Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Solar desalination using humidification–dehumidification

processes.
Part II. An experimental investigation
a,*
A.S. Nafey , H.E.S. Fath b, S.O. El-Helaby a, A. Soliman a

a
Department of Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Petroleum and Mining Engineering, Suez Canal University, Suez, Egypt
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Received 20 May 2002; received in revised form 28 December 2002; accepted 2 June 2003

Abstract
An experimental investigation of a humidification–dehumidification desalination (HDD) process using
solar energy at the weather conditions of Suez City, Egypt, is presented. A test rig is designed and con-
structed to conduct this investigation under different environmental and operating conditions. The test rig
consists of a solar water heater (concentrator solar collector type), solar air heater (flat plate solar collector
type), humidifier tower and dehumidifier exchanger. Different variables are examined including the feed
water flow rate, the air flow rate, the cooling water flow rate in the dehumidifier and the weather conditions.
Comparisons between the experimental results and other published results are presented. It is found that
the results of the developed mathematical model by the same authors are in good agreement with the
experimental results. The tested results show that the productivity of the system is strongly affected by the
saline water temperature at the inlet to the humidifier, dehumidifier cooling water flow rate, air flow rate
and solar intensity. The wind speed and ambient temperature variation were found to have a very small
effect on the system productivity. A general correlation is developed to predict the unit productivity under
different operating conditions. The results of this correlation have a reasonable confidence level (maximum
error ±6%).

2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar collector; Humidification–dehumidification; Desalination; Empirical equation; Theoretical and

experimental work

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +20-62-580-550; fax: +20-62-366-252.
E-mail address: asnafey31@hotmail.com (A.S. Nafey).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00152-3
1264 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

Nomenclature

Es total solar energy incident through day (kJ)

Ew-in energy of water input to unit (kJ)
Ea-in energy of air input to unit (kJ)
Ma air flow rate (kg/s)
Mw feed water flow rate (kg/s)
Md productivity (kg/s)
Mcw cooling water flow rate (kg/s)
Tcw average inlet temperature of cooling water (C)
Tw-in average water inlet temperature to water heater (C)
Ta-in average air inlet temperature to air heater (C)
Tamb average ambient temperature through day (C)
Vw average wind speed through day (m/s)

1. Introduction

There are three alternatives to solve the problem of supplying the Egyptian desert with fresh
water. The first one is the Nile water extension (or transmission) to the required zone. This needs
pipe lines or canals and dam construction, which must be designed and built at full scale capacity.
The second is to make use of underground water, which is expected to be huge, but its sustain-
ability and suitability for use must be examined. The third solution is the desalination of sea and
brackish water [1]. The choice between them depends on the economic considerations, on the site
characteristics and the overall development policy of the country.
Desalination seems to be the most suitable solution due to the increasing demand for the Nile
water in the Nile valley, the areas suitable for development being those along the Red and
Mediterranean Sea shores [1]. The standard techniques like multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect
(ME), vapor compression (VC) and reverse osmosis (RO) are only reliable for large capacity
ranges of 100–50,000 m3 /day of fresh water production [2]. These technologies are expensive for
small amounts of fresh water, and they cannot be used in locations where there are limited
maintenance facilities and energy supply. In addition, the use of conventional energy sources to
drive these technologies has a negative impact on the environment. Solar energy is the most
important renewable source of energy in Egypt, which receives more than 5.0 kW/m2 per day [3].
Solar desalination is a suitable solution to supply some remote regions in Egypt with fresh water.
Solar desalination processes are a future promising technology because solar energy is envi-
ronmentally friendly [4], and it is suitable for a few families or small groups in remote areas. Solar
desalination can be either direct or indirect [5]. One of the well known indirect solar desalination
systems is the humidification–dehumidification distillation (HDD) process.
It has the advantage of separating the heating surface from the evaporation zone, and there-
fore, the heating surface is relatively protected from corrosion or scale deposits. In addition, it has
a low cost of fresh water as compared with the conventional basin still solar desalination process
[6]. Also, the process is reliable because of the modest level of technology employed, the simplicity
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1265

