoding: the first step in which a sensory input (information from the environment)
transformed into a form or a memory code. Storage: is the second step in which the encoded
information will be saved and Retrieval: is the last step in which the information (material) is
brought into awareness and used.
Memory can also be explained in terms of its structures. Accordingly, there are three stages
(structures) of memory: Sensory Memory, Short-term memory (STM) and Long-term
memory (LTM)
1. Sensory memory
 It is initial and temporary storage of information. It includes echoic memory
and iconic memory.
 It holds the information coming from the environment such as sound, light, or
any other stimuli.
 Information stays for a very brief (few seconds or less). Example: flash of
light
2. Short-term memory (STM)
 It is the stage where information first gets meaning.
 It is the temporary storehouse for small amount of information and it is very sensitive to
interruption
 In the short-term memory, information lasts about fifteen to twenty-five seconds.
Example: asking someone a telephone number and after calling, the information (the number) is
lost from memory.
Since the capacity of STM is very limited, we need to apply different mechanisms in order to
manage the information. Chunking and rehearsal are among the best strategies

3. Long-term memory (LTM)

 It has nearly limitless storage capacity
 Information is stored on the basis of meaning and importance
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 (i.e., file cabinet)
Types of long-term memory: procedural memory and declarative memory (include semantic
memory and episodic memory)

 Memory can be affected by different factors such as ability of the learner, interest,
maturity, health, meaningfulness of the material, speed of learning, rest or sleep and so
on.
Forgetting
Forgetting refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term
memory.
Why do we forget?
1. Information can be lost (decays) after a passage of time if it is not accessed now and then.
2. Retrieval failure (e.g., the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) it usually occurs when we lack
retrieval cues (a piece of information that that can help us find the specific information we‘re
looking for).
3. state-dependent learning: our mental or physical state may also act as a retrieval cue (cue-
dependent forgetting). For example, if you we were taking substances when
something happens, we may remember it when take the substance again. Our emotional state and
also the environment we are in also plays a role in remembering a specific situation.
4. Displacement of information: when a new information replaces the old information.
5. Interference: when similar tasks or information enters our memory, recalling will be difficult
because it interferes with one another. Retroactive interference (new information interferes with
the ability to remember old information) and Proactive interference (information learned earlier
interferes with recall of newer material).
6. Repression (motivated forgetting): It is repressing or pushing unacceptable or painful
thoughts and feelings into the unconscious part of the mind to avoid confronting them directly.
▪ Sometimes we deliberately forget a situation.
V. Improving Memory
There are different ways of improving our memory such as rehearsing, using effective
organization (e.g., chunking), knowing about the serial position effect, using cues, overlearning,
minimizing effects of interference, having break such as sleep, using mnemonic aids and so on.
Chapter Five
5.1 Motivation
 Motivation is an urge to behave or act in a way that will satisfy certain conditions, such
as wishes, desires, or goals.
 The word motivation comes from the Latin word “Mover”, which means to move.
 Motivations are commonly separated into drives and motives.

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  Drives originate within a person and primarily biological, like thirst, hunger, sleepiness,
and the need to reproduce—that lead us to take part in certain activities. Whereas,
Motives primarily driven by social and psychological mechanisms, such as work, family,
and relationships. They include factors like praise and approval.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

 Motivation can be intrinsic (arising from internal factors such as doing something for
satisfaction or enjoyment) or extrinsic (arising from external factors such as doing
something to get reward).
 In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and the
nature of the mix can change over time.
Approaches to motivation
1) The instinct approach to motivation: motivation is governed by the biologically
determined and innate patterns of both humans behavior called instincts.
2) Drive-reduction theory
This theory talks about an organism’s reaction in an event where his physical needs are
challenged and unstable. Because of the disturbance in the organism’s level of
homeostasis, there is a development of a drive to fulfill that specific need to bring the
individual out of its discomfort.
3) Arousal theory: the goal of our behavior is to maintain or increase excitement
(stimulation).
4) Incentive approach: people are more motivated to perform activities if they receive a
reward afterward, rather than
5) Cognitive Approaches: motivation is a result of people‘s thoughts, beliefs, expectations,
and goals.
6) Humanistic theory of motivation: motivation is the process of satisfying certain needs
that are required for long-term survival and development (Abraham Maslow).
 Maslow divided human needs into a pyramid that includes physiological, safety,
love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs (from lower to higher). Higher-order
needs can only be pursued when the lower needs are met.

