1.2.

2 Automatic Count Method

The automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of traffic
data. Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour interval for each 24-hour period.
The counts extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each
24-hour time period, the peak flow period can be identified. Automatic counts are
recorded using one of three methods: portable counters, permanent counters, and
videotape

Permanent sites also known as ADC (automatic data collector) or ATR's (automatic
traffic recorder) are used by many organizations in which constant data collection
is needed.
They usually use sensors that require little to no maintenance over time and
equipment that can operate for long periods without supervision.
Permanent Inductive Loops are considered the most reliable traffic detection
method available. An inductive loop consists of wire "coiled" to form a loop that
usually is a square, circle or rectangle that is installed into or under the surface
of the roadway.
Inductive loops are used in signal detection and work like a metal detector. Once
a vehicle drives over a loop sensor the loop field changes which allows the
detection device to detect the presence of an object (mainly a vehicle).
Often Inductive loops are referred to as presence detectors, and in traffic
detection are often used in combination with axle sensors to collect classification
data.
Portable counters are used to collect short term duration traffic counts or
classification studies. Portable units are utilized for performing Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) counts and speed studies used by all types of users from government to local
residents.
Road tube units are the most common portable technology available and the
most economic way to collect traffic data. With Road tube units the count, speed
and axle data is highly accurate.
An infra-red counter is designed for pedestrian/vehicle counts with portability,
ease of installation and concealment in mind.
The infra-red version can be used to count persons from up to 50 feet away.
Portable Road tube counters are a simple and economical counting option.
Road Tube counters are the most widely used devices to count traffic in the world
and are used by every type of data collection agency from personal property
owners to government agencies and consultants. Some units are stand alone
and total counts can be read of the displays and other can be connected to a
computer to download and create reports using our Centurion Parks software.
Determination of PCU

Traffic in many parts of the world is heterogeneous, where road space is shared
among many traffic modes with different physical dimensions. Loose lane discipline
prevails; car following is not the norm. This complicates computing of PCU. Some of
the methods for determining passenger car units (PCU) are following:

1. Modified Density Method

2. Chandra’s method
3. Method Based on Relative Delay
4. Headway method
5. Multiple linear regression method
6. Simulation method

It may be appropriate to use different values for the same vehicle type according to
circumstances like volume of traffic, speed of vehicle, lane width and several external
factors.

5.1 Method based on relative delay

The 1965 HCM used relative speed reduction to define PCUs for two lane highways
and quantified this by the relative number of passing known as the Walker method.
For multi-lane highways, PCUs were based on the relative delay due to trucks. PCUs
for multi-lane highways based on relative delay may be found as

(3)

where Dij is the delay to passenger cars due to vehicle type i under condition j
and Db is the base delay to standard passenger cars due to slower passenger cars.

PCUs in the 1965 HCM were reported for grades of specific length and percent,
proportion of trucks, and LOS grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected, the
highest PCU was reported for the longest and steepest grade with the highest
proportion of trucks and the lowest LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given
grade and LOS decreased with increasing proportion of trucks. PCUs in the 1965 HCM
were reported for grades of specific length and percent, proportion of trucks, and LOS
grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected, the highest PCU was reported for
the longest and steepest grade with the highest proportion of trucks and the lowest
LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given grade and LOS decreased with
increasing proportion of trucks.

5.2 Multiple linear regression model

Multiple linear regression method try to represent the speed of a traffic stream as
function of number of variables. For example, the percentile speed vp can represented
as:

(4)

where vf is the free speed, V c is the number of passenger cars, V c is the number of
trucks V r is the number of recreational vehicles, V r is the number of other types of
vehicles, V a is the number of vehicles moving against the current stream, C1 to C5 are
coefficient representing the relative sizes of speed reductions for each vehicle type.
Although this model was formulated for two lane highways with opposing traffic flow,
it could be applied to multi-lane highways by setting the coefficient C5 to zero. Using
the speed reduction coefficients, En, the PCU for a vehicle type n is calculated as:

where Cn is the speed reduction coefficient for vehicle type n and C1 is the speed
reduction coefficient for passenger cars.

5.3 Method based on headway

Realizing one of the primary effects of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream is that they
take up more space, headways have been used for some of the most popular methods
to calculate PCUs. In 1976, Werner and Morrall suggested that the headway method
is best suited to determine PCUs on level terrain at low levels of service. The PCU is
calculated as

(5)

where HM is the average headway for a sample including all vehicle types, HB is the
average headway for a sample of passenger cars only, PC is the proportion of cars,
and PT is the proportion of trucks.

5.3.1 Numerical Example

The table given below show headway data for a number of traffic conditions. It is
assumed that the traffic contains only car and truck. Compute the PCU value for each
traffic condition Note that hm, hc, pc, pt respectively denote the average headway for
mixed traffic, average headway for traffic consisting of cars only, the percentage of
cars and percentage of trucks of the traffic stream.

Chandra’s method

This method uses two factors: namely, velocity of vehicle type and its projected
rectangular area to calculate the PCU value.

(6)

where V c and V i are mean speeds of car and vehicle of type i respectively
and Ac and Ai are their respective projected rectangular area length * width on the
road.

5.5 Density method

In the density method, the PCU of truck (Et) is computed as:

 (7)

where kc is the density of cars in pure homogeneous conditions(car/km.), Wl is the

width of the lane in homogeneous traffic, kt is the density of the truck in pure
homogeneous conditions and Et is the passenger car unit of the trucks given
homogeneous traffic behaviour. In density method where car following and lane
discipline behaviour prevails, all traffic entities use an equal Wl.

6 Conclusion

Measurement over a section is probably one of the easiest field parameter that can be
measured. Various types of volume counts and counting techniques have been
discussed in brief. Along with this a brief insight into various methods of calculating
Passenger Car unit has been provided. Out of the various methods discussed,
Chandra’s Method is only method that can be applied to the Indian condition of
heterogeneous traffic that is characterized by loose lane discipline. All the other
methods are primarily based on homogeneous traffic conditions mainly prevailing in
developed countries.
Highway capacity and LOS: Definitions and factors (HCM 2010)
1 Introduction

Often it is required to ascertain how much a transport facility can accommodate. Such
information is useful in the design of traffic facility. Capacity analysis helps in
answering the question. It is a quantitative assessment of the ability of a traffic facility
to handle vehicles or people for which it is designed.

A related question is, what is the performance level of the system at various
operating conditions. Or in other words, how good is the operation of the traffic facility.
Level of Service analysis tries to answer this question which is essentially a qualitative
analysis. Capacities and Level of Services are therefore closely related analysis of a
traffic facility.

2 Concepts
2.1 Capacity

Capacity of a transport facility is defined as the maximum number of vehicles,

passengers, or the like, per unit time which can be accommodated under given
conditions with a reasonable expectation of occurrence. The Highway Capacity
Manual(2010) defines the capacity as the maximum howdy rate at which persons or
vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment of a
lane or roadway during a given time period, under prevailing roadway, traffic and
control conditions. Several observations can be made from the above definition.
Although capacity is the maximum howdy rate, in many situations the break 15 minute
flow rate is expressed as the capacity. The above definition also contains the term
“reasonably expected” to account for the variation in traffic and driving habit at various
location. However, it can be termed as a probabilistic measure. Further, analytical
derivations are possible for getting the maximum flow rate, seldom it is achieved in the
field. However, capacity measures are often empirically derived. Capacity is usually
defined for a point or a uniform segment where operating conditions do not vary.

The capacity measure depends on these operating conditions. The first is the traffic
conditions and the factors that influence the capacity includes vehicle composition,
turning, movements, etc. The second factor is the roadway conditions and it includes
geometrical characteristics such as lane width, shoulder width, horizontal alignment,
vertical alignment. The third factor is the control conditions such as the traffic signal
timings, round-about characteristics. It is also to be noted that the above capacity
definition holds good for a point or at a section of the road having uniform control
conditions. Another aspect of the above capacity definition is the expression that the
maximum flow rate which accounts for the worst 15 minutes traffic within the peak hour
traffic. Lastly the term reasonable expectancy indicates that the capacity measure is
probabilistic and not an analytically derived deterministic value. The capacity measure
is probabilistic, for it accounts for the unexplainable variation in traffic and diverse
driving characteristics.

2.2 Level of service

Level-of-Service(LOS) of a traffic facility is a concept introduced to relate the quality

of traffic service to a given flow rate. Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote
the level of quality one can derive from a local under different operation characteristics
and traffic volume. HCM proposes LOS as a letter that designate a range of operating
conditions on a particular type of facility. Six LOS letters are defined by HCM, namely
A, B, C, D, E, and F, where A denote the best quality of service and F denote the
worst. These definitions are based on Measures of Effectiveness(MoE) of that facility.
Typical measure of effectiveness include speed, travel-time, density, delay etc. There
will be an associated service volume for each of the LOS levels. A service volume or
service flow rate is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, which
can be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a given
LOS.

