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MODULE'4'
MEDICO'LEGAL'ASPECTS'OF' DEATH'
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' AT!THE!END!OF!THE!MODULE,!YOU!SHOULD!
' BE!ABLE!TO:!
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1.#Identify#the#basic#terms#or#concepts#of#death#and#
identification#
2.#Explain#the#medico9legal#aspect#of#death#in#relation#to#
the# approximate# time# when# the# crime# was# committed.#
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LESSON'1:'DEATH'
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DEATH'defined:'is!the!termination!of!life.!The!complete!cessation!of!all!the!vital!functions!without!
possibility!of!resuscitation.!

KINDS'OF'DEATH'
1.!Somatic'Death'or'Clinical'Death'@'the!state!of!the!body!in!which!there!is!complete,!persistent!
and!continuous!cessation!of!the!vital!functions!of!the!brain,!heart!and!lungs!which!maintain!life!
and!health.!
2.!Molecular'or'Cellular'Death'@'after!cessation!of!the!vital!functions!of!the!body!there!is!still!
animal!life!among!individual!cells.!This!is!evidence!by!the!presence!of!excitability!of!muscles!
and!ciliary!movements!and!other!functions!of!individual!cells.!About!three!to!six!hours!later,!
there!is!death!of!individual!cells.!
3.!“Apparent'Death”'or'“State'of'Suspended'Animation”'@'this!condition!is!not!really!death!but!
merely!a!transient!loss!of!consciousness!or!temporary!cessation!of!the!vital!functions!of!the!
body!on!account!of!disease,!external!stimulus!or!other!forms!of!influence.!It!may!arise!
especially!in!hysteria,!uremia,!catalepsy!and!electric!shock.!

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SIGNS'OF'DEATH'
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1.!Cessation'of'heart'action'and'circulation'@'there!must!be!an!entire!and!continuous!cessation!of!
the!heart!of!action!and!flow!of!blood!in!the!whole!vascular!system.!As!a!general!rule,!if!there!is!no!
heart!action!for!a!period!of!five!minutes!death!is!regarded!as!certain.!
2.!Cessation'of'Respiration'@'in!order!to!be!considered!as!a!sign!of!death!must!be!continuous!and!
persistent.!A!person!can!hold!his!breath!for!a!period!not!longer!than!3Q1/2!minutes.!
3.!Cooling'of'the'Body'(Algor'Mortis)'@'after!death!the!metabolic!process!inside!the!body!ceases.!
No!more!heat!is!produced!but!the!body!loses!slowly!its!temperature!by!evaporation!or!by!
conduction!to!the!surrounding!atmosphere.!The!progressive!fall!of!the!body!temperature!is!one!of!
the!most!prominent!signs!of!death.!The!rate!of!cooling!of!the!body!is!not!uniform.!It!is!rapid!during!
the!first!two!hours!after!death!and!as!temperature!of!the!body!gradually!approaches!the!
temperature!of!the!surroundings,!the!rate!becomes!slower.!The!fall!of!temperature!of!15!to!20!
degrees!fahrenheit!is!considered!as!a!certain!sign!of!death.!
Post'3'mortem'Caloricity'3'is!the!rise!of!temperature!of!the!body!after!death!due!to!rapid!and!
early!putrefactive!changes!or!some!internal!changes.!
4.!Insensibility'of'the'body'and'loss'of'power'to'move'@'after!death!the!whole!body!is!insensible.!
No!kind!of!stimulus!is!capable!of!letting!the!body!have!voluntary!movement.!This!condition!must!be!
observed!in!conjunction!with!cessation!of!heart!beat!and!circulation!and!cessation!of!respiration.!
5.!Changes'in'the'skin'@'the!following!are!the!changes!in!the!skin!after!death.!
a.!The!skin!maybe!observed!to!be!pale!and!waxyQlooking!due!to!the!absence!of!circulation.!
b.!Loss!of!Elasticity!of!the!skin!Q!application!of!pressure!to!the!skin!surface!will!make!the!surface!
flattened.!
c.!Opacity!of!the!Skin!Q!exposure!of!the!hand!of!a!living!person!to!translucent!light!will!allow!the!
red!color!of!circulation!to!be!seen!underneath!the!skin.!The!skin!of!a!person!is!opaque!due!to!
absence!of!circulation.!
d.!Effect!of!the!application!of!heat!Q!application!of!melted!sealing!wax!on!the!breast!of!a!dead!
person!will!not!produce!blister!or!inflammatory!reaction!on!the!skin.!
6.'Changes'in'and'about'the'Eye'
a.!Loss!of!Corneal!Reflex!Q!the!cornea!is!not!capable!of!making!any!reaction!to!whatever!intensity!
of!light!stimulus.!
b.!Clouding!of!the!Cornea!Q!the!cornea!becomes!slightly!cloudy!or!opaque!after!death.!
c.!flaccidity!of!the!eyeball!Q!the!orbital!muscles!lose!their!tone!making!the!intraQorbital!tension!
rapidly!fall.!
d.!The!pupil!is!in!the!position!of!rest!Q!the!muscle!of!the!iris!loses!its!tone.!The!pupil!cannot!react!
to!light.!
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CHANGES'IN'THE'BODY'FOLLOWING'DEATH'
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1.'CHANGES'IN'THE'MUSCLE:'
After!death,!there!is!complete!relaxation!of!the!whole!muscular!system.!The!entire!muscular!
system!contractile!for!three!to!six!hours!after!death,!and!later!rigidly!sets!in.!secondary!relaxation!
of!the!muscles!will!appear!just!when!decomposition!has!sets!in.!

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Stages:'
1.!Stage'of'Primary'Flaccidity'(Post@mortem'muscular'irritability)'–'Muscles!are!relaxed!and!
capable!of!contracting!when!stimulated.!Last!about!3Q6!hours!after!death.!1!hour!and!51!
minutes!in!warm!places.!
2.!Stage'of'post@Mortem'Rigidity'(Cadaveric'rigidity'or'Death'struggle'of'muscle'or'Rigor'
Mortis)'–'the!body!becomes!rigid!due!to!the!contraction!of!muscles.!Develops!3Q6!hours!
death!and!may!last!24!to!36!hours.!
Conditions'Stimulating'Rigor'Mortis:'
1.!Heat'Stiffening:Body!exposed!to!temperature!above!75!c,!i:!will!coagulate!the!
muscle!proteins!and!cause!the!muscle!to!be!rigid.!
2.!Cold'stiffening:The!suffering!of!the!body!maybe!manifested!when!the!body!is!frozen!
but!exposure!to!warm!condition!will!make!such!suffering!disappear.!
3.!Cadaveric'Spasm'or'Instantaneous'Rigor:'this!is!the!instantaneous!rigidity!of!the!
muscles!which!occur!at!the!moment!of!dearth!due!to!extreme!nervous!tension,!
exhaustion!and!injury!to!the!nervous!system!or!injury!to!the!chest.!
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3.! Stage'of'secondary'Flaccidity'or'commencement'or'putrefaction'(decay'of'
muscles)'–'The!muscle!become!Flaccid,!no!longer!capable!or!responding!to!mechanical!or!
electrical!stimulus!and!the!reactions!alkaline.!

2.'CHANGES'IN'THE'BLOOD:'
a.!Coagulation'of'the'blood3'Clumping!or!clotting!of!blood.!
b.!Post3mortem'Lividity'or'Cadaveric'Lividity'or'post3mortem'Hypostasis'or'Livor'Mortis3'
accumulation!of!blood!in!the!most!dependent!portions!of!the!body.!
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IMPORTANCE'OF'CADAVERIC'LIVIDITY'OR'POST@MORTEM'LIVIDITY:'
1.!It!is!one!of!the!signs!of!death.!
2.!It!may!determine!whether!the!position!of!the!body!has!been!changed!after!its!appearance!from!
the!body.!
3.!The!color!of!the!lividity!may!indicate!the!cause!of!death.!
a.!Autolytic!or!Autodigestive!Changes!After!DeathQ!after!death,!protolytic,!glycolytic!and!
lipolytic!ferments!of!glandular!tissues!continue!to!act!which!lead!to!the!autodigestion!of!
organs.!
b.!Putrefaction!of!the!bodyQ!it!is!the!braking!of!the!complex!proteins!into!simpler!components!
associated!with!the!evolution!of!foul!smelling!gases!and!accompanied!by!the!change!in!
color!of!the!body.!
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Rigor'Mortis'@'the!stiffening!of!the!body!after!death!due!to!the!membranes!of!muscle!cells!
becoming!more!permeable!to!calcium!ions!which!make!the!muscles!contract]!the!muscles!
release!only!when!the!tissues!begin!to!decompose!
Livor'Mortis'@'known!as!postQmortem!lividity,!the!setting!of!blood!due!to!gravity!after!the!
heart!no!longer!circulates!through!the!body]!result!to!the!purple!discoloration!
Algor'Mortis@'the!cooling!of!the!body!after!death]!a!complex!process!which!does!not!occur!
at!the!same!rate!throughout!the!body!