In reality we may have different motives at a time and it may be difficult to fulfill all our
needs and thus conflict of motives will occur. There are four basic types of motivational
conflicts:
- Approach-Approach conflict - Approach-Avoidance conflict

- Avoidance-Avoidance conflict - Multiple Approach- Avoidance conflict

5.2. Emotion
 An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings.

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  Emotion and motivation are linked in several ways: both influence behavior and can lead
us to take action, and emotion itself can act as a motivator. For example, the emotion of
fear can motivate a person to leave a stressful situation.
 Emotion consists of three elements; the physiology, behavior and subjective
experience.
 The behavioral element includes facial cues (facial expression) and body language. For
e.g. a smile is the most universal and easily recognized emotion
 There are different theories of emotion and the source of emotion is different according to
different theories. According to James-Lange theory, emotions are created by awareness
of specific patterns of peripheral (autonomic) responses. The Cannon-Bard theory stated
that the brain generates direct experiences of emotion and according to the Schachter-
Singer theory, we experience emotion as a result of cognitive interpretation of events and
the physiological reactions to them.
Chapter Six
Personality
Personality Theories
 The word personality originated from the Latin word “persona” meaning person.
 Personality indicates the difference among people and the stability of their behavior over
a long period of time.
 Personality is dynamic since it develops out of the constant interaction between man and
environment.
 There are different theories of personality. The trait, the psychoanalytic and the
humanistic theories are among the theories.
A. Trait theories
 A trait is a way in which one individual differs from another. They are modes of
behavior and are relatively stable for a long period of time.
 The trait theorists see personality as a combination of stable internal characteristics that
people display consistently over time and across situations. Example: extraversion,
honesty, friendliness and so on.
 The "Big Five" theory is among the contemporary trait models of personality. This
theory incorporates five trait dimensions that can be remembered by using the acronym
OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and
Neuroticism). Using this 5 trait dimension, psychologists try to identify and measure
personality.
B. Psychoanalytic Theory
 It is the most profound theory of personality founded by Sigmund Frued.
 According to this theory, personality is formed within ourselves, arising from basic
inborn needs, drives, and characteristics.

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  These hidden forces, shaped and consolidated by childhood experiences, play an
important role in directing our behavior and Freud termed this process the Unconscious.
According to Freud the human personality consists of three structures. These are:
1. The Id: which is inborn and governed by the pleasure principle.
▪ Its main goal is to reduce tensions created by primitive drives and get maximum satisfaction of
the biological needs. (Example: hunger, sex)
2. The ego: in charge of the decision making process and called the executive of personality. All
decision making
It Controls action and allows thinking and problem solving approach when the personality faces
problems.
3. The super ego
• It helps to integrate broad moral values of society • It prevents us from doing immoral things.
The super ego motivates us to do what are morally accepted things by the society.
 According to Freud, the way these three parts of personality interact with one another
determines the personality of an individual. He also indicated that the key to a healthy
personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego.
 Psychoanalytic theory also includes levels of awareness and stages of personality
development (psychosexual stages)
Levels of awareness
Conscious (the part of the mind that we are aware of), Preconscious (not quiet aware of but just
below the surface) and Unconscious (the part pf the mind that we are unaware of, locked away
and forgotten experiences/ information)

C) Humanistic Theory
According to humanistic theorists, personality is conscious, self-motivated ability to
change and improve, along with people‘s unique creative impulses.
This theory is dominated by the work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Rogers’ also give
emphasis to self- actualization and in addition, he gives much emphasis to the term self-concept.
Self –concept refers to the set of belief about who we are the image of one self. According to
Rogers, self-concept is the important tool for self-actualization.
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: The ideal self (the person that you would like
to be) and the real self (the person you actually are)
Thus, when our real self and ideal self are very similar, we will experience healthy development
and productive life and when they are not similar, the reverse will happen. Unconditional
positive regard is also an important term brought by Rogers.

Chapter Seven
Psychological Disorders and Treatment Techniques
There are nearly 300 types of mental disorders.
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 Defining abnormality
What is abnormal behavior and normal behavior?
Though every criteria has its own limitation, the most important criteria to define
abnormal behavior is as follows:
Deviation from the average (the norm), Maladaptiveness (a behavior that impairs
the daily functioning of a person) and Personal distress (a behavior that produces a
sense of distress, tension, anxiety, guilt or unpleasant emotion).
 There are different causes of psychological disorders such as Poor nutrition, Exposure to
toxins, Stressful life events, Genetics, Injuries, Problems during birth and so on.