2.3 Type of Facilities

HCM has developed the capacities standard and LOS measure for various facilities.
Each traffic facility has its own unit for the capacity and measure of effectiveness for
each item will also vary. The traffic facilities can be divided into three, namely: the
uninterrupted facilities, interrupted facilities, and others. Interrupted facilities include
freeway (basic freeway, weaving sections, and ramps), multi-lane highways
(unidirectional), two-lane highways(bidirectional). Freeways normally have density as
the measure of effectiveness, while multi-lane and two-lane highways have
delay/speed as the MoE. Interrupted facilities include un-signalized intersection,
signalized intersection, and arterials or corridors. They have respectively control delay,
total delay and average travel speed as the measure of effectiveness. Other facilities
may include pedestrian pathways, bicycle tracks, bus-transit system, rail-transit
system and air-transportation system. Each of them have facility specific measure of
effectiveness.

3 Illustrations

For a typical freeway mid block section the capacity and LOS can be defined for an
ideal section. An ideal section has uninterrupted flow from both sides and has only
passenger cars and the drivers are regular travelers who are familiar with the facility.
The lane width is 3.65m wide with proper shoulder and 1.8m lateral clearance is
available from the edge of the pavement. The free flow speed of 115kmph is
achievable on the multi-lane and 100kmph on the two-lane highway.

3.1 Capacity

Such a facility is considered as an ideal facility and for such facilities the following
values can be taken as capacity.

1. A capacity of 2000 vehicle per hour per lane for a speed of 115kmph
2. A capacity of 1900 vehicles per hour per lane for a speed of 80kmph
3. A capacity of 2800 vehicle per hour for both direction at 100kmph

Note that the above values are not analytical or experimentally derived, but,
statistically derived from the observed field values from large number of such sections.
Needly to say that it is possible to have a flow higher than this capacity measure, but
not necessary.

3.2 Level of service

The above capacity value drop due to various ‘non-ideal condition’ which includes
changes in speed or travel time, traffic interruptions or restriction etc. Accordingly HCM
has defined various levels of services for the traffic facility. Assigning quality value is
based on several user surveys capturing the perception of drivers on the quality of the
 traffic under various operating condition. The Figure 1 illustrate the quality of services
or Level-of-Services (A to F) and the various operating conditions.

Figure 1: The Level of Service of a mid-block section is expressed in terms of the operaing
speed and volume to capacity (v/c) ratio

The same can be shown in the Table 1.

Table 1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section

LOS Quality Speed V/C Description

 (kmph)

A Free-flow 80 0.6 High level of physical

and psychological comfort

B Reasonable 70 0.7 Reasonable level of

physical and psychological

free-flow comfort

C Near 60 0.8 Local deterioration

free-flow possible with blockages

D Medium 50 0.85 Non-recoverable

flow local disruptions

E At capacity 40 0.9 Minor disturbances

flow resulting breakdown

F Congested 15 1.0 Break down of flow

flow capacity drops

4 Conclusion

In this lecture the concepts of capacity and LOS is presented. Capacity is a quantitative
measure, whereas LOS is a qualitative measure. Capacity defined for various traffic
facilities considering the traffic, geometric and control condition and obtained from field
observation. LOS on the other side is assigning quality levels of traffic based on
performance measure like speed, density, etc. Together, the concepts gave planner a
valuable tool in designing and evaluating various traffic facilities.

Multilane highway capacity (HCM 2010)

https://www.slideshare.net/RaghupathiKandiboina/capacity-and-los-of-multilane-highways
 Traffic signs and road markings
TRAFFIC SIGNS

1 Overview

Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer
and road users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers
using the road. Here traffic control devices comes to the help of the traffic engineer.
The major types of traffic control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings , traffic
signals and parking control. This chapter discusses traffic control signs. Different types
of traffic signs are regulatory signs, warning signs and informatory signs.

2 Requirements

The requirements of traffic control devices are listed below:

1. The control device should fulfill a need : Each device must have a specific
purpose for the safe and efficient operation of traffic flow. The superfluous
devices should not be used.
2. It should command attention from the road users: This affects the design
of signs. For commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the
sign should be distinctive and clear. The sign should be placed in such a way
that the driver requires no extra effort to see the sign.
3. It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message
is essential for the driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The
use of color, shape and legend as codes becomes important in this regard. The
legend should be kept short and simple so that even a less educated driver
could understand the message in less time.
4. Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the
drivers are conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and
important messages. Overuse, misuse and confusing messages of devices
tends the drivers to ignore them.
5. The control device should provide adequate time for proper response
from the road users: This is again related to the design aspect of traffic control
 devices. The sign boards should be placed at a distance such that the driver
could see it and gets sufficient time to respond to the situation. For example,
the STOP sign which is always placed at the stop line of the intersection should
be visible for at least one safe stopping sight distance away from the stop line.

3 Communication tools

A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the
road user. These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly
eyesight. Messages are conveyed through the following elements.

1. Color: It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usage
of different colors for different signs are important. The most commonly used
colors are red, green, yellow, black, blue, and brown . These are used to code
certain devices and to reinforce specific messages. Consistent use of colors
helps the drivers to identify the presence of sign board ahead.
2. Shape : It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the
device. The categories of shapes normally used are circular, triangular,
rectangular, and diamond shape. Two exceptional shapes used in traffic signs
are octagonal shape for STOP sign and use of inverted triangle for GIVE WAY
(YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not generally used in India.
3. Legend : This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This
is an important aspect in the case of traffic signs. For the easy understanding
by the driver, the legend should be short, simple and specific so that it does not
divert the attention of the driver. Symbols are normally used as legends so that
even a person unable to read the language will be able to understand that.
There is no need of it in the case of traffic signals and road markings.
4. Pattern: It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing
traffic signs. Generally solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each
pattern conveys different type of meaning. The frequent and consistent use of
pattern to convey information is recommended so that the drivers get
accustomed to the different types of markings and can instantly recognize them.
4 Types of traffic signs

There are several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide variety of traffic
situations. They can be classified into three main categories.

1. Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the
safety of other road users.
2. Warning signs:These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and
advice the drivers to obey these signs.
3. Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the
facilities available ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific
destinations

In addition special type of traffic sign namely work zone signs are also available.
These type of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some
construction work is going on the road. They are placed only for short duration and will
be removed soon after the work is over and when the road is brought back to its normal
condition. The first three signs will be discussed in detail below.

4.1 Regulatory signs

These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers
must obey these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right
to take legal action against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety
of other road users. These signs have generally black legend on a white background.
They are circular in shape with red borders. The regulatory signs can be further
classified into :

1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of
way to the selected approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and
GIVE WAY sign For example, when one minor road and major road meets at
an intersection, preference should be given to the vehicles passing through the
major road. Hence the give way sign board will be placed on the minor road to
inform the driver on the minor road that he should give way for the vehicles on
the major road. In case two major roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer
 decides based on the traffic on which approach the sign board has to be placed.
Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes in right of way
series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the
vehicle on the road. They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed,
minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs are placed to limit the speed of the
vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons. Separate truck speed limits are
applied on high speed roadways where heavy commercial vehicles must be
limited to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons. Minimum
speed limits are applied on high speed roads like expressways, freeways etc.
where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow vehicles may present
hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle
maneuvers. These include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one
way signs etc. Turn signs include turn prohibitions and lane use control signs.
Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the movements which all vehicles
in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate turns in
unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking
prohibitions or restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted,
the type of vehicle to be parked, duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs
are meant for the safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian
only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are:
a ”KEEP OF MEDIAN” sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting
vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle
weight limitations etc.

Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown in figure 1. They include a stop
sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle
width limit sign, speed limit sign etc.
Figure 1: Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign
indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)

4.2 Warning signs

Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending
road condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the
own safety of drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color
convention used for this type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a
white background. The shape used is upward triangular or diamond shape with red
borders. Some of the examples for this type of signs are given in fig 2 and includes
right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road, sign indicating railway track ahead
etc.

Figure 2: Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow
road, sign indicating railway track ahead)
 4.3 Informative signs

Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach
their desired destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are
unfamiliar to the place. The guide signs are redundant for the users who are
accustomed to the location.

Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs,
mile posts, service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc.
Route markers are used to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are
distinctive and unique. They are written black letters on yellow background.
Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to the critical destination points,
and to mark important intersections. Distance in kilometers are sometimes marked to
the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular with the long
dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with green
background.

Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to
reach his destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding
various services such as food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white
letters on blue background. Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area
is given on white letters with brown background. In the figure 3 we can see some
examples for informative signs which include route markers, destination signs, mile
posts, service center information etc..

Figure 3: Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts,
service center information etc)
5 Summary

Traffic signs are means for exercising control on or passing information to the road
users. They may be regulatory, warning, or informative. Among the design aspects of
the signs, the size, shape, color and location matters. Some of the signs along with
examples were discussed in this chapter. A few web sites discussing on traffic signs
are given below: www.aptransport.org/html/signs.htm,
www.indiacar.com/infobank/Traffic-signs.htm.