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CAUSES'OF'DEATH'
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CAUSES'OF'DEATH'
refers!to!the!circumstances!that!led!to!death]!
it!is!an!explanation!of!how!the!cause!of!death!came!about,!either!natural!or!violent]!
reflect!an!opinion!based!on!available!information!such!as!activities!just!before!death,!recent!
symptoms,!previous!medical!records,!scene!investigation,!and!other!pertinent!information.!
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The#manner'of'death'is#the#explanation#as#to#how#the#cause#of#death#came#into#
being#or#how#the#cause#of#death#arose.#The#manner#of#death#may#be#natural#or#
violent.#
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MEDICO@LEGAL'CLASSIFICATION'OF'THE'
CAUSES'OF'DEATH'

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A.'NATURAL'DEATH'
It!is!natural!when!the!fatality!is!caused!solely!by!disease!(lobar!pneumonia,!ruptured!tubal!
pregnancy,!a!cancerous!growth,!cerebral!hemorrhage!due!to!hypertension,!etc.)!

B.'VIOLENT'OR'UNNATURAL'DEATH'
Death!due!to!injury!of!any!sort!(gunshot,!stab,!fracture,!traumatic!shock,!etc.).!A!physician!must!
not!include!in!the!consideration!the!manner!of!death!that!such!violent!death!is!suicidal,!accidental,!
or!homicidal.!
Such!a!conclusion!cannot!be!determined!in!the!postQmortem!examination.!It!requires!a!thorough!
investigation!of!all!possible!clues!in!which!medicoQlegal!findings!are!only!a!part!of.!

Penal'Classification'of'Violent'Deaths'
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1.!Accidental'Death'3'death!due!to!misadventure!or!accident.!An!accident!is!something!that!
happens!outside!the!sway!of!our!will,!and!although!it!comes!about!through!some!act!of!will,!lies!
beyond!the!bounds!of!human!foreseeable!consequences.!
2.!Negligent'Death'3'death!due!to!reckless!imprudence,!negligence,!lack!of!skill!or!lack!of!foresight.!
3.!Suicidal'Death'3'Destruction!of!One's!Self!
4.! Parricidal'Death'3'Killing!of!One's!Relative!
5.!Infanticidal'Death'3'Killing!of!a!child!less!than!three!(3)!days!old!
6.'Murder'
7.'Homicidal'Death'

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NAME:'
Subject'&'Schedule:

LESSON'2:' '
IDENTIFICATION'
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IDENTIFICATION'Defined:'It!is!the!determination!of!the!
individuality!of!a!person!or!thing.!
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IMPORTANCE'OF'IDENTIFICATION'OF'PERSON'
1.!Prosecution!of!Criminal!offense!
2.!Identification!of!missing!or!presumed!dead!(law!on!presumption!of!death,!Art!390!of!Civil!Code!
3.!Resolves!the!anxiety!of!the!nextQofQkin!as!to!the!whereabouts!of!the!missing!person!or!victim!of!
calamity!or!criminal!act.!
4.!Needed!in!some!transactions,!like!cashing!of!check,!entering!a!premise,!release!of!dead!
bodies,!etc!
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RULES'IN'PERSONAL'IDENTIFICATION'
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1.!Law'of'Multiplicity'of'Evidence'in'Identification'3'The!greater!the!number!of!points!of!
similarities!and!dissimilarities!of!two!persons!compared,!the!greater!the!probability!for!the!
conclusion!to!be!correct.!
2.!The!value!of!different!points!of!identification!varies!in!the!formulation!of!conclusion.!(Fingerprint!
can!positively!establish!the!identity,!bodily!marks!like!mole,!scars!etc.!are!merely!corroborative.!
As!well!as!visual!recognition!of!relatives!are!of!lesser!value.!
3.!The!longer!the!interval!between!death!and!the!examination!of!the!remains!for!purposes!of!
identification,!the!greater!is!the!need!for!experts!in!establishing!identity.!
4.!If!the!subject!of!identification!is!highly!perishable,!it!is!necessary!for!the!team!to!act!
immediately.!
5.!There!is!no!rigid!rule!to!be!observed!in!the!procedure!of!idenfication!of!persons.!
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METHODS'OF'IDENTIFICATION'
1.!By'Comparison'@'identification!criteria!recovered!during!investigation!are!compared!with!
records!available!in!the!file,!or!postQmortem!finding!are!compared!with!anteQmortem!records.!
Example:!
a.!Latent!prints!recovered!from!crime!scene!compared!with!fingerprints!on!file.!
b.!Dental!findings!on!skeletal!remains!are!compared!with!the!dental!record!of!the!person!in!
possession!of!the!dentist.!
2.!By'Exclusion'@'if!two!or!more!persons!have!to!be!identified!and!all!but!one!is!not!yet!identified,!
then!the!one!whose!identity!has!not!been!established!may!be!known!by!the!process!of!
elimination.!

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IDENTIFICATION'OF'PERSONS'
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BASES'OF'HUMAN'IDENTIFICATION'
1.!Those'which'laymen'used'to'prove'identity'3'no!special!training!or!skill!is!required!of!the!
identifier!and!no!instrument!or!procedure!is!demanded.!
2.!Those'which'are'based'on'scientific'knowledge'3'identification!is!made!by!trained!men,!well!
seasoned!by!experience!and!observation,!and!primarily!based!on!comparison!or!exclusion.!
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ORDINARY'METHODS'OF'IDENTIFICATION'APPLICABLE'TO'LIVING'PERSON'ONLY'
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1.'CHARACTERISTICS'WHICH'MAY'EASILY'BE'CHANGED:'
a.!Growth'of'hair,'beard'or'mustache'3'This!may!easily!be!shaved!or!grown!within!a!short!
time.!Arrangement!may!be!changed!artificial!hair!may!be!grown!or!ornamentation!may!be!
placed!to!change!its!natural!condition.!
b.!Clothing'3'A!person!may!have!special!preference!for!certain!form,!texture!and!style.!
Certain!groups!of!people!are!required!to!have!specific!cut,!color!or!design,!as!in!uniforms,!
worn!by!students,!employees!of!commercial!or!industrial!establishment,!or!groups!of!
professionals.!
c.!Frequent'place'of'visit'3'a!person!may!have!a!special!desire!or!habit!to!be!in!a!place!if!
ever!he!has!the!opportunity!to!do!so.!"SariQsari"!stores,!barber!shops,!coffee!shops,!beer!
gardens!and!recreation!halls!are!common!venues!of!visit!of!certain!class!of!people.!A!
wanted!criminal!may!suddenly!prevent!himself!from!going!to!the!place!he!used!to!visit!for!
fear!that!he!may!be!apprehended.!
d.!Grade'of'profession'3'a!medical!student!of!the!upper!clinical!year!may!be!recognized!by!
the!stethoscope]!a!graduate!or!student!nurse!by!her!cap,!a!mechanic!by!his!tools,!a!
clergyman!by!his!robe,!etc.!A!change!of!grade,!trade,!vocation!or!profession!may!be!
resorted!to!as!a!means!of!concealing!identity.!
e.!Body'ornamentation'3'Earrings,!necklaces,!rings,!pins,!etc.!usually!worn!by!persons!may!
be!points!to!identify!a!person!from!the!rest.!

2.'CHARACTERISTICS'THAT'MAY'NOT'BE'EASILY'CHANGED:'
a.!Mental'memory'@'A!recollection!of!time,!place!and!events!may!be!a!clue!in!
identification.!Remembering!names,!faces!and!subjects!of!common!interest!may!be!
initiated!during!interview!to!see!how!knowledgeable!a!person!is.!
b.!Speech'@'a!person!may!stammer,!stutter!or!lisp.!However,!if!the!manner!of!talking!is!
due!to!some!physical!defects,!like!harelip!and!cleft!palate,!that!have!been!corrected!by!
surgery,!there!may!be!a!change!in!his!manner!of!speech.!
The!manner!of!talking!and!the!quality!of!the!voice!are!dependent!on!the!vocal!
cavities!(throat,!mouth,!nose!and!sinuses)!and!his!manner!of!manipulating!the!lips,!
teeth,!tongue,!soft!palate,!and!jaw!muscles.!The!chances!of!two!or!more!persons!
having!the!same!size!of!vocal!cavities!and!the!same!manner!of!articulation!are!
remote!and!unlikely.!Whispering,!muffling!and!noseQholding!do!not!change!the!
speech!characteristics.!The!speech!may!be!recorded!and!preserved!in!a!good!tape!
recorder.!A!known!standard!may!also!be!recorded!for!purposes!of!comparison.!
Identification!can!be!achieved!through!the!sound!spectrographic!analysis.!

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c.'Gait'@'A!person!on!account!of!disease!or!some!inborn!traits,!may!show!a!characteristic!manner!of!
walking.!
1.!taxic'gait'@'a!gait!which!the!foot!is!raised!high,!thrown!forward!and!brought!down!suddenly!is!seen!in!
persons!suffering!from!tabes!dorsalis.!
2.!Cerebellar'gait'@'a!gait!associated!with!staggering!movement!is!seen!in!cerebellar!diseases.!
3.!Cow's'gait'@'A!swaying!movement!due!to!knockQknee.!
4.!Paretic'gait'@'gait!in!which!the!steps!are!short,!the!feet!are!dragged!and!the!legs!are!held!more!or!
less!widely!apart.!
5.!Spastic'gait'@'a!gait!in!which!the!legs!are!held!together!and!move!in!a!stiff!manner!and!the!toes!are!
dragged.!
6.!Festinating'gait'@'involuntary!movement!in!short!accelerating!steps.!
7.!Frog'gait'@'a!hopping!gait!resulting!from!infantile!paralysis.!
8.!Waddling'gait'@'exaggerated!alternation!of!lateral!trunk!movement!similar!to!the!movement!of!the!
duck.!