Models of Abnormality
The are 2 models of abnormality
1) The medical (biological) model: psychological disorder can occur as a result of brain
structures, chemical imbalance in the brain, genes and diseases.
2) The psychological model: psychological disorder can occur as a result of psychological
factors such as learning, thinking pattern, the interaction between innate forces and so on.
Nowadays most psychologists prefer to view psychopathology using the bio psychosocial
approach
 The biopsychosocial approach systematically considers biological, psychological, and
social factors and their complex interactions in understanding health, illness, and health
care delivery.
Types of psychological disorders
The recent version of the DSM incorporated around 19 major categories of psychological
disorders. Each category includes different subtypes of mental disorders. Anxiety disorders,
depressive disorders and personality disorders are among the common categories.
Major depressive disorder is one of the psychological disorder under depressive disorders
 The common feature of the depressive disorders is the presence of sad, empty, or
irritable mood, accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that significantly affect
the individual’s capacity to function.
 Anxiety disorders include: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Panic Disorder, separation anxiety and Social Phobia (or
Social Anxiety Disorder) or specific phobia are found under anxiety disorders
o Anxiety disorders can cause people into try to avoid situations that trigger or worsen their
symptoms. Job performance, school work and personal relationships can be affected.
In general, for a person to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, the fear or anxiety must:
Be out of proportion to the situation or age inappropriate and hinder your ability to function

 Personality disorders

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Personality is the way of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes a person different from
other people.
 An individual’s personality is influenced by experiences, environment and inherited
characteristics.
Each condition is a distinct mental illness defined by personality traits that can be troubling
enough to create problems with relating to other people in healthy ways, and can lead to
significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning.
 Personality disorders include 10 diagnosable psychiatric conditions and further
organized into three groups, or clusters, based on shared key features: cluster A, B and C
 Cluster A personality disorders include: paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality
disorders. People with cluster A personality disorders tend to experience major
disruptions in relationships because their behavior may be perceived as peculiar,
suspicious, or detached.
 Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic and Narcissistic personality disorders are included
under cluster B. People who have a personality disorder from this cluster tend to either
experience very intense emotions or engage in extremely impulsive, theatrical,
promiscuous, or law-breaking behaviors.
 Avoidant, Dependent and Obsessive- Compulsive personality disorder are included
under cluster C. People with personality disorders in this cluster tend to experience
pervasive anxiety and/or fearfulness.
Treatment Techniques
It includes medication, psychotherapy or a combination of both.
Psychotherapy involves providing psychological treatment to individuals with some kind of
psychological problems.
 The ultimate goal of psychotherapy: is to help the client reduce negative symptoms, to
gain insight into why the symptoms occurred and to reduce the emergence of the
symptoms in the future.
 Therapy can take different forms: Individual therapy and group therapy
 In Individual therapy: there is one to one counselling session (the therapist and the client)
and Group therapy is utilized, when there are a no of individuals suffering from similar
issues.
The three main approaches of psychotherapy include: Cognitive, Behavioral, and
Psychodynamic approaches.
CHAPTER EIGHT: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SKILLS
8.1. Nature and Definition of Life skills
8.3. Components of Life Skills
8.2. Goals of Life Skills
Summary

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  Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals
to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life.
 Life skills include critical thinking, self-confidence, self-awareness, self-esteem,
decision-making, interpersonal relationship, reflective communication, negative peer
pressure resistance, knowing rights and duties, and problem solving.
 The goal of knowing and applying life skills is to lead smooth and successful life
at home, work place and in social interpersonal relationship.
 Developing life skills can produce the following effects: lessened violent behavior;
increased pro-social behavior and decreased negative, self-destructive behavior;
increased the ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to problems;
improved self-image, self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment; increased
acquisition of knowledge; improved classroom behavior; gains in self- control and
handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety; and improved
constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity.
CHAPTER NINE: INTRA-PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
9.1. Self-Concept and Self-Awareness 9.6. Stress, Coping with Stress and
9.2. Self-esteem and self-confidence Resilience
9.3. Self-Control 9.7. Critical and Creative Thinking
9.4. Anger Management 9.8. Problem Solving and Decision Making
9.5. Emotional Intelligence and Managing
Emotion

