Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019

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Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019

Table of contents
Unit I: Food chemistry ............................................................................... 2

Introduction ........................................................................................... 2

Chapter 1: Carbohydrates ...................................................................... 3

Chapter 2: Lipids .................................................................................... 6

Chapter 3: Proteins ................................................................................ 9

Chapter 4: Vitamins and Minerals ........................................................ 14

Chapter 5: Nutritional requirements .................................................... 16

Chapter 6: The principal foods ............................................................. 18

Chapter 7: Food Diet ............................................................................ 19

Unit II: Current medicinal drugs .............................................................. 21

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Chemistry course – ES – Prepared by Miss Nidale Ojeil 2018 – 2019

Unit I: Food Chemistry

Introduction

A. Food: is a substance that consists of the following nutrients: (Carbohydrates,

Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins and Minerals) needed by the body to maintain life and
growth by supplying energy and building or replacing tissues.
 Food contains 5 types of nutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins
and Minerals.
 Mother’s milk is considered as a complete food.

B. Nutritional requirements of food for the human body:

Energy Growth and structure Protection and control of
body functioning
 Carbohydrates  Proteins  Vitamins
 Lipids  Some minerals (Ca and P)  Minerals (Na and K)
 Partially proteins  Water

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Chapter 1: Carbohydrates

1. Definition: carbohydrates are organic substances that consist of Carbon(C),

Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) atoms with general formula Cn(H2O)n. They have two
functional groups:
- Carbonyl group (-C=O)
- Hydroxyl group ( -OH)
General Role Chemical Functional groups Type of
formula elements compounds
Cn(H2O)n - Provide us with instant C, H and O - Carbonyl group Organic
and stored energy. (-C=O)
- Enter in the functioning - Hydroxyl group
of the organism ( -OH)
E.g.: Glucose C6H12O6; Sucrose: C12H22O12

Reaction of natural synthesis of carbohydrates:

CO2 + H2O ---Sunlight--- > Carbohydrates + O2

2. Classification of carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main groups:
- Monosaccharides.
- Disaccharides or oligosaccharides.
- Polysaccharides.

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Monosaccharides Disaccharides or oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

(1 unit) (2 on 10 units) ( > 10 units)
1. Glucose. 1. Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose. 1. Starch (Plant source).
2. Galactose. 2. Lactose = Glucose + Galactose. 2. Glycogen (Animal
3. Fructose. 3. Maltose = Glucose + Glucose. source).
3. Cellulose( Plant Source)
Characteristics: Characteristics: Characteristics:
- Soluble in water - Soluble in water, - Polysaccharides are
- Formed of only 1 - Formed of 2 to 10 units. polymers consisting of
unit/sugar. - Lactose and Maltose are reducing sugars but more than 10
- All common Sucrose is not due to the absence of a free carbonyl monosaccharides units
monosaccharides group which is engaged in the glycosidic linkage. bonded together by a
are reducing sugars - The bond/linkage between two units is called: glyosidic bond or linkage.
(P.s: A reducing “Glycosidic bond” (- C – O – C -)*. - Glycogen is stored in the
sugar is a sugar that - Disaccharides are formed by condensation reaction liver and muscles.
has free carbonyl and decomposed by hydrolysis reaction in the - Cellulose is the structural
group that allows it presence of water. component of the cell wall.
to undergo - Starch, Glycogen and
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
oxidation by an Glucose + Glucose < 𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬 Maltose + Water cellulose are all formed of
oxidizing agent) 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 glucose units only!!
Glucose + Fructose < > Sucrose + Water
- To identify the 𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬 (Starch/Glycogen/Cellulose:
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
presence of a Glucose + Galactose< 𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐢𝐬 > Lactose + Water glu-glu-glu-glu-glu-glu-…).
reducing sugar we - Starch and Glycogen are
must use the soluble in water while
Fehling test with Cellulose is insoluble in
heat. water.
Reducing sugar + - To identify the presence
Blue Fehling of starch in food we must
solution  Red perform the Iodine solution
brick precipitate. test (brown color) without
heat, if we will observe
dark blue color it means
this food contains starch.
*: It is a bond that links 2 monosaccharides in the carbohydrate molecule formed
between the two carbonyl groups or between the carbonyl group and the hydroxyl
group.