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d.'Mannerism'@'stereotype!movement!or!habit!peculiar!to!an!individual.!It!may!be:!
i.!way!of!sitting!
ii.!movement!of!the!hand!
iii.!movement!of!the!body!
iv.!movement!of!the!facial!muscles!
v.!expression!of!the!mouth!while!articulating!
vi.!manner!of!leaning.!
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e.'Hands'and'feet'@'size!and!shape!and!abnormalities!of!the!hands!and!feet!may!be!the!
bases!of!identification.!Some!persons!have!supernumerary!fingers!or!toes!far!apart!with!
bony!prominence.!Some!fingers!or!toes!are!with!split!nails.!
Foot!or!hand!marks!found!in!the!investigation!of!the!crime!scene!may!be:!
i.!Foot!or!hand!impression!Q!this!develops!when!the!foot!or!hand!is!pressed!on!
mouldable!materials!like!mud,!clay,!cement!mixture!or!other!semiQsolid!mass.!The!
impression!can!be!preserved!by!making!a!cast!of!it!with!plaster!of!Paris.!
ii.!Footprint!or!handprint!Q!this!is!a!footmark!or!handmark!on!a!hard!base!contaminated!
or!smeared!with!foreign!matters!like!dust,!flour,!blood,!etc.!

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f.'Complexion'@'complexion!can!be!determined!
when!the!whole!body!is!exposed!preferably!to!
ordinary!sunlight.!Dark!complexion!may!be!found!
fair!with!the!use!of!bleaching!chemicals,!while!
fair!complexion!may!be!temporarily!be!made!
dark!with!the!use!of!an!ointment!with!a!dark!
pigment.!Exposed!parts!of!the!body!usually!
appear!darker!than!those!covered!with!clothing.!

g.'Changes'in'the'eyes'@'a!person!identified!because!he!is!
nearsighted,!farQsighted,!color!blind,!astigmatic,!presbyopic,!or!
crossQeyed.!The!eyes!may!have!arcus!senilis,!artificial!pupils,!
irregular!marks!of!the!spectacles!or!cataract.!Color!of!the!iris,!
shape!of!the!eyes,!deformity!of!the!eyeball!and!the!presence!of!
disease!are!useful!bases!of!identification.!
h.'Facies'@'the!different!kinds!of!facial!expressions!brought!about!by!disease!or!racial!influence.!
Hippocratic'facies'@'the!nose!is!pinched,!the!temple!hollow,!eyes!sunken,!ears!cold,!lips!relaxed!and!
skin!livid.!The!appearance!of!the!face!is!indicative!of!approaching!death.!
Mongolian'facies'@'almond!eyes,!pale!complexion,!prominence!of!cheek!bones.!
Facies'Leonine'@'a!peculiar,!deeply!furrowed,!lionQlike!appearance!of!the!face.!This!may!be!observed!
in!leprosy,!elephantiasis!and!leontiasis!ossia.!
Myxedemic'facies'@'pale!face,!edematous!swelling!which!does!not!pit!on!pressure,!associated!with!
dullness!of!intellect,!slow!monotonous!speech,!muscular!weakness!and!tremor.!
The!face!may!be!round,!oval,!triangular!or!slightly!square.!
Distinct!identifying!marks!may!be!present!on!the!face,!such!as,!peculiar!attractive!scars,!moles,!hair,!
nose!and!condition!of!the!skin!which!an!identifier!may!specially!notice.!
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i.'Left'3'or'right3handedness'3'the!preferential!use!of!one!hand!with!skill!to!the!other!in!voluntary!motor!
acts.!Ambidextrous!people!can!use!their!right!and!left!hands!with!equal!skill.!
The!best!way!to!determine!whether!a!person!is!left!Q!or!right!handed!or!ambidextrous!is!to!observe!him!
during!his!unguarded!moments.!

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j.'Degree'of'nutrition'@'the!determination!must!be!in!relation!to!the!height!and!age.!A!person!may!be!thin,!
normal!or!stout.!This!point!of!identification!easily!changes!by!refraining!from!intake!of!fatty!foods.!Some!
persons!are!inherently!skinny!inspite!of!heavy!intake!of!nutritive!food.!
APPLICABLE'TO'BOTH'LIVING'AND'DEAD'
BEFORE'THE'ONSET'OF'DECOMPOSITION'
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1.!Occupational'Marks'@'certain!occupations!may!result!in!some!characteristic!marks!or!identifying!guides:!
a.! A!shoemaker!develops!depressed!sternum!
b.!Painters!have!stains!on!the!hand!and!fingernails.!
c.!Engineers!and!mechanics!may!have!grease!on!their!hands.!
d.!A!dressmaker!develops!multiple!punctured!marks!on!fingertips.!
e.!Baker!and!Miller!may!have!flour!dust!on!their!items!of!clothing!and!their!bodies.!
f.!Mason!have!callosities!on!the!palms!of!the!hands.!
g.!Scars!caused!by!burns!produced!by!scales!or!sparks!or!red!hot!iron!may!be!seen!at!the!back!of!
blacksmiths'!hands.!
h.!Involuntary!tattooing!of!particles!of!coal!may!be!seen!in!the!hands!of!miners.!
i.!Chemical!stains!may!be!present!on!the!hands!of!dyers,!photographic!developers,!and!printers.!
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Occupational!marks!of!a!coconut!tree!climbers! Occupational!marks!of!cottage!industrial!workers!

2.!Race'@'In!the!living,!race!may!be!presumed!in:!
a.!Color'of'the'skin:'
Caucasian!Q!Fair!
Malayan!Q!Brown!
Mongolian!Q!Fair!
Negro!Q!Black!
b.'Feature'of'the'Face'
Caucasian!Q!prominent!sharp!nose!
Malayan!Q!Flat!nose!with!round!face!
Mongolian!Q!almond!eyes!and!prominent!
cheek!bone!
Negro!Q!Thick!lips!and!prominent!eyes!
Shape!of!the!Skull!
Caucasian!Q!elongated!skull!
Malayan!Q!round!head!
Mongolian!Q!round!head!
Red!Indians!and!Eskimos!Q!flat!head!
Wearing!apparel!Q!casual!and!customary!
wearing!apparel!may!indicate!race!as!well!
as!religion,!nationality,!region!and!custom.!

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3.!Stature'@'a!person!ceases!to!increase!in!height!after!the!
age!of!25.!There!is!apparent!shrinkage!in!height!after!a!
longQstanding!debilitating!disease.!There!is!actual!shrinkage!
in!old!age!because!of!the!compression!of!the!intervertebral!
and!the!curvature!of!the!spinal!column.!The!growth!of!a!
person!rarely!exceeds!five!centimeters!after!the!age!of!18.!
The!growth!rate!is!variable,!but!it!is!most!active!from!5!
to!7!and!from!13!to!16!years!of!age.!When!the!rate!of!
growth!is!increased,!the!horizontal!growth!is!relatively!
retarded.!