of design and the ability to be manufactured locally. Very limited configurations of HDD de-
salinating processes have been developed, investigated and published [6].
As illustrated in the previous related paper [6], these configurations were investigated using the
developed computer program. The results show that the HDD, which consists of a solar water
heater, solar air heater, humidifier tower and dehumidifier exchanger is the most effective system
from the productivity point of view. A test rig for this configuration is designed.
The main objectives of this investigation are to (i) examine experimentally the solar HDD
system under different real weather and operating conditions and examine the main parameters
affecting the productivity and (ii) deduce a correlation to predict the productivity of the system.

2. Experimental setup and procedure

2.1. Experimental setup

Fig. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram and Fig. 2 shows a photograph of the experimental setup.
The system main components are humidifier (cooling tower) (17), dehumidifier (water cooled
exchanger) (18), air heater (flat plate collector) (19) and water heater (concentrating collector)
(20). The HDD system consists of two loops, one for water heating and the other for air heating
with an interface of the humidifying cooling tower. In the water loop, the water is delivered from
the storage tank by pump (10) and split into two main lines, a test section line (12) and a by pass
line (11). The water flows either through the solar water heater line (during the day by closing
control valve (16) and opening control valve (15)) or directly through the humidifier (during the
night by closing control valve (15) and opening control valve (16)). The heated saline water is
sprayed at the top of the humidifier (17). The water falls down to the storage tank at the bottom of

5 6
cooling water in cooling water out
3 4
Solar
water heater 2 18
1 20 air flow
dehumidifier
water flow 7
17 humidifier
16
9 desalinated water tank

Solar
15 13 12 11 make up air heater
8
storage tank 19
10

14

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

1266 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

Fig. 2. Photograph of the experimental setup.

the humidifier where it is recirculated. In the air loop, air is drawn from the bottom of the
humidifier using an axial fan (installed on top of the humidifier). The air flows through the
humidifier and carries the evaporated water to the dehumidifier, where the air is cooled and
dehumidified. Using a second axial fan, placed at the outlet of the dehumidifier, the air is delivered
back to the humidifier after being heated by solar air heater (19).
The detailed descriptions of the system main components are as follows.

2.1.1. Solar water heater (20)

The solar concentrating collector, consisting of a reflector frame of parabolic shape, is used to
the heat the saline water. The reflector is made of stainless steel sheet of 0.5 mm thickness, 1 m
width and 2 m length. The reflector surface is supported on two steel frames about the focal axis
of the reflector surface. A brass tube is located (with support) at the focal axis of the reflector
surface. The brass tube is 2.5 m in length, 0.022 m in external diameter and 0.02 m in internal
diameter. The brass tube is surrounded by a double glass transparent envelope of 0.04 m internal
diameter and 0.95 m length.

2.1.2. Solar air heater (19)

A tubeless flat plate solar collector with a single glass cover is used for air heating. The Heater
effective area is 0.5 m · 1 m, and the absorber plate is made of copper with a thickness of 0.5 mm.
The air gap between the absorber and the glass cover is 0.01 m.

2.1.3. Humidifier (17)

An induced fan cooling tower is used as the system humidifying column with direct air–liquid
contact. The tower shell has a circular cross section area, and its shape has a vertical venturi pipe
consisting of four parts made of 0.7 mm thick galvanized steel sheet with a total height of 2.1 m.
Eight nozzles are used to spray the hot water at the top of the humidifier. Canvas is used as
packing to increase the interface area between the air and water.
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1267

2.1.4. Dehumidifier (18)

An air cooler heat exchanger is used as a dehumidifier. It consists of an extended surface cross
flow cooling coil. The condensed fresh water produced drains through a tube connection to the
condensate collecting tank. The cooling water flows inside the extended surface tubes. The total
number of tubes is 64. The tubes are made of copper of 46 cm length. The extended surface is
made of 0.5 mm thick aluminum sheet. The total surface area of the condenser is 20 m2 .