Notes: (!!!! VERY IMPORTANT!!!!)

 Glucose: grape sugar.
 Lactose: milk sugar.
 Sucrose: table sugar (beet or cane sugar).
 Maltose: malt sugar.

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 Fibers: including cellulose are not considered as nutrients since we don’t have the
enzyme that digest or hydrolyze them. They are good to prevent colon cancer and
to prevent constipation by facilitating digestion.
 Advantage: Fibers are easily digested and do not require any enzyme to
hydrolyze them!
 In order to distinguish between polysaccharides we must look at:
1. The nature of monosaccharide units.
2. The type of linkage.
3. The length of the chain.
4. The degree of branching.
 Hydrolysis of starch:
i. By an acid:
Starch  Dextrin  Maltose  Glucose.
(Polysaccharide) (Polysaccharide) (Disaccharide) (Monosaccharide)

ii. By an enzyme:
Starch ---Salivary amylase--- > Maltose -----Maltase ------ > Glucose.
(Polysaccharide) (Disaccharide) (Monosaccharide)

 Diabetes mellitus: is a disease related to the decrease in the glucose metabolism

cause by too little amount of insulin in the body.
 Recommendations to avoid diabetes mellitus:
1. Avoid meals rich in carbohydrates.
2. Practicing exercises.
3. Taking insulin by injection.

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Chapter 2: Lipids

1. Definition: Lipids are organic substances that consist of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H)
and Oxygen (O) atoms. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
and they can be identified either by the formation of a translucent grease spot on
a paper or by the Sudan III test (appearance of a red color).
Their functional group is the carboxyl group (-COOH). The groups of lipids are:
triglycerides (Fat and Oil); Waxes; Cholesterol; Phospholipids and steroids.

2. Role of lipids: (3)

a. They are considered as the principal form of energy storage.
b. Cholesterol enters in the synthesis of Vitamin D and Steroid hormones.
c. Phospholipids and steroids enter in the constituents of Cell membrane.

3. Classification of lipids: (2)

a. Simple lipids: formed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen elements only. E.g.:
Triglycerides.
b. Complex lipids: formed of Carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen elements and other
elements like Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N). E.g.: Phospholipids.

4. Formation of lipids: Fatty acid + Alcohol  Lipid + water (general case)

C. Formation of triglyceride or Esterification reaction: Very important!!
 Word reaction: Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids  Triglyceride + 3 molecules of Water.
 Chemical reaction:

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 Characteristics of this reaction:

a. Slow reaction.
b. Reversible (it occurs in both directions)
c. Athermic (it occurs at a constant temperature)
5. Fatty acids: are carboxylic acids that contain long unbranched hydrocarbon chain.
 Types of Fatty acids: (2)
a. Saturated lipids: contain only simple covalent bonds(C-C) in the carbon chain.
They are in the form of solids at room temperature.
b. Unsaturated lipids: contain at least one double covalent bond (C=C) in the
carbon chain.
They are in the form of liquids at room temperature.
Note:
 Monounsaturated fatty acid: has one double bond.
 Polyunsaturated fatty acid: has more than one double bond.

 Representation of fatty acids: (X:Y)

Fatty acids are represented by two letters “X” and “Y”, where:
- “X” stands for the number of Carbon atoms in the chain.
- “Y” stands for the number of double bonds between carbon atoms.
P.S: If “Y”= 0  no double bonds in the chain  Saturated fatty acid  Solid.
If “Y”> 0  presence of double bond in the chain  Unsaturated fatty acid 
liquid.
E.g.:
 (16:0): fatty acid that has 16 carbon atoms in the chain with no double bond, so it
is saturated, solid at room temperature.
 (18:1): fatty acid that has 18 carbon atoms in the chain with one double bond, so it
is unsaturated, liquid at room temperature.