4.!Tattoo'Marks'@'the!introduction!of!coloring!pigments!in!the!skin!layers!by!
multiple!punctures.!Tattoo!marks!may!be!in!the!form!of!initials,!names,!
images,!or!views.!
Importance'of'Tattoo'marks:'
a.!It!may!help!in!the!identification!of!the!person.!The!image!inscribed!
may!reflect!the!name,!date!of!birth,!language!spoken,!religion,!name!of!
spouse,!etc.!
b.!It!may!indicate!memorable!events!in!his!life.!
c.!It!may!indicate!the!social!stratum!to!which!the!person!belongs.!
Generally,!tattooing!is!practiced!by!the!members!of!the!lower!economic!
class.!
d.!Lately,!a!tattoo!presence!implies!previous!commitment!in!prison!or!
membership!in!a!criminal!gang.!
Factors'Responsible'for'Permanency'of'Tattoo'
a.!Whether!the!punctures!are!superficial!or!deep!to!reach!the!true!skin]!
b.!Nature!and!solubility!of!the!pigment!used.!Ordinary!pen!ink!
disappears!quickly,!while!carbon!introduced!to!the!true!skin!layer!is!
usually!permanent.!Soluble!pigments!easily!disappear!and!may!be!
seen!in!the!lymph!glands.!
Methods!of!Removing!Tattoos!
a.!By!surgical!incision!Q!shallow!tattoo!may!disappear!by!simple!rubbing!
or!superficial!incision!and!may!leave!no!scar.!A!deepQseated!tattoo!may!
be!excised!and!usually!leaves!a!scar.!
5.!Weight'@'this!is!not!a!good!point!of!identification!for!it!easily!changed!from!time!to!time.!
6.!Deformities'@'Congenital!or!acquired!Q!deformities!may!cause!the!peculiar!way!of!walking,!body!
movement,!facial!expression,!mannerism,!etc.!Deformity!like!clubfoot,!harelip,!cleft!palate,!cystic!
conditions,!bony!prominence,!etc.!may!be!corrected!surgically.!
Acquired!deformities!in!the!form!of!amputation,!improper!union!of!bones,!depressed!fracture,!deforming!
scars!may!be!the!bases!
7.!Birth'Marks'@'birthmarks!may!be!spot!naevi,!port!wine,!or!a!Mongolian!blue!spot.!They!may!be!
removed!by!carbon!dioxide!snow,!electrocautery,!or!by!excision.!The!marks!must!be!described!as!to!
shape,!location,!dimension,!color,!and!degree!of!pigmentation.!
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CLUBFOOT! !
CLEFT!PALATE! SPOT!NAEVI!
PORT!WINE!
DEFORMITIES! 58 !
BIRTH!MARKS!
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8.!Injuries'leaving'permanent'results'@'amputation,!the!improper!union!of!fractured!bones.!
9.!Moles'@'ordinarily!permanent!but!can!be!removed!by!electrolysis,!radium,!or!carbon!dioxide!snow.!
10.!Scar'@'a!remaining!mark!after!healing!of!the!wound.!The!fibrous!tissue!takes!place!in!the!original!tissue,!
which!has!been!injured!or!destroyed.!A!scar!is!devoid!of!specialized!tissues,!so!it!does!not!contain!pigment,!
sweat,!or!sebaceous!glands.!Its!number,!exact!location,!size,!and!shape,!whether!elevated!or!depressed,!
should!be!noted.!
Faint!scars!may!be!visible!by!making!the!surrounding!skin!red!upon!applying!friction!with!the!hand!or!
by!heat.!
The!scar!which!develops!after!a!secondary!infection!is!usually!marked.!
Scar!increases!in!size!in!proportion!with!the!growth!of!the!person.!
Age!of!Scar!Q!a!recently!formed!scar!is!slightly!elevated,!reddish!or!bluish!in!color,!and!tender!to!
touch.!
In!a!few!weeks!to!two!months,!the!scar!has!inflammatory!redness,!and!it!is!soft!and!sensitive.!
Two!to!six!months!later,!it!becomes!brownish!or!coppery!red!in!color,!free!from!contraction!and!
corrugation,!and!soft.!
When!the!scar!is!white,!glistening,!contracted,!and!tough,!it!is!not!less!than!six!months.!
The!period!of!scar!formation!may!be!delayed!by!sepsis,!poor!vascularity!of!the!part!involved,!age,!
depth!of!the!wound,!mobility,!presence!of!the!foreign!body,!and!health!condition!of!the!victim.!The!
scar!may!or!may!not!develop!if!the!wound!is!small,!superficial,!and!healed!by!the!first!intention.!
11.!Tribal'Marks'@'marks!on!the!skin!by!tattooing!or!branding.!In!branding,!heated!metal!is!pressed!on!the!
skin,!and!during!the!healing!process,!a!scar!develops!as!a!mark.!The!tribal!marks!are!placed!in!the!body's!
exposed!parts!and!used!to!identify!a!person!or!membership!of!a!tribe!or!social!group.!
12.!Sexual'Organ'@'Male!organs!may!show!the!previous!circumcision.!In!females,!the!uterus!and!breasts!
may!show!signs!of!previous!pregnancy.!The!previous!gynecological!operation!may!be!seen!in!the!abdomen.!
13.!Blood'Examination'@'Blood!type,!disease,!a!parasitic!infection,!or!toxic!substances!present!may!be!
utilized!to!distinguish!one!person!from!another.!
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ANTHROPOMETRY'(Bertillon'System)'

Alphonse'Bertillon,!a!French!criminologist,!
devised!a!scheme!utilizing!anthropometrical!
measurement!of!the!human!body!as!the!basis!of!
identification.!
BASIS'OF'THE'BERTILLON'SYSTEM'OF'
IDENTIFICATION:'
1.!The!human!skeleton!is!unchangeable!after!the!
twentieth!year.!The!thigh!bone!continues!to!grow!
somewhat!after!the!period,!but!this!is!compensated!
by!the!curving!of!the!spine!which!takes!place!at!about!
the!same!age.!
2.!It!is!impossible!to!find!two!human!beings!having!
bones!exactly!alike.!
3.!The!necessary!measurement!can!easily!be!
taken!with!the!aid!of!a!simple!instrument.!
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INFORMATION'INCLUDED'IN'THE'SYSTEM:'
1.!Descriptive!Data!Q!color!of!the!hair,!eyes!and!complexion,!shape!of!the!nose,!ear,!etc.!
2.!Body!marks!Q!moles,!scars,!tattoo!marks,!deformities,!etc.!
3.!Anthropometrical!measurements!:!
a.!Body!measurements!Q!height,!width!of!outstretched!arms,!and!sitting!height.!
b.!Measurement!of!the!head!Q!length!and!breadth!of!head,!bizygomatical!diameter,!and!length!of!
the!right!ear.!
c.!Measurement!of!the!limbs!Q!length!of!the!left!foot,!length!of!the!left!middle!and!left!little!fingers,!
and!length!of!left!arm!and!hand!from!the!elbow!to!the!tip!of!the!outstretched!middle!finger.!
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BODY!&!LIMBS!MEASUREMENT!

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PORTAIT'PARLE'
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In!many!instances!an!investigator!does!not!have!a!picture!of!the!wanted!or!missing!person.!The!only!
way!to!have!an!idea!of!the!prominent!physical!features!is!for!the!witnesses!or!someone!who!has!
knowledge!of!the!identity!to!tell!him.!
Portrait'Parle''(spoken'pictures)'is!a!verbal,!accurate!and!picturesque!description!of!the!person!
identified.!Such!information!may!be!given!by!the!witness,!relatives,!or!other!persons!who!are!
acquainted!with!the!physical!features!of!the!person!to!be!identified.!
The!following!basic!requirements!must!be!included!in!the!verbal!description:!
a.!General!impression:!type,!personality,!apparent!social!status!
b.!Age!and!sex!
c.!Race!and!color!
d.!Height!
e.!Weight!
f.!Built!Q!Thin,!slender,!medium!or!stout!
g.!Posture!Q!Erect,!slouching,!round!shoulder!
h.!Head!Q!size,!shape!
i.!Hair!Q!color,!length,!baldness!
j.!Face!Q!General!impression!
i.!Forehead!Q!high,!low,!bulging!or!receding!
ii.!eyebrows!Q!brushy!or!thin,!shape!
iii.!Mustache!Q!length,!color,!shape!
iv.!Ears!Q!size,!shape,!size!of!lobe,!angle!of!set!
v.!Cheeks!Q!high,!low!or!prominent!medium!cheek!bones]!flat!or!sunken!
vi.!Nose!Q!short,!medium!or!big]!or!long]!straight,!aquiline!or!flat!or!pug.!
vii.!Mouth!Q!Wide,!small!or!medium]!general!impression!
viii.!Lips!Q!shape,!thickness,!color!
ix.!Teeth!Q!shade,!condition,!defect]!missing!elements!
x.!Chin!Q!Size,!shape,!general!impression!
xi.!Jaw!Q!Length,!shape,!lean,!heavy!or!medium!
k.!Neck!Q!shape,!thickness,!length]!Adam's!apple!
l.!Shoulder!Q!width!and!shape!
m.!Wrist!Q!Size,!shape!
n.!Hands!Q!Length]!size]!hair]!condition!of!the!palms!
o.!Fingers!Q!Length]!thickness]!stains]!shape!of!nails]!condition!of!the!nails.!
p.!Arms!Q!Long,!medium!or!short,!muscular]!normal!or!thin]!thickness!of!the!wrist!
q.!Feet!Q!size,!deformities!
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If!a!skilled!investigative!illustration!is!available,!a!picture!of!the!person!to!be!identified!may!be!
drawn!or!sketched.!As!a!check!to!the!sketch!or!drawing!made,!it!must!be!shown!to!the!person(s)!
who!gave!the!information!to!see!whether!it!tallies!with!the!person!to!be!identified.!
If!available,!the!investigator!may!look!at!what!is!commonly!called!rouge's!gallery!or!photographic!
files!of!wanted!or!missing!persons!for!comparison!with!the!cartographic!sketch.!
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EXTRINSIC'FACTORS'IN'IDENTIFICATION'
1.!Ornamentations'@'ring,!bracelet,!necklace,!hairpin,!earrings,!lapel!pin,!etc.!
2.!Personal'belongings'@'letters,!wallet,!driver's!license,!residence!certificate,!personal!cards,!etc.!
3.!Wearing'apparel'@'tailor!marks,!laundry!mark,!printed!name!of!owner,!size,!style,!and!texture,!
footwear,!socks.!
4.!Foreign'bodies'@'dust!in!clothings,!cerumen!in!the!ears,!nail!scrapping!may!show!occupation,!
place!of!residence!or!work,!habit,!etc.!
5.'identification'by'close'friends'and'relatives'
6.!Identification'records'on'file'at!the!police!department,!immigration!bureau,!hospital,!etc.!
7.'Identification'photograph.'
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LESSON'3:'SCIENTIFIC'
METHODS'OF'IDENTIFICATION'
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ASPECTS'OF'IDENTIFICATION'REQUIRING'SCIENTIFIC'KNOWLEDGE:'
1.!Fingerprinting!
2.!Dental!Identification!
3.!Handwriting!
4.!Identification!of!Skeleton!
5.!Determination!of!Sex!
6.!Determination!of!Age!
7.!Identification!of!Blood!and!Blood!Stains!
8.!Identification!of!Hair!and!Fibers!