Exercises

1. What is the difference between a stop sign and give way sign? Under what
circumstances are they required? Illustrate with neat sketches.
2. Give two examples for each of the following categories of traffic signs: (i) Right
of way series, (ii) Movement series, (iii) Informatory signs, and (iv) Warning
signs
3. Give one example (with neat sketch) each for traffic signs (i) for your own safety,
(ii) for the safety of other road users, and (iii) not specifically for safety purposes.

ROAD MARKINGS

Overview
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a
highway. They supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve
as a psychological barrier and signify the delineation of traffic path and its
lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe movement of traffic.
Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious
flow of traffic. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings,
transverse markings, object markings and special markings to warn the
driver about the hazardous locations in the road etc. will be discussed in
detail in this chapter.
Classification of road markings
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices,
except signs, set into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to
objects within or adjacent to the carriageway, for controlling, warning,
guiding and informing the users. The road markings are classified as
longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word
messages, marking for parkings, marking at hazardous locations etc.

Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the
roadway surface, for the purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper
position on the roadway. Some of the guiding principles in longitudinal
markings are also discussed below.

Longitudinal markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same
direction and the predominant color used is white. Yellow color is used to
separate the traffic flow in opposite direction and also to separate the
pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or double solid.
Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion,
if traffic situation permits. Solid lines are restrictive in character and does
not allow crossing except for entry or exit from a side road or premises or
to avoid a stationary obstruction. Double solid lines indicate severity in
restrictions and should not be crossed except in case of emergency. There
can also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a solid
line may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line of the combination is
nearer to the direction of travel. Vehicles from the opposite directions are
not permitted to cross the line. Different types of longitudinal markings are
centre line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning lines, border or edge
lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane markings.

Centre line
Centre line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their
movements. Usually no centre line is provided for roads having width less
than 5 m and for roads having more than four lanes. The centre line may
be marked with either single broken line, single solid line, double broken
line, or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements.
On urban roads with less than four lanes, the centre line may be single
broken line segments of 3 m long and 150 mm wide. The broken lines are
placed with 4.5 m gaps (figure 1).

Figure 1: Centre line marking for a two lane road

On curves and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 metres. On

undivided urban roads with at least two traffic lanes in each direction, the
centre line marking may be a single solid line of 150 mm wide as in
figure 2, or double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of 100
mm as shown in figure 3.

Figure 2: Centre line and lane marking for a four lane road
 Figure 3: Double solid line for a two lane road

The centre barrier line marking for four lane road is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: Centre barrier line marking for four lane road

Traffic lane lines

The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of
the carriage way helps the driver to go straight and also curbs the
meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections, these traffic lane lines
will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements. Thus traffic lane
markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring
more safety. The traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100
mm width. Some examples are shown in figure 5 and figure 6.
 Figure 5: Lane marking for a four lane road with solid barrier line

Figure 6: Traffic lane marking for a four lane road with broken centre line

No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and
on two lane and three lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are
prohibited because of low sight distance. It may be marked by a solid yellow
line along the centre or a double yellow line. In the case of a double yellow
line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may
be a either a broken line or a solid line . These solid lines are also called
barrier lines. When a solid line is to the right of the broken line, the passing
restriction shall apply only to the opposing traffic. Some typical examples
are shown in figure 7 and figure 8.
 Figure 7: Barrier line marking for a four lane road

Figure 8: No passing zone marking at horizontal curves

In the latter case, the no passing zone is staggered for each direction.

Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are
marked on horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than
prohibitory criteria specified for no overtaking zones. They are broken lines
with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven line segments should
be provided. A typical example is shown in figure 9
 Figure 9: Warning line marking for a two lane road

Edge lines
Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate
the limits upto which the driver can safely venture. They should be at least
150 mm from the actual edge of the pavement. They are painted in yellow
or white.

All the lines should be preferably light reflective, so that they will be visible
during night also. Improved night visibility may also be obtained by the use
of minute glass beads embedded in the pavement marking materials to
produce a retroreflective surface.

Transverse markings
Transverse markings are marked across the direction of traffic. They are
marked at intersections etc. The site conditions play a very important role.
The type of road marking for a particular intersection depends on several
variables such as speed characteristics of traffic, availability of space etc.
Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows, etc.
are some of the markings on approaches to intersections.

Stop line
Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not
proceed when required to stop by control devices like signals or by traffic
police. They should be placed either parallel to the intersecting roadway or
at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles. An example for a
stop line marking is shown in figure 10.

Figure 10: Stop line marking near an intersection

Pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between
vehicular and pedestrian traffic is severe. The site should be selected that
there is less inconvenience to the pedestrians and also the vehicles are not
interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian crossings should be
preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized
intersections and at a distance of one metre for signalized intersections.
Most commonly used pattern for pedestrian crossing is Zebra crossing
consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A typical example
of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in figure 11.
 Figure 11: Pedestrian marking near an intersection

Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows
should be used to guide the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be
taken while approaching busy intersections. Because of the low angle at
which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should be
elongated in the direction of traffic for adequate visibility. The dimensions
of these arrows are also very important. A typical example of a directional
arrow is shown in figure 12.
 Figure 12: Directional arrow marking

Object marking
Physical obstructions in a carriageway like traffic island or obstructions near
carriageway like signal posts, pier etc. cause serious hazard to the flow of
traffic and should be adequately marked. They may be marked on the
objects adjacent to the carriageway.

Objects within the carriageway

The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raised
medians, etc. may be marked by not less than five alternate black and
yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward at an angle of 45 with
respect to the direction of traffic. These stripes shall be uniform and should
not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sufficient visibility.

Objects adjacent to carriageway

Sometimes objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some
obstructions to the flow of traffic. Objects such as subway piers and
abutments, culvert head walls etc. are some examples for such
obstructions. They should be marked with alternate black and white stripes
at a forward angle of 45 with respect to the direction of traffic. Poles close
to the carriageway should be painted in alternate black and white up to a
height of 1.25 m above the road level. Other objects such as guard stones,
drums, guard rails etc. where chances of vehicles hitting them are only
when vehicle runs off the carriageway should be painted in solid white.
Kerbs of all islands located in the line of traffic flow shall be painted with
either alternating black and white stripes of 500 mm wide or chequered
black and white stripes of same width. The object marking for central pier
and side walls of an underpass is illustrated in figure 13.
 Figure 13: Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

Word messages
Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user may also be conveyed
by inscription of word message on road surface. Characters for word
messages are usually capital letters. The legends should be as brief as
possible and shall not consist of more than three words for any message.
Word messages require more and important time to read and comprehend
than other road markings. Therefore, only few and important ones are
usually adopted. Some of the examples of word messages are STOP, SLOW,
SCHOOL, RIGHT TUN ONLY etc. The character of a road message is also
elongated so that driver looking at the road surface at a low angle can also
read them easily. The dimensioning of a typical alphabet is shown in
figure 14.
 Figure 14: Typical dimension of the character T used in road marking

Parking
The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more
efficient use of the parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on
places like bus stops, fire hydrant zones etc. where parking is undesirable.
Such parking space limitations should be indicated with markings that are
solid white lines 100 mm wide. Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. may
also be written if the parking area is specific for any particular type of
vehicle. To indicate parking restriction, kerb or carriage way marking of
continuous yellow line 100 mm wide covering the top of kerb or carriageway
close to it may be used.

Hazardous location
Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any hazardous
location in the road, the driver should be warned about this situation with
the help of suitable road markings. Road markings showing the width
transition in the carriageway should be of 100 mm width. Converging lines
shall be 150 mm wide and shall have a taper length of not less than twenty
times the off-set distance. Typical carriageway markings showing transition
from wider to narrower sections and vice-versa is shown in figure 15. In
the figure, the driver is warned about the position of the pier through proper
road markings.

Figure 15: Approach marking for obstructions on the road way

Summary
Road markings are aids to control traffic by exercising psychological control
over the road users. They are made use of in delineating the carriage way
as well as marking obstructions, to ensure safe driving. They also assist
safe pedestrian crossing. Longitudinal markings which are provided along
the length of the road and its various classifications were discussed.
Transverse markings are provided along the width of the road. Road
markings also contain word messages, but since it is time consuming to
understand compared to other markings there are only very few of them.
Markings are also used to warn the driver about the hazardous locations
ahead. Thus road markings ensure smooth flow of traffic providing safety
also to the road users.
 Channelization
1 Introduction

One of the most effective and efficient methods of controlling the traffic on a highway
is the adoption of high intersection geometric design standards. Channelization is an
integral part of at grade intersections and is used to separate turning movements from
through movements where this is considered advisable and hence helps reduce the
intensity and frequency of loss of life and property due to accidents to a large extent.
Proper Channelization increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum
convenience, and instils driver confidence. Improper Channelization has the opposite
effect and may be worse than none at all. Over Channelization should be avoided
because it could create confusion and worsen operations.