 Melting point (M.Pt.) of fatty acids: the melting point of fatty acids is used as an
indicator of their state of matter.
- The melting point decreases with the increase of the degree of unsaturation (=
when the number of double bonds in the chain increases.)
- The melting point increases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms.
M. Pt ↘ when the degree of unsaturation ↗
M. Pt. ↗ when the num. of C- atoms ↗

 Hydrogenation reaction of fatty acids: It is the transformation of an unsaturated

fatty acid into a saturated one by the addition of 2 hydrogen atoms.
 Upon hydrogenation, the melting point ↗ while the degree of unsaturation ↘.

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 Iodine value: represents the number of double bonds which is obtained by the
addition reaction of iodine to fatty acid.

 As unsaturation of fats ↗ increases, the iodine value increases ↗

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Chapter 3: Proteins.

1. Definition: proteins are polymers formed of many units of α-amino acids

(monomers) connected to each other by a peptide bond (-CO – NH-). They consist
mainly of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) and Nitrogen (N) elements. These
organic compounds contain two functional groups: Carboxyl group (-COOH) and
Amine group (-NH2)

2. Role of proteins: (7)

a. Energetic role.
b. Structural role (e.g.: Meat)
c. Synthesis /Enzymatic activity.
d. Regulatory activity (e.g.: Insulin)
e. Transport activity (e.g.: Hemoglobin)
f. Nutritive activity (e.g.: Albumin)
g. Defense activity (e.g.: Antibodies)

3. Amino acid: an amino acid is an organic compound formed of C, H, O and N

elements. It has 2 functional groups (amino group and carboxyl group).
P.S: An α-amino acid is an amino acid where the carboxyl group and the amino
group are connected to the same carbon atom. It has the following general
formula:

 Types of α-amino acid: (20)

 Essential amino acids (9): should be taken from food.
 Non-essential amino acids (11): can be synthesized by the body.

 Role of α- amino acids:

a. Synthesis of proteins.
b. Their oxidation gives energy.

4. Classification of proteins: (2)

Proteins are classified into 2 classes:
a. Simple proteins: are formed only of α-amino acids.
b. Complex or conjugated proteins: are formed of α-amino acid + additive group.

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E.g.: Glycoproteins (a.a + carbohydrate) as immunoglobin/ Lipoproteins (a.a +

lipid) as plasma / Phosphoproteins (a.a + phosphate group) as casein.
5. Formation of a protein or “condensation reaction”:
A condensation reaction occurs when 2 or more amino acids combine together by a
specific linkage or bond called: “peptide bond” with the release of one or more water
molecules in order to form a longer chain molecule.
P.S: the backward reaction is called “hydrolysis” that occurs by the addition of a water
molecule.

Note:
 By combining 2 a.a together we will obtain a dipeptide (Only one peptide bond
and a release of one water molecule)
 By combining 3 a.a together we will obtain a tripeptide (2 peptide bonds and a
release of 2 water molecules)
 By combining many a.a together we will obtain a polypeptide.
 By combining more than 100 a.a together we will obtain a protein.
Question: How many peptide bonds can you detect in this chain?

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6. Structures of proteins (4)

Structures Figures Characteristics
Primary Amino acids are
(I) connected in
linear shape.

Secondary Amino acids are

(II) connected in
helical shape.

Tertiary Amino acids are

(III) connected in
helical shape
but twisted
together.

Quaternary A mixture of all

(IV) previous
structures.

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7. Protein denaturation: it is the partial or complete disorganization of the structure

of protein caused either by chemical or physical agents. It is irreversible and
doesn’t affect the primary structure.
Physical agents Chemical agents
 Heat  Acids
 High pressure  Bases
 Radioactive rays  Ethanol
 Ultrasonic vibrations  Detergents
 The bonds that are broken in proteins during denaturation are called hydrogen
bonds.
 The bonds that are formed between denaturized proteins during coagulation are
called disulfide bonds.