2.2. Measurement device

As shown in Fig. 1, an orifice meter (13) with a calibrated carbon tetrachloride (specific
gravity ¼ 1.54) U tube manometer is used to measure the water flow rate through the system. The
estimated error in the flow rate for the orifice meter is ±2% (based on actual reading). The distilled
water is measured hourly through the daytime by a scaled container placed underneath the
condenser. The estimated error in the flow rate of distilled water is ±0.025 kg (based on full scale).
The temperatures of the water and air at different points of the system (1, 2, 3, . . ., 9) are measured
by using calibrated copper constantin thermocouples (Model MT11-TID). The ambient tem-
perature is recorded hourly through the day using the same type of thermocouple. The estimated
error in recorded temperatures is ±0.2 C (based on actual reading). The incident solar energy on
the solar collectors is measured by a precision type pyrometer (Model, SOLAR 118 HAENNI)
placed in a horizontal plane adjacent to the collector. The pyrometer records hourly and daily
solar intensity from sunrise until sunset. The accuracy of recording of the pyrometer is ±0.1 W/m2
(based on actual reading). The circulated air velocity and wind speed are also measured by using
calibrated anemometers (model (TA-2-15/3k)-V ¼ [0–15 m/s]). The accuracy of recording of the
anemometer is ±0.1 m/s (based on actual reading).

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Comparison with published work

The measured values of solar radiation, ambient temperature and inlet and outlet temperatures
of the water and air through the solar collectors during a day in July (24/7/2000) at Suez City are
shown in Fig. 3. Although the measured values show sinusoidal trends, the temperatures are
almost 1–2 h shifted relative to the solar intensity.
Fig. 4 shows a comparison between the obtained numerical study results and the present
experimental results for the system productivity. The system productivity using the Monem et al.
[5] correlation is illustrated on the same figure. The agreement between the experimental and
numerical results is good. The shift between the Monem et al. [5] results and the present experi-
mental work results may be because the Monem correlation was deduced under the steady state
condition of their indoor test with constant input energy to the system. Also, the effect of weather
conditions was not considered, and the unsteady state performance was not examined. In the
present experimental outdoor operation, a delay time was noticed between the start of a run and
1268 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

Solar intensity
Ambient temperature
Outlet water temperature from collector
Inlet air temperature to collector
Inlet water temperature to collector
Outlet air temperature from collector
50

800

Ambient temprature(°C)
45
Solar intensity(W/m2)

600
40

400
35

200
30

0
8 12 16 20
Time (hr)

Fig. 3. Variation of weather conditions, temperatures of water and temperatures of air through the day (24/7/2000).

Experimental work
Theoretical work
1.6 Monem [5]
Productivity(kg/hr)

1.2

0.8

0.4

0
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)

Fig. 4. The productivity variation through the day (24/7/2000).

the start of fresh water production, since most of the energy received in the early hours is used as
sensible heat to warm the large mass of the unit (about 200 kg). In the late hours of the day, the
energy loss from the system increased and could not be recovered.
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1269

10
Mw = 0.045 kg/s (Date, 23-7-2000)
Mw = 0.033 kg/s (Date, 27-7-2000)

Accumulative productivity(kg)
8

M a = 0.0049 kg/s
Mcw = 0.0625 kg/s
6

0
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)
Fig. 5. Effect of feed water flow rate on unit productivity.