Summary
 The self-concept is conceptualized as an organization (structure) of various
identities and attributes, and their evaluations, developed out of the individual's
reflexive, social, and symbolic activities.
 Self-awareness is having a clear perception of one‘s personality, including
strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions.
 Self-esteem is the judgment or opinion we hold about ourselves. It‘s the extent
to which we perceive ourselves to be worthwhile and capable human beings.
 Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall self-evaluation.
 Self-control is achieved by refraining from actions we like and instead
performing actions we prefer not to do as a means of achieving a long-term goal.
 Everyone gets angry at times. When people are angry or annoyed, they may
walk away or use a harsh tone of voice. Other times, they may yell, argue, or start a
fight.
 Emotional intelligence describes the ability, capacity, skill, or self-perceived
ability to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one‘s self, of others, and of
groups.
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  Stress generally refers to two things: the psychological perception of pressure, on
the one hand, and the body's response to it, on the other, which involves multiple
systems, from metabolism to muscles to memory. Mainly, there are three
categories of stressors: catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles.
 Resilience is about getting through pain and disappointment without letting them
crush your spirit.
 There are two classes of problems: those that are considered well defined and
others that are considered ill defined.
CHAPTER TEN: ACADEMIC SKILLS
10.1. Time Management 10.4. Test Anxiety and Overcoming Test
10.2. Note-taking and Study Skills Anxiety
10.3. Test-Taking Skill 10.5. Goal Setting
10.6. Career Development Skill
Summary
 Time management is deciding what you want to get out of life and efficiently per
suing these goals.
 Time management does not mean being busy all the time – it means using your
time the way you want to do it.
 Effective note-taking begins prior to class by creating a framework of reference.
This strategy provides familiarity with terms, ideas and concepts discussed in
lecture and leads to an active role in your own learning.
 Test anxiety is a negative mood characterized by bodily symptoms of physical
tension and apprehension about a test/exam going to take place in the future.
 Test anxiety can cause a host of physical, emotional, behavioral and cognitive
problems.
 Goal-setting will give you direction, increase satisfaction and self-confidence in
performance.
 Career management skills are competencies, which help individuals to identify
their existing skills, develop career learning goals and take action to enhance their
careers.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: SOCIAL SKILLS

11.1. Understanding cultural Diversity 11.6. Assertiveness

11.2. Gender and Social Inclusion 11.7. Conflict and Conflict Resolution
11.3. Interpersonal Communication Skills 11.8. Team Work
11.4. Social Influences 11.9. Overcoming Risky Behavior
11.5. Peer Pressure
Summary

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 Culturally diversity/Multiculturalism is defined as: “…a system of beliefs and
behaviors that recognizes and respects the presence of all diverse groups in an
organization or society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural differences,
and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive
cultural context which empowers all within the organization or society.
 The key to manage diversity is to capitalize more effectively on our capacity for
multiple social identities.
 Nations, right groups, nation leaders and scholars have been demanding more
rights for women and inclusion of developmental activities. Therefore, women
should benefit from education, economy, leadership system, development programs
and legal system. Build a culture of gender inclusion across implementing the
following is important.
 Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information,
feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face
communication.
 Social influence occurs when one person (the source) engages in some behavior
(such as persuading, thratening or promising, or issuing orders) that causes another
person (the target) to behave differently from how he or she would otherwise behave.
 Assertiveness is a communication style. It is being able to express your feelings,
thoughts, beliefs, and opinions in an open manner that does not violate the rights
of others.
 Conflict is an incompatibility of goals or values between two or more parties in a
relationship, combined with attempts to control each other and antagonistic
feelings toward each other (Fisher, 1990).
 One of the early theorists on conflict, Daniel Katz (1965), created a typology that
distinguishes three main sources of conflict: economic, value, and power.
 Conflict can result in destructive outcomes or creative ones depending on the
approach that is taken. Given interdependence, three general strategies have been
identified that the parties may take toward dealing with their conflict; win-lose,
lose-lose, and win-win.
 Teams are groups of people with complementary skills who are committed to a
common purpose and hold themselves mutually accountable for its achievement.
 Taking risks is fairly common in adolescence. Yet, risky behaviors can be associated
with serious, long-term, and–in some cases–life-threatening consequences.

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