8. Biological value of proteins “B.V”:

Note: B.V (animal proteins) > B.V (plant
𝐑𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐢𝐧
B.V= X 100 protein)
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐛𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐢𝐧

9. Factors that affect the quality of nutritional value of proteins: (2)

a. Content of essential α-amino-acids.
b. Rate of its digestion.

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Chapter 4: Vitamins and Minerals.

Minerals Vitamins
Definition Minerals are inorganic chemical Vitamins are organic compounds that
elements other than Carbon, can’t be synthesized by the human body
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. but taken from food.
They are present in food mostly in
the form of inorganic salts (e.g.:
Sodium Chloride.)
Role They are needed for the proper They are needed in small quantities for
functioning of the human body. the proper functioning of the human
body.
Classes Macro Trace Hydrosoluble Liposoluble
Minerals Minerals vitamins (9) vitamins(4)
(6) (4)
Ca – Mg – P – Na Fe – Cu - Zn – I Vitamins Vitamins soluble
- K – Cl soluble in in lipids
water
Daily needs  Vitamin A
 1 vitamin C  Vitamin D
>100 mg/day <20 mg/day  8 Vitamins B  Vitamin E
 Vitamin K

 They are found  They are

in fruits & found in fats &
vegetables. liver.

 They are  They are

rapidly stored in fat
eliminated tissues so an
outside the excess
body so an quantity of
excess quantity them will lead
of them will not to toxicity
lead to toxicity.
In general vitamins and minerals are needed for the growth, structure or proper
functioning of the body.

 Role of minerals and vitamins:

In general, vitamins and minerals are needed for growth, structure and proper
functioning of the human body.

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Mineral Role Mineral Role

Ca Formation of Liposoluble A Important for
bones and teeth. vitamins (Retinol) bone growth and
vision.
P Important for D Promotes Ca and
bone structure (Calciferol) P absorption and
and energy their fixation on
transfer. bones.

K and Na Responsible for E Protects other

nerve (Tocopherol) vitamins from
transmission. oxidation.
Cl Responsible for K Contributes to
food digestion (Naphthoquinone) blood clotting
(HCl) and hemorrhage.

Mg Muscle Hydrosoluble C - Protects

contraction. vitamin (Ascorbic acid) other
vitamins
from
oxidation.
- Promotes
absorption of
iron.
Cu and Formation of B1 For the nervous
Fe hemoglobin. (Thiamine) system
Zn Formation of B2 Supports mucous
insulin. (Riboflavin) membrane

I Regulation of B3 For growth

energy rate. (Niacin)
B9 Treats anemia
(Folic acid)
B12 Important for
(Cobalamine) blood cells and
nervous cells.

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Chapter 5: Nutritional requirements

Consumed food will be used by the human body to synthesis energy (by the oxidation
reaction) and to form new cells (by the assimilation reaction).

1. Nutritional requirements:
Nutritional requirements are classified into:
- Energy requirement.
- Growth requirement.

Energy requirement Growth requirement

It is provided by the energy released It is provided mainly by the assimilation
from the oxidation reaction of lipids, reaction of amino acids in order to
carbohydrates and partly proteins. produce new
cells/proteins/hormones/enzymes …
This energy will be used by our body
for:
- Mechanical action.
- Metabolic reactions.
- Regulation of our body temperature

2. Biochemical reactions:
We can distinguish between two biochemical reactions:
- Anabolic reaction/ Anabolism (= formation – needs energy).
- Catabolic reaction/Catabolism (= destruction – releases energy).
The sum of these two biochemical reaction will lead to the catabolic reaction
/Catabolism.
Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

Anabolic reaction (Form) Catabolic reaction (Cut ✂) Metabolism

It is a reaction during
which small molecule are
joined together to form
large molecules with the
absorption of energy.
It is a reaction during
which large molecules are
broken down into smaller
molecules with the release
of energy.
The summation of
anabolic and catabolic
reaction pathways that
occurs simultaneously in
the body.