3.2. Effect of operating condition

Different operating parameters were studied, including feed water, air and cooling water flow
rates. Fig. 5 shows the effect of feed water flow rate on the system productivity operating
approximately with the same weather conditions (solar intensity, ambient temperature and wind
speed) in two different days. This figure shows a decrease in productivity as a result of increasing
the water flow rate that, in turn, decreases the humidifier inlet water temperature, leading to
decreased vaporization. For the same weather conditions (solar intensity, ambient temperature
and wind speed), the system productivity of the unit increases with increasing the air flow rate in
two different days as shown in Fig. 6. This may be because increasing the air flow rate increases
the mass and heat transfer coefficients and entrained water vapor and, hence, increases the system
productivity.
The effect of cooling water flow rate (the system heat sink) on productivity is illustrated in Fig.
7. Increasing the cooling water flow rate decreases the surface temperature of the air cooler and
increases the condensation rate and the system productivity.

3.3. Effect of solar radiation

By increasing the energy input to the system, the inlet temperatures of the water and air to the
humidifier are increased. Then, the vaporization rate is increased, and hence, the productivity
increases. Fig. 8 shows the effect of solar intensity on the productivity.
1270 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

12
Ma = 0.0049 kg/s (Date, 23-7-2000)
Ma = 0.0147 kg/s (Date, 24-7-2000)

M w = 0.045 kg/s

Accumulative productivity (kg)

8 M cw = 0.0625 kg/s

0
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)

Fig. 6. Effect of feed air flow rate on unit productivity.

8
Mcw=0.035 kg/s (Date, 14-8-2000)
Mcw=0.019 kg/s (Date, 16-8-2000)
Accumulative productivity (kg)

6
M a =0.0147 kg/s
M w =0.03344 kg/s

0
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)

Fig. 7. Effect of cooling water flow rate on unit productivity.

4. Data reduction and results correlation

The factors that are expected to influence the solar desalination using the HDD process are the
inlet water and air temperatures to the solar heater collectors, the water and air flow rates to the
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1271

10
E=7.65 kwhr/m2 (Date,29-7-2000)
E=3.63 kwhr/m2 (Date,16-11-2000)

Accumulative productivity (kg)

Ma = 0.0147 kg/s
M w = 0.03344 kg/s
6 Mcw = 0.0625 kg/s

0
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)

Fig. 8. Effect of total solar intensity incident during the day on unit productivity.

solar heater collectors, the cooling water flow rate to the dehumidifier and the weather conditions
[4–9]. The productivity of the unit Md is expressed as follows:
Md ¼ f ðEw-in ; Ea-in ; Es ; Tw-in ; Ta-in ; Tcw-in ; Ma ; Mw ; Mcw ; Tamb ; Vw Þ ð1Þ
By using the Buckingham p Theorem [10], the dimensionless, functional relationship is obtained
as


a
b
c
d
e
f
g !
Md Es Ew-in Ea-in Mcw Tw-in Ta-in Tcw
¼f ; ; ; ; ; ;
Ma Ma  Vw2 Ma  Vw2 Ma  Vw2 Ma Tamb Tamb Tamb
ð2Þ
The experimental work was performed during the period extended for one year in order to
cover various weather conditions. Some of the measured and recorded data during the experi-
mental work are tabulated in Table 1. It was not possible to isolate and study the effect of any
single variable independently because of the difficulty in maintaining the weather condition
constant for each run. Based on the data given in Table 1 and with the aid of the SPSS computer
software package [11], an equation for prediction of the daily productivity is obtained using the
linear regression technique as follows:

 0:75


0:174
0:575
Md Es Ew-in Ea-in
¼ 0:00498   
Ma Ma  Vw2 Ma  Vw2 Ma  Vw2

0:32
0:5
0:895
1:5 !
Mcw Tw-in Ta-in Tcw
    ð3Þ
Ma Tamb Tamb Tamb
 1272
Table 1
Results of some experimental runs, which have been performed