FINGERPRINTING'
FINGERPRINTING'is!considered!to!be!the!most!valuable!method!of!identification.!It!is!universally!used!
because:!
1.'There'are'no'two'identical'fingerprints:'
Fingerprints!show!unlimited!and!infinite!varieties!of!form.!Two!or!more!fingerprints!may!grossly!
appear!to!be!seemingly!alike!but!under!a!microscope!or!the!magnifying!lens,!the!difference!may!be!
proven.!The!chances!of!two!fingerprints!being!the!same!are!calculated!to!be!1!to!64,000,000,000!
which!is!ten!times!the!number!of!fingers!existing!in!the!world.!
2.' Fingerprints'are'not'changeable:'
Fingerprints!are!formed!in!the!fetus!in!the!fourth!month!of!pregnancy.!During!the!latter!stage!of!
pregnancy!as!well!as!after!birth,!the!pattern!enlarges,!but!no!changes!take!place!in!the!number!and!
arrangement!of!the!friction!ridges.!
The!finger!may!be!wounded!or!burned,!but!the!whole!pattern!with!all!its!details!will!reappear!when!
the!wound!heals.!If!the!injury!is!deep!or!beyond!layers!of!the!skin!and!scar!develops,!it!will!not!deter!
identification.!On!the!contrary,!the!scar!will!make!a!much!deeper!impression!of!the!pattern.!It!can!be!
said!that!fingerprints!are!an!indelible!signature!which!a!person!carries!from!the!cradle!to!the!grave.!

PRACTICAL'USES'OF'FINGERPRINTS'
1.!Help!establish!identity!in!cases!of!dead!bodies!and!unknown!or!missing!persons.!
2.!Prints!recovered!from!the!crime!scene!associate!person!or!weapon.!
3.!Prints!on!file!are!useful!for!comparative!purposes!and!for!the!knowledge!of!previous!criminal!records.!
4.!Among!illiterates,!right!thumbprint!is!recognized!as!a!substitute!for!signature!on!legal!documents.!
Countries!differ!as!to!which!finger!is!used!for!the!purpose.!India!uses!the!left!thumb,!Spain!uses!the!
right!pointing!finger.!

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DACTYLOGRAPHY!is!the!art!and!study!of!recording!fingerprints!as!a!means!of!identification.!
DACTYLOSCOPY!Q!is!the!art!of!identification!by!comparison!of!fingerprints.!It!is!the!study!and!utilization!
of!fingerprints.!
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POROSCOPY!is!the!study!of!the!pores!found!on!the!papillary!or!friction!ridges!of!the!skin!for!purposes!of!
identification.!
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ADVANTAGES'OF'USING'FINGERPRINT'AS'A'MEANS'OF'IDENTIFICATION'
1.!Not!much!training!is!necessary!for!a!person!to!take,!classify!and!compare!fingerprints.!
2.!No!expensive!instrument!is!required!in!the!operation.!
3.!The!fingerprint!itself!is!easy!to!classify.!
4.!Actual!prints!for!comparative!purposes!are!always!avaiable!and!suspected!errors!can!easily!be!
checked.!

METHODS'OF'PRODUCING'IMPRESSIONS'
1.!Plain'Method'@'The!bulbs!of!the!last!phalanges!of!the!fingers!and!thumb!are!pressed!on!the!surface!of!
the!paper!after!pressing!them!on!an!ink!pad!or!ink!plate!with!printing!ink.!
2.!Rolled'Method'@'the!bulbs!of!the!thumb!and!other!fingers!are!rolled!on!the!surface!of!the!paper!after!
being!rolled!on!an!ink!pad!or!ink!plate!with!printing!ink.!

KINDS'OF'IMPRESSIONS'
1.!Real'impression'@'impression!of!the!finger!bulbs!with!the!use!of!printing!ink!on!the!surface!of!the!
paper.!Other!coloring!materials!may!be!used!but!they!are!less!visible!and!indelible.!
2.!Chance'Impression'@'fingerprints!which!are!impressed!by!mere!chance!without!any!intention!to!
produce!it.!Chance!impression!maybe:!
a.!Visible'print'3'impression!made!by!chance!and!is!visible!without!previous!treatment.!
Impression!made!by!the!fingers!smeared!with!some!colored!substances,!like!black!ink,!
vegetable!juice!may!be!visible!immediately!after!impression.!
b.!Plastic'Print'3'impression!made!by!chance!by!pressing!the!finger!tips!on!melted!parrafin,!putty,!
resin,!cellophane,!plastic,!tape,!butter,!soap,!etc.!
c.!Latent'Print'3'prints!which!are!not!visible!after!impression!but!made!visible!by!the!addition!of!
some!substances.!Latent!prints!developed!because!the!fingers!are!always!covered!with!
colorless!residue!of!oil!and!perspiration!which!when!pressed!on!smooth!and!nonQabsorbent!
material!will!cause!the!production!of!prints.!
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Visible'print' ' '

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Latent'print'
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HOW'TO'DEVELOP'LATENT'PRINTS'
1.!APPLICATION'OF'FINE'POWDER'@'the!choice!of!substance!to!be!used!
to!make!the!latent!prints!visible!depends!upon!the!texture!and!color!of!the!
material!where!the!suspicious!prints!are!located.!The!color!of!the!
substances!to!be!used!must!be!in!contrast!with!the!material.!
Characteristics!of!a!good!powder!
a.!It!should!be!adhesive!to!the!extent!that!it!clings!readily!to!the!edges!
of!the!fingerprints.!
b.!It!should!not!absorb!water.!
c.!It!should!provide!good!contrast!to!the!place!where!the!latent!print!is!
impressed.!

The!following!substances!are!commonly!used!to!make!latent!prints!
visible:!
1.!Graphite!for!spraying!
2.!Aluminum!powder!
3.!Plaster!of!paris!
4.!Copper!powder!for!latent!prints!on!leather!
5.!Metallic!antimony!
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2.!CHEMICAL'DEVELOPMENT'BY'FUMING'AND'
IMMERSION'@'fuming!by!iodine!or!arsenic!acid!or!
immersion!in!solution!of!silver!nitrate!may!develop!latent!
prints.!
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HOW'TO'GET'FINGERPRINT'IMPRESSIONS'ON'DEAD'BODIES'
1.!In!cases!of!fresh!dead!bodies,!the!fingers!are!unclenched!and!each!one!is!inked!individually!with!
the!aid!of!a!small!rubber!roller.!The!paper!where!the!print!will!be!impressed!will!be!placed!in!a!
spoonQshaped!piece!of!wood!and!slowly!and!evenly!rolled!over!the!pattern.!If!the!fist!is!too!tightly!
clenched,!a!small!incision!may!be!made!at!the!base!of!the!fingers.!The!contraction!may!also!be!
overcome!by!dipping!the!handsQon!hot!water.!
2.!If!the!soQcalled!washerwoman's!skin!is!not!too!marked!on!the!fingerprints!of!dead!bodies!recovered!
shortly!from!bodies!of!water!(floaters),!the!fingers!may!be!dried!off!with!a!towel,!and!glycerin!is!
injected!with!a!syringe!under!the!skin!of!the!fingertips!in!order!to!smoothen!the!surface.!The!
fingerprints!are!then!taken!like!that!of!a!freshly!dead!body.!
3.!If!the!"floater"!has!been!in!a!body!of!water!for!a!longer!time!and!the!friction!ridges!have!
disappeared,!the!skin!of!the!fingertips!is!cut!away.!This!area!of!skin!from!each!finger!is!placed!in!
small!labeled!test!tubes!containing!formaldehyde!solution.!If!the!papillary!ridges!are!still!preserved!
on!the!outer!surface,!the!person!taking!the!prints!places!a!portion!of!the!skin!on!his!right!index!
finger!protected!by!a!rubber!glove!and!then!takes!the!print!after!inking!the!fingertip.!
4.!The!same!procedure!as!described!may!be!applied!to!putrefied!or!burned!bodies!according!to!
circumstance.!

! 66!
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Can'fingerprint'be'effaced?'
John!Dillinger,!a!notorious!gangster!and!a!police!character!
attempted!to!erase!his!fingerprints!by!burning!them!with!acid,!but!
as!time!went!by,!the!ridges!were!again!restored!to!its!"natural"!
feature.!The!acid!he!applied!temporarily!destroyed!the!epidermis!
of!the!bulbs!of!his!fingers.!
as!long!as!the!dermis!of!the!bulbs!of!the!finger!is!not!completely!
destroyed,!the!fingerprints!will!always!remain!unchanged!and!
indestructible.!
!
!
Can'fingerprints'be'forged?'
There!is!a!considerable!controversy!regarding!the!possibility!of!
forging!fingerprints!or!making!a!simulated!impression!or!a!
perfect!replica!of!impression!of!fingers.!Various!experiments!
were!conducted!by!authorities!and!although!they!could!almost!
make!an!accurate!reproduction,!still!there!is!no!case!on!record!
known!or!have!been!written!that!forgery!of!fingerprints!has!
been!a!complete!success.!The!introduction!of!modern!scientific!
equipment,!new!techniques!and!upQtoQdate!knowledge!in!crime!
detection!will!always!foil!the!attempt.!

DENTAL'IDENTIFICATION'
!
The!role!of!the!teeth!in!human!identification!is!important!for!the!following!reasons:!
1.!The!possibility!of!two!persons!to!have!the!same!dentition!is!quite!remote.!An!adult!has!32!teeth!and!
each!tooth!has!five!surfaces.!Some!of!the!teeth!may!be!missing,!carious,!with!filling!materials,!and!
with!abnormality!in!shape!and!other!peculiarities.!This!will!lead!to!several!combinations!with!almost!
infinite!in!number!of!dental!characters.!
2.!The!enamel!of!the!teeth!is!the!hardest!substance!of!the!human!body.!It!may!outlast!all!other!tissues!
during!putrefaction!or!physical!destruction.!
3.!After!death,!the!greater!the!degree!of!tissue!destruction,!the!greater!the!importance!of!dental!
characteristics!as!a!means!of!identification.!
4.!The!more!recent!the!anteQmortem!records!of!the!person!to!be!identified,!the!more!reliable!is!the!
comparative!or!exclusionary!mode!of!identification!that!can!be!done.!