2 Definitions and Important Terms

1. Channelization - It is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic

movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement marking
to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
2. Conflict - It is defined as the demand for the same highway space by two or
more users of the highway. Conflicts are classified into mainly three types:
a. Crossing conflicts
b. Diverging conflicts
c. Merging conflicts
3. Angle of Intersection - The angle of intersection is that formed by the
centerlines of the intersecting streets. Where the angle of intersection departs
significantly (more than approximately 20o) from right angles, the intersection is
referred to as a skewed intersection. Fig. 1 shows the angle made between the
center lines of the major and minor legs.
 Figure 1: Angle of Intersection

4. Refuge Areas - The area which is used to give refuge to the pedestrians
crossing a street (the open area between two medians) is known as a refuge
area.

3 Objectives

The use of Channelization is often creative and innovative, providing for vehicle path
separation and distinct and thus in general making traffic flow safer, smoother, simpler
and efficient. The main objectives of Channelization can be summarized as follows:

1. Separation of maneuver areas: The drivers should be presented with only

one decision at a time to reduce confusion and the influence of operations
caused due to the overlapping of maneuver areas.
2. Reduce excessively large paved areas: The spread of the paved area can
be considerably reduced by the construction of raised islands and medians
where these are considered safe and necessary.
3. Control of maneuver angle:The intensity of accidents can be reduced to a
large extent by providing small angles for merging, diverging and weaving (at
low relative speeds) and approximately right angles for crossing (at high relative
speeds). The maneuver angle can be easily controlled by constructing islands
of appropriate shapes and sizes.
4. Favor predominant turning movements: Channelization is also directed for
giving preference to turning movements at an intersection where the proportion
of such traffic is high.
 5. Control of speed: Channelization is also used for supporting stop or speed
regulations by removing differentials in speed for merging, diverging, weaving
and crossing by using the bending and funneling techniques.
6. Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles: To shadow slow
or stopped vehicles from other traffic flows.
7. Blockage of prohibited movements: Proper Channelization also helps
maintain traffic regulations by making prohibited movements impossible or
inconvenient.
8. Provide space for traffic control devices: To provide space for traffic control
devices when the ideal location for the same is within the intersection area.
9. Segregation of non-homogeneous flows: Channelization provides separate
channels for turning and through, fast and slow, and opposite direction traffic.
10. Protection of pedestrians and reduction of crossing distances between
refuses: Non-traversable and wide medians provide a refuge for pedestrians
crossing a street.

Consider for example the T-intersection shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. In Fig. 2, the
intersection has no special Channelization for helping drivers in avoiding conflicts
between movements. In Fig. 3, a passing lane for through vehicles in the eastbound
direction and a westbound right-turn lane has been added, which helps in separating
the turning traffic from the through ones. In Fig. 4, the use of lanes is further clarified
due to the addition of channelizing islands.

Figure 2: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (a)Intersection with no

Channelization
Figure 3: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (b)Intersection with right-turn and
passing lane

Figure 4: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (c)Fully channelized intersection

4 Design Principles

Design of a channelized intersection usually involves the following significant controls:

the type of design vehicle, the cross sections on the crossroads, the projected traffic
volumes in relation to capacity, the number of pedestrians, the speed of vehicles, and
the type and location of traffic control devices. Furthermore, the physical controls such
as right-of-way and terrain have an effect on the extent of Channelization that is
economically feasible.
The degree to which each of these principles applies will depend upon the features
mentioned above. While a principle may be modified in its application to a particular
site, disregard of these may result in a hazardous design. The principles may be
summarized as follows:
 1. Reduction of the Area of Conflict: The impact area is decreased when
Channelization is provided, and hence the probability of conflicts is also
reduced. The figure below further clarifies the statement. Fig. 5 shows the
conflict area in a Y-intersection without Channelization and Fig. 6 shows the
reduced conflict area in the same intersection after providing medians.

Figure 5: Conflict area in all paved intersection

Figure 6: Conflict area in a channelized intersection

 2. Merging traffic streams at small angles: Merging at small angles permits the
flow of traffic streams with minimum speed differentials. Hence, the gap
acceptance time is also small in such cases. The merging of roadways should
be done as shown below in Fig. 7.

Figure 7: Merging of traffic streams

3. Reduction of the speed of incoming traffic by bending its path: The speed
of vehicles entering into the intersection can be reduced by bending the path to
the intersection approach. However as far as possible the path of the major
traffic stream should not be bent. The above technique is shown below in Fig. 8.

Figure 8: Bending path of incoming minor street

 4. Reduction of speed of traffic by funneling: The funneling technique can also
be used for reducing the speeds of the incoming vehicles. Due to the decrease
in the width of the lane at the approach, the drivers tend to reduce the speed of
their vehicles near the intersection. Fig. 9 shows the funneling technique used
for reduction of speed.

Figure 9: Reduction of speed by funneling

5. Protection for turning vehicles/crossing conflicting traffic

streams: Provision of a refuge area between the two opposing streams allows
the driver of a crossing vehicle to select a safe gap in one stream at a time and
also provides a safer crossing maneuver. Fig. 10further clarifies the above
statement.
Figure 10: Refuge area for protecting crossing or turning traffic

6. Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape: Undesirable

and prohibited turns can be discouraged by the proper selection of shape and
location of the islands. Fig. 11 shows how prohibited turns can be discouraged
by proper shaping and placement of islands.

Figure 11: Properly placed islands discourage prohibited movements

7. Providing locations of traffic control devices: Channelization may provide

locations for the installation of essential traffic control devices, such as stop and
directional signs, signals etc. Fig. 12 shows how channelizing devices can also
be used for locating traffic control devices.
 Figure 12: Location of signal posts on medians at intersections

5 Channelizing devices

A channelizing device can be defined as any structure which helps in providing

Channelization. These can be wide raised medians, non-traversable road islands,
traversable raised curbs or even flush channelizing devices. A brief description of the
various devices which are used for the purpose of Channelization are given in the
following sections.

1. Wide Raised Medians

In this form of channelizing device, a raised wide separator is constructed
between the two opposing lanes and the space on the separator (median) is
used either for planting some trees and/or for providing space for traffic signs
etc. Fig. 13 shows a typical wide raised median on a freeway. A median varying
between 1.2 m and 30 m in width may be employed. The higher values of width
are adopted on freeways, where sufficient space is available for the
construction of these. In addition, a well-landscaped wide median will also
provide aesthetic benefits to the surrounding neighborhood. A wide median, if
attractively landscaped, is often the most aesthetically pleasing separation
method.

Figure 13: Wide raised median

 2. Non- traversable Raised Islands
In this type of device, a narrower and a higher median than the traversable
island is constructed between the opposing lanes. This class of device has the
advantage of a narrower median, but its use should be restricted to approach
roadways with vehicle speeds of 60 kmph or below. These are generally 15 to
20 cm high and about 60 cm in width. Due to the height, most of the vehicles
are not able to cross the median, and hence the name. Fig. 14 shows a non-
traversable raised island constructed on a roadway. These devices are
substantial enough that each installation should be carefully designed, as an
inappropriately placed median can constitute a hazard if struck by an errant
vehicle and hence the severity and crash risk is highly increased on the
roadways having non-traversable raised islands.

Figure 14: Non-traversable Raised Island (source: [13])

3. Traversable Raised Curb Systems

In this device, a narrow and mountable type of raised curb is constructed to
separate the traffic moving in the opposing lanes. This class of channelizing
device is the narrowest, and therefore the easiest to fit in a wide range of
roadway cross-section widths. The curb is up to 10 cm in height and up to about
30 cm in width. Curbs are formed with a rounded shape that will create minimal
 vehicle deflection upon impact. Generally, it is used with reboundable,
reflectorized vertical panels to provide a visual deterrent to the drivers to cross
over to opposite traffic lane. The main advantage of this type of device is that it
can be installed on existing roadway centerlines, without the need for widening
the roadway approaches to the crossing. Figs. 15 and 16 shows traversable
raised curbs with and without vertical panels.

Figure 15: Traversable Raised Curb System (without vertical panels)

Figure 16: Traversable Raised Curb System (with vertical panels)

 4. Flush Channelization
In this type of Channelization, a variety of treatments, including raising them
above the pavement just slightly (2 to 5 cm); the application of pavement
markings and other types of contrasting surfaces etc are possible. These may
also be unpaved where they are formed by the pavement edges of existing
roadways. In areas where snow plowing may be necessary, flush islands are
the preferred design. Fig. 17 below shows how flush islands can also be used
for achieving channelizing objectives. The area seen flushed with the road
surface in Fig. 17 is the flush island.

Figure 17: Flush island providing Channelization objectives

6 Traffic Islands

A principle concern in Channelization is the design of the islands. An island is a defined

area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movements. Within an intersection
area, a median or an outer separation is considered to be an island. It may range from
an area delineated by barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint.