A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

Md (kg/day) Solar Ma (kg/s) Mw (kg/s) Vw (m/s) Tamb Mcw (kg/s) Tcw (C) Tw-in (C) Ta-in (C) Md %F
[measured] intensity (C) (kg/day)
(kWh/m2 ) [estimated]
6.65 6.33 0.0049 0.04523 4.08 33 0.0625 32 38 34.55 6.801 2.2534
8.75 6.85 0.0147 0.04523 2.5 32.4 0.0625 29 33.95 33.26 8.9263 1.9473
10.25 7.18 0.0294 0.04523 3.54 33.11 0.0625 28 36.025 33.34 10.701 4.2206
8.5 7.09 0.0049 0.03343 2.2 33.46 0.0625 29.9 39.66 34.95 8.8213 3.6458
7.125 5.9 0.0049 0.01933 3.45 31.53 0.0625 32.6 35.43 32.36 6.9344 )2.7434
7.75 5.33 0.0147 0.01933 2.975 31.53 0.0625 31.5 39.66 34.08 8.0023 3.1505
9.5 6.01 0.0294 0.01933 3.04 33.89 0.0625 30 37.3 34.85 10.017 5.6771
6 5.98 0.0147 0.03343 2.5 32.19 0.035 32 36.49 33.3 6.2348 3.6926
5.25 6.32 0.0147 0.03343 4.25 32.8 0.019 33 40.27 35.55 5.383 2.4065
8.25 5.14 0.0196 0.01933 2.16 32.4 0.0625 30 37.03 33.8 8.4937 2.3553
7.85 5.5 0.0196 0.03343 2.5 32.5 0.0625 30.5 38.69 35.99 8.1902 3.7747
7.9 5.89 0.0196 0.04523 1.13 33.19 0.0625 30.25 37.12 34.11 8.0349 1.6724
9.125 6.12 0.0147 0.02488 1.875 33.5 0.0625 29 38.33 35.33 9.6951 5.8356
6.75 5.46 0.0049 0.02488 1.6 35.2 0.0625 33 42.13 36.75 6.8649 1.6744
9.48 5.78 0.0294 0.02488 2.8 34.75 0.0625 29 37.7 35.5 9.9696 4.9111
7.5 5.16 0.015 0.01 5 32 0.03 29 34 33 7.3988 )1.3671
6 4.65 0.025 0.03 2.6 33 0.045 31 35 33 6.2272 3.6497
6.85 4.53 0.0147 0.02488 4.04 32 0.06 29 35 34 7.2732 5.8190
6.625 4.485 0.0147 0.02488 6 31 0.06 29 34 33 7.0539 6.0808
7.125 4.36 0.0147 0.02488 4.5 32.5 0.06 28 35 32 7.3167 2.6203
6.25 3.94 0.022 0.028 2.9 24.8 0.04 25 27.72 25.94 6.0805 )2.7866
5.6 3.89 0.01 0.05 4.5 25 0.05 28 30.76 26.32 5.4158 )3.4005
4.65 3.35 0.009 0.04 3.9 23 0.06 29 29.7 26.01 4.8896 4.9013
5.25 3.44 0.006 0.06 3.7 24 0.07 26 30.28 25.94 5.5702 5.7483
2.85 3.63 0.008 0.06 4.4 24 0.005 25 34.4 31.4 3.0173 5.5454
2.75 3.1 0.009 0.05 5 23 0.005 24 33 30 2.8815 4.5663
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1273

To measure the strength of the relation between the dependent and the independent variables of
Eq. (3), the multiple correlation coefficient (R) is calculated and found to be 0.99. To examine the
validity of the developed correlation, the fractional error (F ) is used as follows:
ðMd Þcalculated  ðMd Þmeasured
%F ¼  100
ðMd Þcalculated
The fractional error (F ) shows that the daily productivity can be predicted using the developed
correlation (Eq. (3)), with a reasonable confidence level (maximum error ±6%).