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CAUSES'OF'UNRELIABILITY'OF'THE'DENTAL'RECORDS'
An!anteQmortem!dental!record!may!be!available!but!may!be!insufficient,!and!in!some!instances!unreliable!
for!purposes!of!comparison!with!the!postQmortem!findings!because:!
1.!The!dentist,!in!the!course!of!diagnosis!and!treatment!of!the!patient,!may!only!concern!himself!with!the!
affected!teeth!and!may!not!care!to!have!a!detailed!examination!of!the!other!teeth.!
2.!There!may!be!no!uniformity!in!nomenclature!of!the!location!and!condition!in!the!charting!of!the!teeth.!
3.!Although!there!may!be!a!law!obliging!dentists!to!have!a!record!of!their!patient,!the!law!does!not!
mention!the!agency!which!will!enforce!it.!
4.!The!dentist!may!have!a!record!but!may!no!longer!be!reliable!on!account!of!the!lapse!of!time.!There!
may!be!changes!in!the!teeth!which!are!not!seen!by!the!dentist.!

Dental'Features'which'may'be'included'in'the'description'for'Identification'
'

1.!Malposition,!overlapping,!crowding,!and!spacing!of!teeth.!
2.!Number!and!location!of!deciduous!or!permanent!teeth.!
3.!Missing!(unerrupted!or!extracted)!or!supernumery!teeth!
4.!Peculiar!shape,!size,!direction!of!growth!of!individual!teeth.!
5.!Missing!piece!or!fragment!due!to!decay!or!trauma.!
6.!Restoration,!prosthesis!(surface,!morphology,!configuration!and!material)!
7.!Root!canal!theraphy!on!xQray!examination.!
8.!Bone!pattern!on!xQray!examination.!
9.!Complete!denture!(type,!shade!and!material).!
10.!Relationship!of!bite!
11.!Oral!pathology!(tore,!gingival!hyperplasia,!etc.)!

Other'aspects'of'Identification'Which'may'be'Reflected'in'Dentition'
1.!Personal,!Occupational!and!Cultural!Traits!
a.!Cigarette!smokers!may!have!smoke!marks!mainly!on!the!lingual!surface!of!the!anterior!upper!teeth.!
b.!Seamstress,!carpenter,!cobblers!may!hold!pins!or!nails!between!incissors!and!may!cause!formulation!
of!groove.!
c.!Wind!instrument!musicians!may!have!altered!position!of!their!teeth!due!to!mouth!formation!necessary!
for!playing!the!instrument.!
d.!Pipe!smokers!may!develop!an!ovalQshape!notch!at!the!occlusal!surface!or!irregular!gaps!located!at!
the!angle!of!the!mouth.!
e.!Sandblasters!and!stone!mason!may!cause!abrasions!on!the!labial!or!occlusal!surface!of!the!teeth.!
f.!Poor!hygience,!with!many!decayed!teeth!and!no!restorations!infers!individual!of!low!economic!status.!
Extracted!teeth!are!also!not!replaced!by!bridgework.!
g.!Excessive!fruit!juice!drinker!or!carbonated!drinks!may!cause!dissolution!of!the!enalel!structure!of!the!
front!teeth.!
h.!Mutilation!of!teeth!by!filing!or!inlaying!with!precious!metals!or!stone,!not!done!professionally,!may!
indicate!tribal!customs!and!cultural!peculairties.!
2.!Age!
a.!9!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!12!permanent!teeth!(8!incisors!and!4!molars!)!
b.!11!years!old!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!20!permanent!teeth!(8!incisors,!8!preQmolar!and!4!molars)!
c.!13!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!28!permanent!teeth!and!no!dedicious!teeth.!
d.!8!to!10!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!Calcification!begin!at!the!3rd!molar!
e.!25!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!Root!Q!ends!of!3rd!molar!completely!calsified.!
f.!Beyond!25!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!Ends!of!the!root!of!the!3rd!molar!have!been!completely!calsified.!
g.!After!30!years!QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ!Carries!frequently!develop!at!the!cementum.!There!may!be!gingival!
recession,!decay!attak!of!the!root!surface.!
3.!Sex!Q!examination!for!the!presence!of!Barr!bodies!and!palatal!scrappings.! 68 !
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!

HANDWRITING'
!
A!person!may!be!identified!through!his!handwriting,!handprinting,!and!handnumbering.!
Sec.!23,!Rule!132,!Rules!of!Court!Q!Handwriting,!how!proved:!
The!handwriting!of!a!person!may!be!proved!by!any!witness!who!believes!to!be!the!
handwriting!of!such!person,!and!has!seen!the!person!write,!or!has!seen!writing!purporting!to!
be!his!upon!which!the!witness!has!acted!or!has!been!charged,!and!has!thus!acquired!
knowledge!of!the!handwriting!of!such!person.!Evidence!respecting!the!handwriting!may!also!
be!given!by!a!comparison,!made!by!the!witness!or!the!court.!with!writings!admitted!or!treated!
as!genuine!by!the!party!against!whom!the!evidence!is!offered,!or!proved!to!be!genuine!to!the!
satisfaction!of!the!judge.!
!
The!genuiness!of!any!disputed!writing!may!be!proven!by!any!of!the!following!ways:!
1.!Acknowledgement!of!the!alleged!writer!that!he!wrote!it]!
2.!Statement!of!witness!who!saw!the!writing!made!and!is!able!to!identify!it!as!such]!
3.!By!the!opinion!of!persons!who!are!familiar!with!the!handwriting!of!the!alleged!writer]!or!
4.!By!the!opinion!of!an!expert!who!compares!the!questioned!writing!with!that!of!other!writings!
which!are!admitted!or!treated!to!be!genuine!by!the!party!against!whom!the!evidence!is!
offered.!
Sec!44,!Rule!130,!Rules!of!Court!Q!Opinion!of!ordinary!witnesses:!
The!opinion!of!a!witness!regarding!the!identity!of!handwriting!of!a!person,!when!he!has!
knwowledge!of!the!person!or!handwriting]!the!opinion!of!the!subscribing!witness!to!a!writing]!the!
validity!of!which!is!in!dispute,!respecting!the!mental!sanity!of!the!signer]!and!the!opinion!of!n!
intimate!acquaintance!respecting!the!mental!sanity!of!a!person!the!reason!for!the!opinion!being!
given,!may!be!received!as!evidence.!
In!order!for!an!ordinary!witness!to!be!qualified!to!express!opinion,!it!must!be!shown!that!he!has!
some!familiarity!with!a!handwriting!of!the!person!in!a!way!recognized!by!law.!

SOME'PRACTICAL'USES'OF'HANDWRITING'EXAMINATION'
1.!Financial!crimes!(bogus!checks,!credit!card!fraud,!embezzlement)!
2.!Death!investigation!(suicide!notes,!hotel!registration!cards,!letter!of!explanation).!
3.!Robberies!(pawnshop!notes,!cashing!of!stolen!checks)!
4.!Kidnapping!with!ransom!(demand!note,!threatening!letter)!
5.!Anonymous!threatening!letters!
6.!Falsification!of!documents!(deeds!of!conveyance,!receipts).!

BIBLIOTICS'is!the!science!of!handwriting!analysis.!It!is!the!study!of!documents!and!writing!
materials!to!determine!its!genuineness!or!authorship.!One!who!had!acquired!special!knowledge!of!
the!science!of!handwriting!for!purposes!of!identification!is!known!as!Bibliotist!or!more!commonly!
known!as!handwriting!expert!or!or!qualified!questioned!document!examiner.!
GRAPHOLOGY'is!the!study!of!handwriting!for!the!purpose!of!determining!the!writer's!
personality,!character!and!aptitude.!It!is!a!pseudoQscience!and!merely!explains!the!characteristics!
of!the!handwriting!reflecting!the!character,!weakness,!personal!idiosyncarcy,!mannerism!and!
ambition!of!the!writer.!It!must!not!be!confused!with!bibliotics.!