6.1 Classification of Islands

Traffic islands usually serve more than one function, but may be generally classified
in three separate types:
 1. Channelizing Islands - These are designed to control and direct traffic
movement, usually turning. Channelizing islands are are shown in Fig. 18.

Figure 18: Channelizing Islands

2. Divisional Islands - These are designed to divide opposing or same direction

traffic streams, usually through movements. Fig. 19 shows the placing of
divisional islands in a roadway.

Figure 19: Divisional Islands

3. Refuge islands - Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as safety zones for
the aid and protection of persons on foot. If a divisional island is located in an
 urban area where pedestrians are present, portions of each island can be
considered a refuge island. Refuge islands are shown below I Fig. 20.

Figure 20: Refuge Islands

The design aspects of the traffic islands are dealt in detail in the following
sections.

6.2 Design Considerations for Traffic Islands

The necessity for an island should be determined only by careful study, since it is
placed in an area that would otherwise be available for vehicular traffic. The island
design should be carefully planned so that the shape of the island will conform to
natural vehicular paths and so that a raised island will not constitute a hazard in the
roadway. A judiciously placed island at an intersection on a wide street may eliminate
the need for traffic signal control by channelizing traffic into orderly movements. The
total design of traffic islands can be studied in three steps:

1. Selection of appropriate island type (barrier, mountable, painted or

flush): The site and traffic conditions in each intersection are different and
hence the island type suitable for each requires separate attention. The traffic
island selected may vary from barrier type islands to flush islands marked on
the roadway surface.
 2. Determination of shape and size of islands: The shape of the island and its
size in an intersection depends on the geometry and space availability at the
same. A proper shape and size of the island (in case of raised islands) must be
selected so that it is able to both channelized the traffic and not pose any type
of hazard.
3. Location relative to adjacent traffic lanes: The islands must be offset from
the roadway by some distance to remove the risk of a vehicle dashing against
the same. The width of offset is maximum at the entry of the island and
decreases gradually as one moves towards the end of it.

6.3 Guidelines for selection of island type

As mentioned earlier, each intersection has a unique geometry and flow values, and
hence needs special attention as far as the use of Channelization devices are
concerned. The main factors affecting the selection of the island type are:

1. Traffic characteristics at the intersection

2. Cost considerations, and
3. Maintenance needs

The raised islands and flush Channelization are dealt with in details in the following
sections.

6.3.1 Flush Channelization

Flush Channelization is usually appropriate in the following conditions:

1. On high speed rural highways to separate turning lanes.

2. In constrained locations, i.e. the locations where vehicle path definition is
desired but space for raised islands not available.
3. For separating opposing traffic streams of low speed streets.
4. In areas where frequent removal of snowfall is required, i.e. in places of high
snow fall.
5. It can also be used as a temporary Channelization either during construction or
to test traffic operations prior to the actual installation of raised islands.
 However, the main demerits of this type of Channelization are :

1. It is not effective in prohibiting or preventing traffic movements.

2. It is also not appropriate for islands intended to serve as pedestrian refuge.

6.3.2 Raised Islands

The locations where the construction of raised islands assumes importance are:

1. The primary function of the channelizing device is shielding pedestrians or to

provide refuge to pedestrians crossing a street.
2. Also, the primary/secondary function is locating traffic signals or other fixed
objects.
3. Intention is to prohibit or prevent certain traffic movements.
4. To separate high volume opposing traffic flows.
5. The raised islands are also particularly important at intersections with unusual
geometry i.e. skewed intersections.

A comparison between the usefulness and the operating conditions of the two types
of Channelization is presented in Table. 1.

Table 1: Flush Channelization vs Raised Channelization

FLUSH CHANNELIZATION OPERATING CONDITIONS

1. For Right turns High Speeds

2. To provide temporary or trail Channelization Rural highway

 3. To shadow left turns Minor urban intersections

RAISED CHANNELIZATION OPERATING CONDITIONS

1. Post signs or signals Urban streets

2. Provide pedestrian refuse Low speeds

3. Prevent wrong way movements High volumes

6.4 Guidelines for design of Traffic Islands

The main design principles followed for the design of the shape and size and shape
of the traffic island are as follows:

1. Shape and size: Islands are generally either narrow and elongated or
triangular in shape, are normally situated in areas of the roadway outside the
planned vehicle paths, and are shaped and dimensioned as component parts
of the street or intersection layout. The actual size differs as governed by site
conditions, but the following minimum size requirements should be met to
insure that the island will be large enough to command attention.
2. Traffic lanes or turning roadways should appear natural and convenient to their
intended users.
3. Number of islands should be held to a practical minimum to avoid confusion.
4. The islands should be large enough to be effective. Small islands do not serve
as channelizing devices and pose maintenance problems.
 5. These should not be introduced at locations with restricted sight distance or
middle of sharp horizontal curves due to sight distance considerations.

Table. 2 gives the recommended minimum and desired area values of the traffic
islands in typical urban and rural intersections.

Table 2: Recommended Island Sizes

Location of Intersection Size(Sq.meters)

Minimum Desired

Urban 4.65 7

Rural and High Speed urban/Suburban 7 9.3

6.5 Guidelines for providing offset to the traffic islands from the road edge

The orientation of islands near intersections is dictated by the alignment of the

intersecting roadways and their associated travel paths. Proper island design must
minimize the potential for vehicle impacts and reduce their severity. This is most often
accomplished by offsetting the approach ends of islands from the edge of travel lane
them, tapering them inward. Another technique that is the use of rounded approach
noses that may also be sloped downward on their approach ends. The general design
dimensions of corner islands for roadways in shown in Fig. 21.
Figure 21: Recommended Offset Dimensions for location of Traffic Islands

Another design consideration for islands is their surface finishing. Islands may be
paved or landscaped. Though paved islands are easier to maintain, yet they are
typically not as aesthetically pleasing. The use of colors that have contrast with the
pavement surface is desirable because they allow the island to be more clearly seen
by drivers. Normally concrete islands are paired with asphalt roadways and vice versa.
Brick paver are also used in areas where aesthetics are important. Other concerns
include the need to provide adequate slope to the surface of the island to facilitate
drainage and to keep the island free of sight obstructions and collision. Thus, all
landscaping features should be kept below the clear vision envelop and should not
incorporate other fixed hazards.

6.5.1 Curve/taper combinations for turning roadways and islands

The combination of a simple radius flanked by tapers can often fit the pavement edge
more closely to the design motor vehicle than a simple radius (with no tapers).
Figs. 22, 23 and 24 shows the various types of curves that can be used for a
roadway. The closer fit can be important for large design motor vehicles where
effective pavement width is small (due either to narrow pavement or need to avoid any
encroachment), or where turning speeds greater than the design speed are desired.
Figure 22: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway , (a)Simple Radius

Figure 23: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (b)Radius and Taper
Figure 24: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (c)Turning Roadway

Table. 3 and Table. 4 summarizes design elements for curve/taper combinations

that permit various design motor vehicles to turn, without any encroachment, from a
single approach lane into a single departure lane (Note: W should be determined using
the turning path of the design vehicle)

Table 3: Curve and Taper Corner Design Elements

Angle of Turn Design Vehicle Radius Offset Taper Length

(Degrees) (meters) (OS meters) (T1 meters)

Passenger Car 7.5 0.6 6

 75 Single Unit Truck 13.5 0.6 6

Single Trailer Unit 19.5 0.9 13.5

Passenger Car 6 0.75 7.5

90 Single Unit Truck 12 0.6 6

Single Trailer Unit 18 1.2 18

Passenger Car 6 0.6 -

120 Single Unit Truck 9 0.9 -

Single Trailer Unit 13.5 1.2 18

Table 4: Design elements for Turning Roadways

Angle of Turn Design Vehicle Radius(meter) Offset

 (Degrees) R1-R2-R1 (OS meter)

Passenger Car (P) 30-22.5-30 0.6

75 Single Unit Truck (SU) 36-13.5-36 0.6

Semi-Trailer Unit (WB-50) 45-15-45 2

Passenger Car (P) 30-6-30 0.8

90 Single Unit Truck (SU) 36-12-36 0.6

Semi-Trailer Unit (WB-50) 54-18-54 2

Passenger Car (P) 30-6-30 0.6

120 Single Unit Truck (SU) 30-9-30 0.9

Semi-Trailer Unit (WB-50) 54-12-54 2.6

The width of the roadway can be found out from Table. 5 given below.
Table 5: Width of roadway required for negotiating the turn for different classes of vehicles
(W)

Radius
on One-Lane One Way One-Lane One Way Two way operation

inner
edge Operation (No Operation (Having Either One way or Two

way (Same Type of

of provision of passing a provision of passing a vehicle

pavem
ent stalled vehicle) in meter stalled vehicle) in meter in both lanes) in meter

in
meter P SU WB-50 P SU WB-50 P SU WB-50

15 3.9 5.4 7.8 6 8.7 13.2 7.8 10.5 15

22.5 3.9 5.1 6.6 5.7 8.1 10.8 7.5 9.9 12.6

30 3.9 4.8 6.3 5.7 7.5 10.2 7.5 9.3 12

45 3.6 4.8 5.7 5.4 7.2 8.7 7.2 9 10.5

 60 3.6 4.8 5.1 5.4 6.9 8.1 7.2 8.7 9.9

90 3.6 4.5 5.1 5.4 6.6 7.5 7.2 8.4 9.3

7 Guidelines for design of Median islands

The general guidelines to be followed in the design of median islands (separators of

opposing traffic flows) are:

1. The approach noses should be offset 0.6 to 1.8 m from through lanes to
minimize accidental impacts.
2. Shape should be based on design turning paths and island function. (Generally
parabolic or circular arcs are used)
3. The length of median before the intersection is related to approach speed
(normally 3 sec driving time to intersection). It is also affected by available
widths, taper designs and local constraints.
4. The width of the medians should serve its primary intended function.
5. The median should always be provided well past crest vertical curves.