A + B --energy-> AB AB ----> A + B + energy

E.g.: E.g.:
Formation of sucrose. Hydrolysis/Oxidation/Dige
Synthesis of proteins … stion reactions.
3. Pathways of energy production:

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Digestion of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates ---digestion---> monosaccharide ---cellular oxidation---> CO2 + H2O + Energy

(4 Kcal /17 KJ)
Digestion of Proteins:
Proteins ---digestion---> amino acids ------Cellular oxidation ------> CO2 + H2O + Energy
(4 Kcal / 17 KJ)

Protein synthesis
Digestion of Lipids:

Lipids ----digestion ----> Fatty acid + glycerol ----cellular oxidation ----> CO2 + H2O + Energy
(9 Kcal / 38 KJ)
P.S:
Kcal --------- x 4.18 ------> KJ

Kcal <------- ÷ 4.18 -------- KJ

4. During starvation, there is storage nutrients that release energy :

 Glycogen:
Glycogen ----digestion ----> Glucose ----- cellular oxidation -----> CO2 + H2O + Energy.

 Fats (triglycerides):
Fat ---- digestion ---->Fatty acid + glycerin ---- cellular oxidation ---->CO2 + H2O + Energy.

5. Calculation of energy values (E.V):

Case 1: if direct masses are given for each Case 2: if the percentage by mass (%m) is
nutrient. given for each nutrient.
E.V = E protein + E Lipid + E carbohydrate Mass of nutrient = (%m/100) x total mass of
= (m protein x 17) + (m lipid x 38) + (mcarb x 17) the diet
= ………. KJ (It should be calculated for each
Or carbohydrate, protein and lipid then to be
= (m protein x 4) + (m lipid x 9) + (mcarb x 4) substituted below)
= ………… Kcal E.V = E protein + E Lipid + E carbohydrate
= (m protein x 17) + (m lipid x 38) + (mcarb x 17)
= ………. KJ
Or
= (m protein x 4) + (m lipid x 9) + (mcarb x 4)
= ………… Kcal

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Chapter 6: The principal foods.

1. The principal food:
Food Essential nutrients
1. Cereals Carbohydrates and proteins (gluten)
2. Milk and dairy Proteins (casein) – Carbohydrates (lactose) – Minerals
products (calcium) and lipids.
3. Meat Proteins – Lipids – Some minerals and Vitamins.
4. Eggs Protein (albumin) – Lipids – Some minerals and vitamins.
5. Fatty substances Lipids (oil and fat)
6. Vegetables Vitamins – Minerals – Fibers and proteins
(e.g.: wheat – leguminous plants – potatoes).
7. Fruits Vitamins – Minerals – Fibers and sugars
8. Microorganisms Proteins
(Fungi- Bacteria – Yeast)

2. Lactose intolerance: It is a problem in the digestion or absorption of “Lactose”,

faced more by newborns due to a lack of a specific enzyme “lactase” that transforms
this double sugar into two monosaccharides (glucose and galactose).
Causes Solutions
- Genetic defect. - Adding lactase to milk powder. (For new
- Physiological decline with age. borns)
- Injuries in the intestine. - Taking lactase tablet. (For elder persons).

3. Rancidity of lipids: It is the oxidation of unsaturated fatty substances under the

effect of excessive heating where they are broken down into small toxic molecules.

4. Food additives: They are substances added to food to preserve it against

microorganisms along time or to make it more attractive.
Food additives Role
1. Preservatives To reduce the growth of microorganisms.
(E.g.: ascorbic acid)
2. Antioxidants To prevent the oxidation of lipids.
(E.g.: Vit E, C, BHA, BHT)
3. Sweeteners They could be natural (aspartame) or synthetic
(saccharin, cyclamates) used to give a sweet
taste.
4. Colorants They could be natural (caramel) or synthetic
(tartrazine) used to provide food with colors.
5. Emulsifiers and Stabilizers To stabilize food emulsion
6. Thickeners To reinforce food texture
7. Miscellaneous food Flavors ; substances used to control the PH.
additives

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Chapter 7: Food Diet.