HANDWRITING'is!a!complex!interaction!of!nerves,!memory!and!muscular!movement.!It!is!
influenced!by!several!factors!and!may!be!changed!or!modified!during!the!lifeQspan!of!a!person.!
!
!
!
!
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WRITING'is!a!conscious!act,!but!on!account!of!a!repeated!act!it!becomes!habitual!and!
unconscious.!The!writer!concentrates!more!on!the!subjectQmatter!of!the!writing!than!on!
the!way!the!letter!are!formed!which!make!uo!the!writing.!
Worry,!anxiety,!anger,!feeling!of!insecurity,!age,!and!drunkenness!may!cause!
variation!of!a!person's!handwriting.!
MOVEMENTS'IN'HANDWRITING'
1.!Finger'movement'@'the!letters!are!made!entirely!by!the!thumb's!action,!the!pointing,!and!the!
middle!fingers.!Such!is!found!among!children,!illiterates,!and!those!who!write!in!an!unfamiliar!
process.!
2.!Hand'Movement'@'the!letters!are!produced!by!the!hand's!action!as!a!whole,!with!the!wrist!as!the!
center!of!the!action!and!with!some!action!of!the!fingers.!Most!of!the!illegible,!scratchy,!and!
angular!writings!of!women!are!produced!by!such!movement.!
3.!Arm'Movement'@'the!movement!in!writing!is!made!by!the!hand!and!arm!supported!with!the!
elbow!at!the!lateral!swing!center.!Many!of!the!good!writings!are!written!in!this!manner.!There!is!
more!speed,!rhythm,!and!freedom!in!this!way!of!writing.!
4.!The'entire'arm'produces'whole'arm'movement'@'the!action!without!any!rest.!The!source!of!
motion!comes!from!the!shoulder.!Writing!on!a!blackboard!is!a!good!example!of!whole!arm!
movement.!
PURPOSE'OF'HANDWRITING'EXAMINATION'
1.!Whether!the!document!was!written!by!the!suspect.!
2.!Whether!the!document!was!written!by!the!person!whose!signature!it!bears.!
3.!Whether!the!writing!contains!additions!or!deletions.!
4.!Whether!the!document!such!as!bills,!receipts,!suicide!notes,!or!checks!are!genuine!or!a!
forgery.!
!
! IDENTIFICATION'OF'THE'SKELETON'
!
Occasionally,!before!a!physician!is!called!to!examine!a!dead!body,!the!soft!tissues!have!
already!disappeared!and!only!the!skeletal!system!remains.!All!the!external!identifications!have!
already!disappeared.!In!this!particular!case,!we!resort!to!the!study!of!the!bones.!
In'the'examination'of'bones,'the'following'points'can'be'determined'approximately'
1.!Whether!the!remains!are!of!human!origin!or!not.!
2.!Whether!the!remains!belong!to!a!single!person!or!not.!
3.!Height]!
4.!Sex]!
5.!Race]!
6.!Age]!
7.!Length!of!internment!or!length!of!time!from!date!of!death.!
8.!Presence!or!absence!of!antemortem!or!postQmortem!bone!injuries.!
9.!Congenital!deformities!and!acquired!injuries!on!the!hard!tissues!causing!
permanent!deformities.!

How'to'Determine'Whether'the'Remains'Are'Human'Origin'or'Not:'
The!shape,!size,!and!general!nature!of!the!remains,!especially!that!of!the!head,!must!
be!studied.!The!oval!or!round!shape!of!the!skull!and!the!less!prominent!lower!jaw!and!
nasal!bone!are!suggestive!of!human!remains.!A!complete!layout!of!the!whole!bones!
found!and!placing!each!of!them!in!their!corresponding!places!in!the!human!body!will!
be!helpful.!The!presence!of!dental!fixtures,!rings!on!the!fingers,!earrings!in!the!case!of!
women,!hair,!and!other!wearing!apparels,!together!with!the!remains!are!the!strong!
presumption!of!human!remains.! 70 !
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How'to'Determine'Whether'the'Remains'Comes'from'a'Single'Individual'or'Not'
A!complete!layout!of!the!bones!on!a!table!in!their!exact!locations!in!the!human!body!is!necessary.!
Any!plurality!or!excess!of!the!bones!after!a!complete!layout!denotes!that!the!remains!belong!to!more!
than!one!person.!However,!congenital!deformities!as!supernumerary!fingers!and!toes!must!not!be!
forgotten,!The!inequality!in!sizes,!especially!of!the!limbs!may!be!antemortem.!

Height'
Several!formulae!using!different!constants!have!been!forwarded!in!the!approximation!of!the!height!of!
a!person!by!measuring!the!long!bones!of!the!body.!
Determination'of'the'Sex'of'the'Skeleton'
In!determining!the!sex!of!the!skeleton,!the!following!bones!must!be!studied:!
1.!Pelvis!
2.!Skull!
3.!Sternum!
4.!Femur!
5.!Humerus!
Determination'of'the'Duration'of'Interment'
The!period!from!the!time!of!death!up!to!the!time!of!examination!may!be!determined!by!the!nature!and!
presence!of!the!soft!tissues!and!the!degree!of!erosion!of!the!bones.!Ordinarily,!all!the!soft!tissues!in!a!
grave!disappear!within!a!year.!However,!it!is!influenced!by!several!factors.!

The'Bases'of'the'Estimate'for'Duration'of'Interment'are:'
1.!Presence!or!absence!of!soft!tissues!still!adherent!to!the!bones.!
2.!Firmness!and!weight,!brittleness,!dryness!of!the!bones.!
3.!The!degree!of!erosion!of!the!surface!of!the!bones.!
4.!The!changes!in!clothing,!coffin,!and!painting.!

Determination'of'the'Presence'or'Absence'of'Ante@Mortem'or'Post@mortem'Injuries'
Individual!bones!must!be!examined!in!detail!for!possible!fractures.!Importance!must!be!laid!on!
whether!these!injuries!in!the!bones!occurred!during!life!or!in!the!process!of!exhumation.!Note!the!
presence!of!vital!reaction,!principally!the!signs!of!repairs.!
!
DETERMINATION'OF'SEX'
Legal'Importance'of'Sex'Determination'
1.'As'an'aid'in'identification:'
Habit,!social!life,!manner!of!dressing,!physical!features,!and!
inclination!are!generally!dependent!on!sex.!These!points!are!useful!in!
identification.!
2.'To'determine'whether'an'individual'can'exercise'certain'obligations'
vested'by'law'to'one'sex'only:'
For!example,!under!the!National!Defense!Act,!compulsory!military!
service!or!training!refers!only!to!males,!20!years!of!age!or!above.!
3.'Marriage'or'the'union'of'a'man'and'a'woman:'
Any!male!of!the!age!of!sixteen!years!or!more,!and!any!female!at!any!
age!of!fourteen!years!or!more,!not!under!any!of!the!impediments!
mentioned!in!articles!80!to!84,!may!contract!marriage!(Art.!54,!Civil!
Code)!
4.'Rights'granted'by'law'are'different'from'different'sexes:'
5.'There'are'certain'crimes'wherein'specific'sex'can'only'be'the'
71
offender'or'victim:' !
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DETERMINATION'OF'AGE'
!
Legal'Importance'of'Determination'of'Age:'
1.!As!an!aid!in!identification:!
Mention!of!the!age!of!the!wanted!or!missing!person!will!create!an!impression!of!the!physical!
characteristics,!social!life!and!psychic!and!mental!behavior!of!that!person.!Although!it!may!
only!be!presumptive,!it!may!be!useful!in!identification.!
2.!Determination!of!criminal!liability:!
3.!Determination!of!right!of!suffrage:!
4.!Determination!whether!a!person!can!exercise!civil!rights:!
5.!Determination!of!the!capacity!to!contract!marriage]!
!
OTHER'POINTS'TO'CONSIDER'IN'THE'DETERMINATION'OF'AGE'
'

1.!Growth'of'pubic'hair,'beard'and'mustache'@'the!pubic!hair!begins!to!appear!at!the!age!of!13!in!
female!and!14!in!male.!The!growth!of!thick!dark!hair!as!well!marked!on!the!pubes,!scrotum!and!in!
the!axillae!at!about!16!to!17!years!of!age.!Mustache!and!beard!begin!to!appear!in!male!at!the!age!
of!16!to!18.!
2.!Changes'of'the'breast'in'female'@'the!development!of!the!breast!in!female!commences!at!the!
age!of!13!to!14.!The!degree!and!the!commencement!of!development!may!be!influenced!by!habit!
and!social!environment.!
3.!Development'of'the'voice'@'Males!develop!low!tone!voice!between!the!age!16!to!18,!while!
females!change!their!voice!on!the!same!period.!Males!become!low!pitch!while!females!become!
high!pitch.!
4.!Changes'in'color'of'the'hair'@'The!black!color!of!the!hair!becomes!gray!after!forty.!SilveryQwhite!
color!may!be!seen!in!advanced!old!age.!Sometimes!gray!hair!appears!in!younger!people!or!may!
appear!suddenly!after!extreme!terror,!grief!or!shock.!Localized!areas!of!gray!hair!may!be!due!to!
neuralgia!or!other!diseases!of!the!fifth!cranial!nerve.!Pubic!hair!may!turn!gray!at!the!age!of!50.!
5.!Grade'or'year'in'school'or'college'@'Usually!children!enter!the!primary!school!at!the!age!of!7.!
They!finish!high!school!at!the!age!of!17.!Graduation!in!a!collegiate!course!depends!on!the!
number!of!years!required!for!the!course.!
6.!Menstruation'in'women'@'Menstruation!usually!commence!at!the!age!of!12!but!in!warm!
countries!it!may!start!at!an!earlier!age.!
7.'Degree'of'mental'development'
8.'Manner'of'dressing,'self@beautification'and'social'life'
9.'Atheromatous'changes'of'blood'vessels,'opacity'of'the'lens'and'cornea'(arcus'senilis)'
10.'Wrinkleness'of'the'skin'usually'appears'after'forty.'