Fig. 25 shows the general design elements of medians provided just at the approach
to a intersection.
Figure 25: Design Criteria for raised median approaches to intersections

The required median widths for performing their intended functions are provided
by AASHTO and are shown in Table. 6 below. These widths are empirical and can be
applied at an intersection with reasonable efficiency.

Table 6: Basic median functions and their required width

Function Width in meter

Minimum Desirable

Separation of opposing traffic 1.2 3

Provision of pedestrian refuse 1.8 4.2

Provision of storage for left-turn vehicles 4.8 6

Provision for protection of vehicles crossing 7.5 9

through lanes

Provision for U turns, inside to outside lanes 4.8 6

 Provision for U-turns, inside to inside lanes 7.8 9

7.1 Auxiliary Lanes

Auxiliary lanes are used under conditions of relatively high traffic volumes in the
intersections. In these cases, traffic congestion problems can be significantly
alleviated with auxiliary lanes to handle turning movements. The median lane should
be 12 feet (3.6m), but not less than 10 feet (3.0m) wide and should be clearly marked
for this purpose.
Auxiliary lanes can also be introduced to provide for both left turns and right turns at
intersections. The need for such lanes is determined by capacity analysis and the
acceptable level of service designated for the facility. The lanes should be at least
2.7m wide for reconstruction and resurfacing projects and at least 3.0m, preferably
3.6m for new construction projects. Auxiliary lane shoulders can be reduced to 0.6 m
wide on rural sections and 0 m wide on sections with curb and gutter. The length of
auxiliary lanes consists of five components:

1. Approach Taper
2. Deceleration Length
3. Bay Taper
4. Storage Length, and
5. Departure Taper.

A typical auxiliary lane with the components are shown in Fig. 26 below.
Figure 26: Components of Auxiliary Lane

These are discussed in detail in the following section.

1. Approach Taper- The length of the approach taper varies with operating
speeds. Guidelines for determining lengths are: (i) For speeds 70 kmph and
over: L = 0.6WS, and (ii) For speeds under 70 kmph: L = WS2∕100 where, L is
the length of entering taper in m, W is the width to be tapered in m, and S is the
operating Speed in kmph.
2. Deceleration Length- The deceleration length is that required for a
comfortable stop of a vehicle from a speed that is typical of the average running
speed on the facility. The Bay Taper can be considered part of the deceleration
length. AASHTO has again given a table for calculating the decelerating length
value from the design speed value (Table. 7).

Table 7: Deceleration length vs Design Speed

Design Speed Deceleration Length

(kmph) (m)

40 35

55 45
 65 55

70 65

80 95

3. Bay Taper - This is a straight line taper with ratios varying from 5:1 to 10:1.
Higher speed facilities should generally have longer tapers. Empirically, the
minimum and maximum values of bay taper are taken as 18m and 36m
respectively.
4. Storage Length - The storage length should be sufficiently long to store the
number of vehicles likely to accumulate during the average daily peak period.
a. At unsignalized intersections, length to be based on the number of
vehicles likely to arrive in an average 2-minute period within the peak
hour.
b. At signalized intersections, the required length depends on the signal
cycle length, the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals and
departures of left turning vehicles.
5. Departure Taper - The departure taper is normally taken equal in length to that
of the approach taper and should begin opposite the beginning of the Bay
Taper.

7.2 Shape of Median Ends

Generally, two types of end shapes are used in practice:-semicircular shapes and
bullet nose. The shape adopted normally depends on the effective median width at the
end of the median. The dimensions of the various parameters for semi-circular and
bullet nose ends area as: Semi-circular- L = 2 × ControlR, R1 = M∕2. Bullet-
 nose- L = ControlR, R1 = M∕2, R2 = M∕5 The criteria for the selection of median end is
as given below in Table. 8.

Table 8: Criteria for selection of median end shape

Effective Median Width Median End Shape

Less than 3m Semi-circular

3m - 20m Bullet Nose

Over 20m Treated as a separate intersection

Figure 27: Shapes of Median ends, (a)Semi-circular

Figure 28: Shapes of Median ends, (b)Bullet-nose

The two shapes are illustrated in Figs. 27 and 28. The designer should evaluate
each intersection to determine the best median opening shape that will accommodate
the design vehicle.

7.3 Design of Median Openings

Median openings, sometimes called crossovers, provide for vehicular crossings of the
median at designated locations. The design of a median opening should be based on
traffic volumes and types of turning vehicles. Cross and turning traffic must operate in
conjunction with the through traffic on the divided highway. This requirement makes it
necessary to know the volume and composition of all movements occurring
simultaneously during the design hours. The design of a median opening becomes a
matter of considering what traffic is to be accommodated, choosing the design vehicle
to use for layout controls for each cross and turning movement, investigating whether
larger vehicles can turn without undue encroachment on adjacent lanes and, finally,
checking the intersection for capacity. If the capacity is exceeded by the traffic load,
the design must be expanded, possibly by widening or otherwise adjusting widths for
certain movements. Traffic control devices such as yield signs, stop signs or traffic
signals may be required to regulate the various movements effectively and to improve
the efficiency of operations. Median openings at close intervals on other types of
highways create interference with fast through traffic. Median openings should be
spaced at intervals no closer than 500 m. However, if a median opening falls within
100 m of an access opening, it should be placed opposite the access opening. Also,
 the length of median opening varies with width of median and angle of intersecting
roads. Fig. 29 shows the intersection median opening.

Figure 29: Intersection Median Opening

The median openings for the different classes of design vehicle are as given in the
Table. 9.

Table 9: Median Openings

Width of Passenger Car Single Unit Truck Single Trailer Unit

Median(m Semi - Bullet Semi - Bullet Semi - Bullet

) circular nose circular nose circular nose

1.2 22.8 22.8 28.8 28.8 43.8 36.6

1.8 22.2 18 28.2 22.8 43.2 34.5

2.4 21.6 15.9 27.6 20.4 42.6 33

3 21 14.1 27 18.6 42 31.5

3.6 20.4 12.9 26.4 17.4 41.4 30

4.2 19.2 12 25.8 15.9 40.8 28.8

4.8 18 12 25.2 15 40.2 27.6

6 16.8 12 24 13.2 39 25.5

8 Developing a Channelization Plan

1. Channelization is more of an art rather than science. Every intersection requires

a special study because of variations in physical dimensions, turning
movements, traffic and pedestrian volumes, type of traffic control etc.
2. In the next step several island configurations are considered and compared.
Then a choice is made between curbed, raised islands and flush Channelization
or pavement markings.
3. Next it must be checked that the design is compatible to handle turning
movements of large vehicles. Also, it should be such that the vehicles are
guided in normal wheel paths, so that the island does not create an obstruction
in the roadway.
 4. Signing and marking are redesigned to guide drivers and avoid confusion.
5. The final plan includes details of civil and electrical engineering features (like
drainage facilities, curbs, lighting, signals etc.) required for the project
completion.

9 Typical Channelization Examples

Some typical Channelization ways used in practice are as given below.

Figs. 30 to 41 indicate both normal Channelization and high type Channelization
techniques for various intersections and situations.

Figure 30: Channelization for Y Intersections, (a)For low Flows

Figure 31: Channelization for Y Intersections, (b)For High Flows

Figure 32: Channelization for T Intersections, (a)For low Flows

Figure 33: Channelization for T Intersections, (b)For High Flows

Figure 34: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 35: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 36: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 37: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 38: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 39: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

Figure 40: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections

Figure 41: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections

10 Turning Vehicle Templates

In the design of intersections the turning paths of vehicles assumes utmost

importance. The turning paths of design vehicles are given in transparent templates
such as the one shown in Fig. 17 and Fig. 18. These templates are placed over the
intersection plan to trace the path of the turning vehicle. Once this is done, proper
islands and other traffic control devices can be designed. As per AASHTO, the turning
templates are drawn at an approximate scale of 1”=50’. The radius of the template is
measured to the outside front wheel path at the beginning of the curve. The design
vehicle for the purpose can be taken out of a list of 16 different types of vehicles
suggested by AASHTO. The dimensions of some of the design vehicles are given in
Table. 10 below. The templates are applied to the layout of intersections and other
 facilities in accommodating vehicle maneuvers, including driveways, car parking, truck
loading and bus terminals.