1. Energy requirements of humans:

Basal metabolism Physical activity
It is determined by all the processes This energy depends on the type of
that keep our body alive and maintain activity and the physical effort.
our body temperature.
E.g.: Heartbeats – lungs functioning – E.g.: Running – Walking – Sitting …
biochemical reactions ….

These processes might vary with:

Age – body size – activity of the thyroid
gland …

2. A balanced diet:
A balanced diet is characterized by the consumption of daily food requirements
that contain variable quantities and reasonable qualities of the six principle groups
of food: meat, fish, poultry and eggs – Milk and dairy products – Fatty substances –
Cereals and leguminous grains – Fruits and vegetables – Beverages.

3. Food groups and their nutritional requirements:

Food group Nutritional requirements
Nutrients for Suppliers Regulatory
growth & of energy nutrients
maintenance
1 Fruits and vegetables Mineral (Ca) Poor in Minerals & Vit
calories
2 Meat, fish, eggs & poultry Protein, Fe & P Lipids Vitamins
3 Milk and dairy products. Proteins & Ca Lipids & Vitamins
carbs
4 Fatty substances None Lipids Liposoluble Vit

5 Cereals & leguminous grains. Proteins Carbs Some minerals

6 Beverages Compensate the loss of water.

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4. The effect of cooking on nutritive value of food:

Food Positive effect of cooking Negative effect of cooking

Proteins Heating upon cooking facilitates Cooking in water will lead to the
their digestion. dissolution of amino acids
Lipids – - Excessive cooking of lipids leads
to their rancidity forming toxic
compounds.
- Diet rich in fats leads to obesity
and coronary heart diseases.

Carbohydrates Cooking starch in water facilitates Diet rich in carbohydrates causes

their digestibility. diabetes mellitus and tooth decay.

Vitamins and Diet rich in fibers prevent Cooking vitamins and minerals will
minerals cardiovascular diseases and lead to a great loss of minerals and
facilitates digestion. water soluble vitamins.

5. Recommendations for a healthy diet:

- Increase the intake of fibers and water.
- Decrease the intake of lipids and carbohydrates.

6. Why alcohol is a food and a drug at the same time?

- Food: since it produces energy.
- Drug: since it modifies varies functions in the body.

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Unit II: Current medicinal drugs.

A. Introduction

1. Definition:
Medicinal drugs are used to treat a disease and to relief pain.

2. Sources:
a) Fermentation or from microbiological culture like antibiotics (e.g. Penicillin).
b) Synthesized like Aspirin and tranquilizers.
c) Extracted from plant and animal sources:
- Plant source e.g. Opium
- Animal sources: Hormones or insulin.

3. Classification of drugs:
Drugs are classified either according to their pharmaceutical activity or according to
their chemical structures.

4. Drug formulations:
Tablets – Capsules – Liquids – Sprays – Ointments and Suppositories.

5. Composition of a drug:
A medicinal drug is composed of an active ingredient and inert ingredients.
- An active ingredient: that acts on the body, it plays the therapeutic role (e.g. to
treat fight fever, bacteria, pain …)
- Inert ingredient: that are drug additives.

6. Difference between “Capsules” and “Tablets”

Tablets Capsules
Tablets are made of active ingredient Capsules are made of active ingredient
and inert ingredient (additives) that of a drug and a gelatinous container.
are mixed and compressed. Capsules are deprived of inert
ingredients (additives).

7. Additives found in tablets are: Binders – Lubricants – Disintegrators – Coating and

fillers.
a) Binders: such as starch paste that provide adhesiveness of tablets.
b) Lubricants: that prevent the sticking of ingredients to the machinery upon
compressing.
c) Disintegrators: such as a dry starch that speeds the breakdown of tablets and helps
in absorption.