5. Analysis of the correlation results

Using the developed correlation (Eq. (3)), Fig. 9–14 show the effects of some operational and
environmental parameters on the system productivity.
Fig. 9 shows the effect of feed water flow rate at different values of air flow rate. Increasing the
feed water flow rate decreases the productivity due to the fact that the temperature of the inlet
water to the humidifier is decreased and, hence, the evaporation rate. Increasing the air flow rate
might be expected to increase the productivity because the mass and heat transfer coefficients are
increased and thereby the ability of air to carry more vapor. At constant water flow rate, however,
the productivity is decreased with increasing the air flow rate. This may be because increasing the
air flow rate decreases its temperature inside the humidifier and thereby its capability to carry
much vapor.
The effects of inlet cooling water temperatures inlet air temperatures on productivity are
illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11. The ability of air to carry the water vapor increases with increasing

12
Ma=0.005 kg/s
Ma=0.015 kg/s
Ma=0.025 kg/s
10 Ma=0.035 kg/s
Ma=0.045 kg/s
Productivity( kg/day)

4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Feed water flow rate (kg/s)

Fig. 9. Effect of feed water flow rate on unit productivity.

1274 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

16

Mcw=0.005 kg/s
Mcw=0.015 kg/s
12 Mcw=0.025 kg/s

Productivity (kg/day)
Mcw=0.035 kg/s
Mcw=0.045 kg/s
8

0
20 30 40 50
Inlet cooling water temperature (˚C)

Fig. 10. Effect of inlet cooling water temperature on unit productivity.

12
Ma = 0.005 kg/s
Ma = 0.015 kg/s
Ma = 0.025 kg/s
10
Ma = 0.035 kg/s
Productivity (kg/day)

Ma= 0.045 kg/s

2
20 30 40 50
Inlet air temperature(°C)

Fig. 11. Effect of inlet air temperature on unit productivity.

the inlet air temperature. Also, increasing the feed water temperature increases the rate of water
evaporation.
The effect of inlet cooling water temperature is shown in Fig. 10. Decreasing the inlet cooling
water temperature increases the productivity. Lowering the inlet cooling water temperature below
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277 1275

14
Mw = 0.005 kg/s
Mw = 0.015 kg/s
12 Mw = 0.025 kg/s
Mw = 0.035 kg/s
Productivity (kg/day)
Mw = 0.045 kg/s
10

4
20 30 40 50
Inlet water temperature(°C)

Fig. 12. Effect of inlet water temperature on unit productivity.

Tamb = 20 C
16 Tamb = 25 C
Tamb = 30 C
Tamb = 35 C
Tamb = 40 C
Productivity (kg/day)

12

0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Dialy solar radiation (Kwhr/m2)

Fig. 13. Effect of solar radiation on unit productivity.

the dew point of the inlet air stream (to the air cooler) increases the condensation rate. As the
cooling water flow rate increases, the cooling process will be more effective, and the condensation
rate is increased. At a constant inlet water temperature (Fig. 12), the rate of increase of the
1276 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1263–1277

6.8

Productivity (kg/day)
6.6

6.4

6.2

6
0 4 8 12 16 20
Wind speed (m/s)

Fig. 14. Effect of wind on unit productivity.

productivity is decreased with increasing the water flow rate because increasing the water flow rate
decreases the enthalpy of the air, and hence, the ability to extract vapor from the air is decreased.
The effect of solar intensity at different values of ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 13.
Increasing the solar intensity increases the total energy input to the system and, consequently, the
temperatures of the inlet water and air to the humidifier and, hence, the productivity. In general,
the ambient temperature shows an insignificant effect on the productivity.
The wind speed has an insignificant effect on the productivity as shown in Fig. 14.

6. Conclusion

The agreement between the present experimental work, numerical work by the authors [12] and
Monem [5] results is good. Strong effects of the inlet water and air temperatures to the humidifier
on unit production are observed on the present (outdoor) experiments. Increasing the tempera-
tures of the water and air increases both the heat and mass transfer coefficients and the entrained
water vapor by the air. Increasing the solar energy input increases the water and air temperatures
and the productivity, while both the ambient temperature and wind speed show insignificant
effects on the productivity. A general equation is developed to predict the productivity of the unit
with a reasonable confidence level (maximum error ±6%).

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