Table 10: Dimensions of some common Design vehicles

Design Vehicle Type Symbol Overall Dimension

Height (m) Width (m) Length (m)

Passenger Car P 1.3 2.1 5.8

Single Unit Truck SU 4.1 2.6 9.1

Single Unit Bus BUS 4.1 2.6 12.1

Intermediate Semi-Trailer WB-15 4.1 2.6 16.7

Here we shall take the cases of a passenger car (P) and a single unit truck (BUS)
as the design vehicles. The various design elements and their dimensions are shown
in Fig. 42 and Table. 11 respectively.
Figure 42: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties

Table 11: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties for 90o turns

Vehicle WB Minimum Turn

Designati U**
on L(m) (m) A(m) B(m) W(m) U(m) (m) FA RT

(m) (m) (m)

BUS 12.1 7.5 2 2.5 2.6 2.6 4.98 1.25 13

Passenge
r Car (P) 5.8 3.4 0.9 15 2.1 1.8 2.61 0.6 7.5

The templates were developed to include a variety of angles, with specific

configurations for every 30 degrees of turn (30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180). By special
manipulation of the template, any degree of turning can be produced within an overall
 range of 20 to 200 degrees. The four variables-vehicle type, turning radius, angle of
turn and scale-provide full flexibility in the use of turning vehicle templates for layout
and design. To permit greater latitude in maneuvering of buses, single unit trucks and
passenger cars, special bar tenders are included, consisting of turning radii in the
range of 13 to 50 meters for the first two and 5.5 to 30 meters for the last type of
vehicles which are outside the scope of this discussion. The list of templates for bus
and passenger cars is shown in the Table. 12.

Table 12: List of Templates

Vehicle Type Scales Turning Radius-m Average Size-cm

1:250 R= 13 & 18 20 × 25

BUS 1:500 R= 13 & 18 18 × 18

1:250 R=13 to 50 20 × 25

Bar Template

1:250 R=7.5 18 × 18

Passenger car 1:250 R=7.5 to 30 18 × 18

 Bar template

The templates for the Passenger Car (P) and Bus are as shown in
Fig. 43, 44 below.

Figure 43: Design Template for Passenger Car (P)

Figure 44: Design Template for Bus

10.0.1 Numerical example 1

Provide Channelization for an intersection having EW as the major road. The major
and minor roads intersect at right angles. The design vehicle is WB-50 (R=25m) and
design speed is 45 kmph. The intersection is unsignalized. EW road has 2 lanes in
each direction and NS has 1 lane for each direction. Take lane width =3.6 m. Provide
bullet nose median ends. Also provide channelizing island for free right for WS bound
traffic.

Solution : The approach taper for auxiliary lane is equal to 3.6 × 45 × 45∕100 = 73 m.
The deceleration Taper is taken as 40 m. Considering a 1:10 taper, the Bay Taper is
found out to be 18 m. Let the storage length = 30 m (say). Now from Table. 9, it is
found that for bullet nose median end, Median Opening = 30 m. The dimensions of all
the components of the auxiliary lane are shown in Fig. 45.

Figure 45: Dimensions of components of the auxiliary lane for the intersection

The width required for the WB- 50 semi-trailer unit is found to be about 6.5 m.
Additional 0.5 m is provided on the outer side and 0.3 m is provided on the inner side
away from the edge of the island. For the turning roadway for the W-S direction, the
single offset method is used. At 0.3 + 0.5 + 6.5 = 7.3 m from the island edge, a circle
of radius 25 m is laid out. Then two tapers of slope 1:15 is laid out on either side of the
 arc to join with the straight edge on either side. Thus the Channelization is provided
for the W-S approach. Similar method can be used for designing the Channelization
schemes of the other directions as well. The Channelization for the W-S approach is
shown in Fig. 46.

Figure 46: Channelization for the W-S direction with traffic island

10.0.2 Numerical example 2

Following the principles of Channelization suggest suitable island schemes for the
following intersections (considering both high relative speed and low relative speed)
(Figs. 47, 48)

Solution

1. Y Intersection (Figs. 49, 50 and 51)

2. Skewed intersection (Figs. 52, 53 and 54)
Figure 47: Wye Intersection

Figure 48: Skewed Cross Road

Figure 49: (a) Y - Intersection

Figure 50: (b) Y - Intersection

Figure 51: (c) Y - Intersection

Figure 52: (a) Skewed Intersection

Figure 53: (b) Skewed Intersection

Figure 54: (c) Skewed Intersection

11 Summary

This chapter presents one of the simple and cost effective way of intersection control,
namely the Channelization. This is normally adopted for low and medium volume
roads. The chapter contains the design principles, traffic islands, and median.

Exercises

1. Channelize the intersection given in the Figure 55 with the help of a neat
sketch. Show the paths of movements by short arrows. All the roads are bi-
directional. Assume the flows are very high.

Figure 55: Intersection layout

 Grade separated intersections

Grade separated intersections

As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to
separate the traffic in the vertical grade. But the traffic need not be those
pertaining to road only. When a railway line crosses a road, then also grade
separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and
interchange. Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass.
When two roads cross at a point, if the road having major traffic is elevated
to a higher grade for further movement of traffic, then such structures are
called overpass. Otherwise, if the major road is depressed to a lower level
to cross another by means of an under bridge or tunnel, it is called under-
pass.

Interchange is a system where traffic between two or more roadways flows

at different levels in the grade separated junctions. Common types of
interchange include trumpet interchange, diamond interchange , and
cloverleaf interchange.

1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of

three leg interchange. If one of the legs of the interchange meets a
highway at some angle but does not cross it, then the interchange is
called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet interchange
is shown in figure 2.
 Figure 2: Trumpet interchange

2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a popular form of

four-leg interchange found in the urban locations where major and
minor roads crosses. The important feature of this interchange is that
it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow. A
typical layout of diamond interchange is shown in figure 3.
 Figure 3: Diamond interchange

1. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is

used when two highways of high volume and speed intersect each
other with considerable turning movements. The main advantage of
cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of
traffic. In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved.
However, the disadvantage is that large area of land is required.
Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas.
A typical layout of this type of interchange is shown in figure 4.
Figure 4: Cloverleaf interchange
 Vehicle actuated signals and ATC

1 Introduction

Now-a-days, controlling traffic congestion relies on having an efficient and well-

managed traffic signal control policy. Traffic signals operate in either pre-timed or
actuated mode or some combination of the two. Pre-timed control consists of a series
of intervals that are fixed in duration. They repeat a preset constant cycle. In contrast
to pre-timed signals, actuated signals have the capability to respond to the presence
of vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. Actuated control consists of intervals that
are called and extended in response to vehicle detectors. The controllers are capable
of not only varying the cycle length & green times in response to detector actuation,
but of altering the order and sequence of phases. Adaptive or area traffic control
systems (ATCS) belong to the latest generation of signalized intersection control.
ATCS continuously detect vehicular traffic volume, compute optimal signal timings
based on this detected volume and simultaneously implement them. Reacting to these
volume variations generally results in reduced delays, shorter queues and decreased
travel times. Coordinating traffic signals along a single route so that vehicles get
progressive green signal at each junction is another important aspect of ATCS. In the
subsequent pages, the operating principles and features of Vehicle-Actuated Signals
& Area Traffic Control Systems will be briefly discussed.

2 Vehicle-Actuated Signals
2.1 Basic Principles

As stated earlier, Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or

more approaches in order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. They
are equipped with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the
demands placed on them. Vehicle-actuated control uses information on current
demands and operations, obtained from detectors within the intersection, to alter one
or more aspects of the signal timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis. Timing of the signals is
controlled by traffic demand. Actuated controllers may be programmed to
accommodate:
 • Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected LT phases)
• Variable green times for each phase
• Variable cycle length, caused by variable green times

Such variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands
and operations. A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is
also ensured.

2.2 Advantages of Actuated Signals

The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:

• They can reduce delay (if properly timed).

• They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow.
• Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
• Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
• Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.

2.3 Disadvantages of Actuated Signals

The main disadvantages are as following :

• If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local
actuation is minimal, perhaps non-existent.
• Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation.
• Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed controllers,
increasing maintenance costs.
• They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.