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d) Coating: that solves the problem of taste and protects ingredients from air and
controls the rate of release of drug.
e) Fillers: such as sucrose, lactose … that are used to increase the size of the tablets.

8. Advantages and disadvantages of capsules:

Advantages Disadvantages
Capsules solve the problem of taste, Capsules are more expensive than
disintegration and solubility. tablets.

9. Naming of a medical drug:

In naming drugs we distinguish between the generic name and the trade name.
Generic name Trade name
The generic name is the name of active The trade name is the brand or
ingredients (active substances) which commercial name of a drug
form the medicine

10. The prospectus of a drug should contains:

a) The name of the drug.
b) The therapeutic active substances.
c) Excipients (additives).
d) Form of the drug.
e) Amount.
f) Therapeutic action.
g) Negative side effects.
h) Methods of administration.
i) Maximum dose.
j) Precautions.
k) Mode of conservation.
l) Expiration date.

B. Classification of drugs.
We could classify drugs according to their pharmaceutical activity and the kind of
treatment in which they are involved into 7 classes:
1. Analgesics.
2. Anesthetics.
3. Anti-acids.
4. Antibiotics.
5. Anti-inflammatory.
6. Tranquilizers.
7. Antidepressants.

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C. Characteristics of currently used drugs.

1. Analgesics:
Analgesics are substances that reduce or eliminate pain. They are divided into three
groups: Narcotics – Antipyretics – Anti-rheumatics.

a) Narcotics: they act on the brain in order to reduce or eliminate severe pain. E.g.
Morphine, Codeine.
b) Antipyretics: they reduce or eliminate lower fever. E.g. Aspirin, Paracetamol.
c) Anti-rheumatics: they reduce or eliminate inflammation of the muscles and the
joints. E.g. Aspirin.

 Difference between Aspirin and Panadol:

Generic name Trade name Action
Aspirin Aspirin, Aspicot … Analgesic, Antipyretic,
Anti-rheumatic and anti-
inflammatory.
Paracetamol or Panadol Analgesic, antipyretic.
Acetaminophen Tylenol

 Advantages /Disadvantages and Precautions of “Aspirin”

Advantages Disadvantages Precautions
- It has the effect of - Local irritation. - Aspirin is not given for
reducing blood - Provokes weak a person suffering
clotting. This reduces bleeding (stomach from ulcer.
the risk of heart bleeding). - Aspirin must be taken
attacks and formation - It increases the with a cup of water or
of clots. hemorrhage during it must be taken with
wounds in surgical some anti-acids.
operations, and stops
the formation of blood
platelets.

2. Anesthetics:
Anesthetics produce anesthesia which is a state of being unable to feel pain, heat and
cold … They are classified into local anesthetics and general anesthetics.
Local Anesthetics General Anesthetics
- They are used on localized regions - They are used to inhibit the whole body
of the body. regions.
- They act on the nerve cells and - They act on the central nervous system
block their ability to transmit (brain and spinal cord) and produce a
impulses. loss of sensation and consciousness.
- They are administrated by - They are classified according to the way

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injection close to the target region of administration into: Inhaled

or applied topically to the surface. Anesthetics and Intravenous
- It is used in minor surgery. Anesthetics.
- E.g. Cocaine, ethyl chloride
(Spray). Inhaled Intravenous
Anesthetics Anesthetics
Act within few They are
minutes in administrated
inhalation. by injection
E.g.: Diethyl ether, alone or in
nitrous oxide. conjugation
with inhaled
anesthetic
agents.
E.g.:
Pentobarbital.
Side effects: Side effects:
- Toxicity in organs and tissues. - Are related to taken dose.
- Tremor. - Depressed cardiovascular function.
- Restlessness. - Nausea.
- Respiratory failure. - Overdose leads to coma.
- Drowsiness. - Depression of respiration.
- Vomiting.