IDENTIFICATION'OF'BLOOD'AND'
BLOOD'STAINS'
Legal'Importance'of'the'Study'of'Blood'
1.'For'disputed'parentage'(maternity'and'paternity)'
a.#Disputed#paternity#may#arise:#
i.!When!the!wife!committed!adultery!and!the!husband!denied!being!the!father!of!the!child.!
ii.!When!the!child!was!born!out!of!wedlock!and!the!mother!claimed!someone!to!be!the!father!but!he!
vehemently!denied!it.!
iii.!In!a!claim!for!support!or!right!of!succession!of!the!alleged!illegitimate!child.!
b.#Disputed#maternity#mar#arise:#
i.!In!the!case!of!allegation!of!interchange!of!children!in!a!hospital!or!nursery!home,!either!accidentally!
or!deliberately.!
ii.!In!the!case!of!wayward!or!stray!children!being!claimed!by!two!or!more!women.! 72 !
iii.!For!ownership!of!dead!fetus!or!newly!born!child!found!in!street!trash.!
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2.!Circumstantial'or'corroborative'evidence'against'or'in'favor'of'the'perpetrator'of'a'crime:'
Example:!"A"!was!found!dead!with!a!deep!stab!wound!on!the!chest!"B"!was!found!with!a!kitchen!knife!in!
his!hand!stained!with!blood.!Examination!of!the!weapon!showed!that!the!stain!was!the!blood!of!a!human!
origin!and!belonging!to!the!same!group!as!that!of!the!deceased!"A".!With!such!result!of!the!examination,!
the!investigating!authorities!have!a!very!strong!presumption!that!"B"!was!the!one!who!committed!the!
crime.!
3.'Determination'of'the'cause'of'death'
The!amount!of!blood!or!bloodstains!found!in!the!scene!of!the!
crime!or!found!inside!the!body!of!a!deceased!outside!the!
blood!vessels!may!imply!that!the!cause!of!death!of!the!person!
is!hemorrhage.!
4.'Determination'of'the'direction'of'the'escape'of'the'victim'or'
the'assailant'
The!shape!of!the!blood!or!blood!stains!will!give!the!investigator!
an!idea!of!the!direction!of!the!source!of!blood.!Usually!in!small!
drops,!the!tapering!end!of!the!blood!spot!is!towards!the!direction!
of!the!moving!source!of!blood.!

5.'Determination'of'the'approximate'time'the'crime'was'
committed:'
Although!there!are!variations!as!to!the!color!and!soluble!
changes!as!to!regards!the!age!of!the!stain,!we!can!only!say!
when!it!is!too!much!and!it!is!not!very!recent.!
6.'Determination'of'the'place'of'commission'of'the'crime.'
7.'Determination'of'the'presence'of'certain'diseases.'

Problems'to'be'Answered'in'the'Examination'of'Blood:'
1.!Determine!whether!the!stain!is!due!to!blood.!
2.!If!due!to!blood,!determine!whether!it!is!human!origin!or!not.!
3.!If!it!is!human!origin,!to!what!group!does!it!belong?!
4.!Does!it!belong!to!the!person!in!question?!
5.!The!manner,!degree!and!condition!of!the!article!which!have!been!stained.!
Age'of'the'Blood'Stain'
When!the!blood!is!exposed!to!the!atmosphere!or!other!influences,!its!hemoglobin!is!converted!to!
methQhemoglobin!or!hematin.!The!color!is!changed!from!red!to!reddish!Q!brown.!The!presence!of!
acid!accelerates!the!formation!of!hematin.!These!changes!take!place!in!warm!weather!within!24!
hours.!Blood!of!one!week!old!and!of!six!weeks!may!not!present!a!difference!in!physical!and!
chemical!properties.!
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Differential'Characteristics'of'Blood'from'Different'Sources'
1.'Arterial'Blood'
a.!Bright!scarlet!color]!
b.!Leaves!the!blood!vessel!with!pressure]!
c.!High!oxygen!content.!
2.'Venous'Blood'
a.!Dark!red!in!color]!
b.!Does!not!spill!far!from!the!wound]!
c.!Low!oxygen!content!
3.' Menstrual'Blood'
a.!Does!not!clot]!
b.!Acidic!in!reaction!owing!to!the!mixture!with!vaginal!mucous]!
c.!On!microscopic!examination,!there!are!vaginal!epithelial!cells]!
d.!It!contains!a!large!number!of!Deoderlein's!bacillus.!
4.'Man's'or'Woman's'Blood'
There!is!no!method!differentiating!a!man's!blood!from!a!woman's!blood.!Probably,!the!
presence!of!sex!hormones!in!female!blood!may!be!a!point!of!differentiation.!
5.'Child's'Blood'
a.!At!birth,!it!is!thin!and!soft!compared!with!that!of!an!adult,!
b.!Red!blood!cells!are!nucleated!and!exhibit!greater!fragility]!
c.!Red!blood!cells!count!more!than!in!adults.!

IDENTIFICATION'OF'HAIR'AND'FIBER'
How'the'Hair'and'Fiber'Change'Color'
1.!In!addition!of!a!substance!that!will!coat!the!outer!surface!of!the!hair!so!as!to!impart!a!different!
color.!
Example:!Salts!of!bismuth,!lead,!silver,!and!pyrogallic!acid.!
2.!Addition!of!substances!which!bleach!or!change!the!natural!color!of!the!hair!or!fiber:!
Example:!Hydrogen!peroxide,!chlorine!and!diluted!nitric!acid.!
The'Vegetable'and'Animal'Fibers'may'be'Differentiated'as'Follows:'
1.'Ignition'Test'
a.!Animal!Fibers!Q!Burn!and!fuse]!the!smell!of!burnt!hair]!fused!and!globular]!fume!turns!red!litmus!to!
blue.!
b.!Vegetable!fibers!Q!rapid!combustion!end!charred!and!break!sharply]!the!smell!of!burning!wood]!vapor!
turns!blue!litmus!to!red.!
2.'Chemical'Test:'Use'of'concentrated'nitric'acid:'
a.!Animal!Fibers!Q!turn!yellow!
b.!Vegetable!Fibers!Q!no!change!in!color!
3.'Picric'Acid'Test:'
a.!Wool!and!Silk!Q!yellow!
b.!Cellulose!Q!No!change.!
4.'Millon's'Reagent'Test:'
a.!Wool!and!silk!Q!turn!brown!
b.!Cellulose!fibers!Q!turn!black!
5.'Soaked'in'tannic'acid:'
a.!Wool!and!silk!Q!no!change.!
b.!Cellulose!fiber!Q!Black!
6.'Heated'with'10%'NaOH:'
a.!Wool!and!Silk!Q!Dissolve!
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b.!Cellulose!Q!Not!affected.! !
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PARTS'OF'THE'HAIR'
1.!Cuticle'@'the!outer!layer!of!the!hair.!
2.!Cortex'or'middle'layer'@'consists!of!longitudinal!fibers!
bearing!the!pigment.!
3.!Medulla'or'Core'@'contains!air!bubbles!and!some!pigments.!

Differences'Between'Hair'Forcibly'Extracted'and'Naturally'Shed'Hair:'
If!the!hairQroot!has!been!extracted!forcibly,!the!bulb!is!irregular!due!to!the!sheath!rupture.!It!shows!an!
undulating!surface,!together!with!excrescences!of!different!shapes!and!sizes.!A!naturally!shed!bulb!
has!a!rounded!extremity,!a!smooth!surface,!and!most!probably!show!signs!of!atrophic!or!fatty!
degeneration,!especially!in!an!older!person.!
Reference:!Glaister,!D.!(2000)!Medical!Jurisprudence!and!Toxicology.!
Other'Points'in'the'Identification'of'Hair'
1.'Characteristics'of'the'Hair'
The!hair!on!body!surfaces!is!fine!while!those!from!the!beard!mustache!and!scalp!are!very!
thick.!
Hair!from!the!eyebrows!and!lashes!is!tapering!gradually!to!fine!points.!
2.'Length'of'Hair'
Hair!from!the!scalp!grows!2.5!cm.!a!month!
Beard!hair!growth!at!a!rate!of!0.4!millimeters!a!day.!
3.'Color'of'the'Hair'
The!color!of!the!hair!may!be!black,!blonde,!or!brunette.!
Hair!from!older!persons!may!be!white!or!gray.!
The!hair!may!be!artificially!colored!by!bismuth,!lead,!or!silver!salts.!It!may!be!bleached!by!
the!addition!of!hydrogen!peroxide,!chlorine,!or!diluted!hydrochloric!or!nitric!acid.!
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How'to'detect'presence'of'coloring'or'bleaching'material'in'hair:'

1.!Examination!of!hair!may!show!pigments!at!nodes.!
2.!The!new!portion!of!the!hair!recently!grown!has!a!different!color!from!the!treated!part.!
3.!The!hair!in!other!parts!of!the!body!may!not!correspond!in!color.!
4.!The!scalp!may!be!dyed.!
5.!The!texture!of!the!hair!may!be!altered.!
Does'the'Hair'Belong'to'a'Male'or'a'Female?'

In!many!instances!it!is!quite!impossible!to!state!the!sex!from!the!hair,!but!certain!points!may!
be!worthy!of!mention:!
Hair!on!the!scalp!of!male!are!shorter,!thicker!and!more!wiry!than!that!of!a!female's.!
Eyebrow!hair!of!a!male!is!generally!long!and!more!wiry!than!that!of!a!female's.!

Estimation'of'Age'Based'on'the'Hair:'

This!is!quite!difficult!and!the!examiner!hesitates!in!giving!his!opinion.!However,!there!are!
some!points!of!distinction:!
Hair!of!children!are!fine,!short,!deficient!of!pigments!and!as!a!rule,!devoid!of!medulla.!
At!the!adolescent!age,!hair!may!appear!at!the!pubis.!Hair!on!the!scalp!becomes!long,!wiry!
and!thick.!
In!the!case!of!older!persons,!the!color!is!usually!white!or!gray!with!marked!absorption!of!
pigments!and!degenerating!changes.!
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