3. Anti- acids:
They are used to treat excessive gastric acid HCl.
Active ingredients of anti-acids are mild bases that counter act the excessive acidity in
the stomach.
Effervescent anti-acids contain sodium bicarbonate and citric acid in which their
reactions evolve CO2 gas.

Brand name of some anti-acids:

Maalox formed of Magnesium hydroxide + Aluminum hydroxide.
Rennie formed of Calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

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4. Anti- inflammatory drugs:

An anti-inflammatory drug is a substance that reduces or eliminates inflammation.
(Inflammation is a reaction of tissues to injuries. It affects the connective tissues and
constitutes a reaction of defense of the organism against external aggressions, which
may result from foreign bodies, chemicals, electricity, heat, cold and microorganisms.)
They are classified into two: Steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents.
- Steroidal anti-inflammatory agent: e.g. Cortisone.
- Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent: e.g. Aspirin, Ibuprofen and Diclofenac.

General name Trade name Side effects

Aspirin Aspirin Stomach distress and nausea
Ibuprofen Advil Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Diclofenac Voltarene Anemia, digestive hemorrhage.

 Side effects of steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Anti-inflammatory drugs Steroidal (Cortisone) Non-steroidal
Side effects - Fluid retention. Increase in respiratory
- Unwanted hair. rate
- Moon face
appearance.
- Hypertension.
- Decrease in the size of
muscles.

5. Antibiotics
Antibiotics produced by micro-organisms or by chemical synthesis to kill or inhibit the
growth of other micro-organisms.
Antibiotics may cause the death of beneficial bacteria* (Flores of the intestine) causing
diarrhea.
 Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called bactericidal
 Antibiotics that kill fungi are called fungicidal

 Commonly used antibiotics are:

 Penicillin G : benzyl penicillin
 Sulfa drugs as: Adiazin and tetracycline.
An overdose of Penicillin G may cause dysfunction of the brain, dizziness,
hallucination, intense contraction of heart muscles, troubles in perception.

 Classification of antibiotics:
Antibiotics are classified into two classes: the “Broad spectrum antibiotics” and the
“Narrow spectrum antibiotics.”
Antibiotics are not candies!!!!!!!!!

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Broad spectrum antibiotics Narrow spectrum antibiotics

- Effective against a wide variety of
bacteria.
- Usually prescribed when the invading
micro-organism is unknown (when
the person is attacked by more than
one type of bacteria).
- They are more harmful to beneficial
bacteria*(Flores of the intestine)
- Effective against a specific micro-
organism.
- Usually prescribed when the invaded
bacteria is identified.
- They are beneficial to bacteria
resisted to antibiotics.

 Cases where bacteria can resist to antibiotics (bacteria resistant to antibiotics):

a) This resistant can be natural or acquired (= resulting from a genetic modification).
b) When bacteria cannot be anymore overcome by antibiotics it is said to be
resistant.
c) Some bacteria can produce enzymes that deactivates the antibiotic, other cases
may result when the bacteria changes the structure of their active sites, thus
protecting themselves (the antibiotics will not be able to kill them).

 Cases when we use a “combination of antibiotics”:

a) In case of unknown bacteria.
b) In case of mixed infection.
c) To obtain a more intensive effect.
d) To prevent emergence of resistant antibiotic.
e) To lower the dose of one antibiotic.
P.s: it is a poor strategy since the two antibiotics may be antagonistic toward one
another.

6. Tranquilizers:
Tranquilizers are substances used to sedate without inducing sleep. They are used to
relieve anxiety, excitement and restlessness.
Generic name Trade name Overdose effect
Diazepam Valium State of intoxication,
drowsiness, coma, failure
in respiration.
Chlorodiazepoxide Librium Muscle rigidity, death.

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7. Antidepressants:
Antidepressants are drugs used for treating depression. Typical symptoms of
depressants include continuous sadness, loss of interest and pleasure in activities,
crying spells, feeling guilty, worthless and hopeless.
Side effects:
Overdose of antidepressants causes death, respiratory paralysis, coma and
unconsciousness.

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