2.4 Types of Actuated Control

There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that are
somewhat different in their design:

1. Semi-Actuated Control
2. Full-Actuated Control
3. Volume-Density Control
2.4.1 Semi-Actuated Control

This type of controller is used at intersections where a major street having relatively
uniform flow is crossed by a minor street with low volumes. Detectors are placed only
on the minor street. The green is on the major street at all times unless a call on the
side street is noted. The number and duration of side-street green is limited by the
signal timing and can be restricted to times that do not interfere with progressive
signal-timing patterns along the major street.

2.4.2 Full-Actuated Control

This type of controller is used at the intersections of streets or roads with relatively
equal volumes, but where the traffic distribution is varying. In full actuated operation,
all lanes of all approaches are monitored by detectors. The phase sequence, green
allocations, and cycle length are all subjected to variation. This form of control is
effective for both two-phase and multi-phase operations and can accommodate
optional phases.

2.4.3 Volume-Density Control

Volume-density control is basically the same as full actuated control with additional
demand-responsive features. It is designed for intersections of major traffic flows
having considerable unpredictable fluctuations.

2.5 Detection for Actuated Signalization

The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:

• Inductive loop detectors

• Magnetometer detectors
• Magnetic detectors
• Pressure-sensitive detectors
• Radar detectors
• Sonic detectors
• Microloop detectors etc.
The vast majority of actuated signal installations use inductive loops for detection
purpose. Now, the type of detection is of greater importance than the specific detection
device(s) used. There are two types of detection that influence the design and timing
of actuated controllers:

1. Passage or Point Detection:- In this type of detection, only the fact that the
detector has been disturbed is noted. The detector is installed at a point even
though the detector unit itself may involve a short length. It is the most common
form of detection.
2. Presence or Area Detection:- In this type of detection, a significant length (or
area) of an approach lane is included in the detection zone. Entries and exits
of vehicles into and out of the detection zone are remembered. Thus, the
number of vehicles stored in the detection zone is known. It is provided by using
a long induction loop, or a series of point detectors. These are generally used
in conjunction with volume-density controllers.

2.6 Actuated Control Features

Regardless of the controller type, virtually all actuated controllers offer the same basic
functions, although the methodology for implementing them may vary by type and
manufacturer. For each actuated phase, the following basic features must be set on
the controller:

2.6.1 Minimum Green Time

Each actuated phase has a minimum green time, which serves as the smallest amount
of green time that may be allocated to a phase when it is initiated. Minimum green
times must be set for each phase in an actuated signalization, including the non-
actuated phase of a semi-actuated controller. The minimum green timing on an
actuated phase is based on the type and location of detectors.

• In case of Point Detectors,

(1)
 • where, Gmin = minimum green time in second, tL = assumed start-up lost
time = 4 sec, h = assumed saturation headway = 2 sec, d = distance between
detector & stop line in m and x = assumed distance between stored vehicles =
6 m.

• In case of Area Detectors,

(2)

• where, tL = start-up lost time (sec) and n = number of vehicles stored in

the detection area.

2.6.2 Unit Extension

This time actually serves three different purposes:

1. It represents the maximum gap between actuation at a single detector required

to retain the green.
2. It is the amount of time added to the green phase when an additional actuation
is received within the unit extension, U.
3. It must be of sufficient length to allow a vehicle to travel from the detector to the
STOP line.

In terms of signal operation, it serves as both the minimum allowable gap to retain a
green signal and as the amount of green time added when an additional actuation is
detected within the minimum allowable gap. The unit extension is selected with two
criteria in mind:

• The unit extension should be long enough such that a subsequent vehicle
operating in dense traffic at a safe headway will be able to retain a green signal
(assuming the maximum green has not yet been reached).
• The unit extension should not be so long that straggling vehicles may retain the
green or that excessive time is added to the green (beyond what one vehicle
reasonably requires to cross the STOP line on green).
The Traffic Detector Handbook recommends that a unit extension of 3.0 s be used
where approach speeds are equal to or less than 30 mile per hour, and that 3.5 s be
used at higher approach speeds. For all types of controllers, however, the unit
extension must be equal to or more than the passage time.

2.6.3 Passage Time Interval

It allows a vehicle to travel from the detector to the stop line. It is analogous with ’Unit
Extension’.

(3)

where, P = passage time, sec, d = distance from detector to stop line, meter and S =
approach speed of vehicles, m/s.

2.6.4 Maximum Green Time

Each phase has a maximum green time that limits the length of a green phase, even
if there are continued actuation that would normally retain the green. The maximum
green time begins when there is a call (or detector actuation) on a competing phase.
The estimation can be done by any of the following methods:

• By trial signal timing as if the signals were pre-timed

(4)

• where, Ci = Initial cycle length, sec, L = Total lost time, sec and V C =
Sum of critical lane volumes, veh/hr. Knowing the initial cycle length, green
times are then determined as:

(5)
 • where gi = effective green time for Phase i, sec and V Ci = critical lane
volume for Phase i, veh/hr. The effective green times thus obtained are then
multiplied by 1.25 or 1.50 to determine the maximum green time.

• By Green-Time Estimation (HCM) Model: Traffic-actuated controllers do not

recognize specified cycle lengths. Instead they determine, by a mechanical
analogy, the required green time given the length of the previous red period
and the arrival rate. They accomplish this by holding the right-of-way until the
accumulated queue has been served.

The basic principle underlying all signal timing analysis is the queue accumulation
polygon (QAP), which plots the number of vehicles queued at the stop line over the
duration of the cycle. The QAP for a simple protected movement is illustrated in the
Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Queue accumulation polygon illustrating two methods of green time computation

From Fig. 1, it’s clear that queue accumulation takes place on the left side of the
triangle (i.e., effective red) and the discharge takes place on the right side of the
triangle (i.e., effective green).

There are two methods of determining the required green time given the length of
the previous red time. The first employs a target v/c approach. Under this approach,
the green-time requirement is determined by the slope of the line representing the
target v/c of 0.9. If the phase ends when the queue has dissipated under these
conditions, the target v/c will be achieved. The second method recognizes the way a
traffic-actuated controller really works. It does not deal explicitly with v/c ratios; in fact,
it has no way of determining the v/c ratio. Instead it terminates each phase when a
gap of a particular length is encountered at the detector. Good practice dictates that
the gap threshold must be longer than the gap that would be encountered when the
queue is being served. Assuming that gaps large enough to terminate the phase can
only occur after the queue service interval (based on v/c = 1.0), the average green
time may be estimated as the sum of the queue service time and the phase extension
time. Therefore, average green time = Queue Service Time + Phase Extension Time.
Now,

(6)

where, qr = red arrival rate (veh/s), qg = green arrival rate (veh/s), r = effective red time
(s), s = saturation flow rate (veh/s) and fq = calibration factor = 1.08 -
0.1(actual green time∕maximum green time)2

(7)

where, q = vehicle arrival rate throughout cycle (veh/s), u = unit extension time setting
(s), t = time during which detector is occupied by a passing vehicle(s) =
[3.6(Ld + Lv)]∕SA, Lv = Vehicle length, assumed to be 5.5 m, Ld = Detector length
(m), SA= Vehicle approach speed (kmph), Δ = minimum arrival (intra-bunch) headway
(s), λ = a parameter (veh/s) = Φq∕(1 - Δq), Φ = proportion of free (unbunched) vehicles
in traffic stream = exp(-bΔq) and b = bunching factor.

This green-time estimation model is not difficult to implement, but it does not lead
directly to the determination of an average cycle length or green time because the
green time required for each phase is dependent on the green time required by the
other phases. Thus, a circular dependency is established that requires an iterative
process to solve. With each iteration, the green time required by each phase, given
the green times required by the other phases, can be determined. The logical starting
 point for the iterative process involves the minimum times specified for each phase. If
these times turn out to be adequate for all phases, the cycle length will simply be the
sum of the minimum phase times for the critical phases. If a particular phase demands
more than its minimum time, more time should be given to that phase. Thus, a longer
red time must be imposed on all of the other phases. This, in turn, will increase the
green time required for the subject phase.

Table 1: Recommended Parameter Values

Case Δ(s) b

Single Lane 1.5 0.6

Multi-lane

2 lanes 0.5 0.5

3 lanes 0.5 0.8

2.6.5 Recall Switch

Each actuated phase has a recall switch. The recall switches determine what happens
to the signal when there is no demand. Normally, one recall switch is placed in
the on position, while all others are turned off. In this case, when there is no demand
present, the green returns to the phase with its recall switch on. If no recall switch is
in the on position, the green remains on the phase that had the last ”call.”demand
 exists, one phase continues to move to the next at the expiration of the minimum
green.

2.6.6 Change and Clearance Intervals

Yellow and all-red intervals provide for safe transition from green to red. They are fixed
times and are not subject to variation, even in an actuated controller. They are found
in the same manner as for pre-timed signals.

(8)

(9)

where, y = yellow time, sec, ar = all red interval, sec, S85 = 85th percentile speed,
m/s, S15 = 15th percentile speed, m/s, t = reaction time of the driver = 1 sec (standard),
a = deceleration rate = 3 m/s2 (standard), g = grade of approach in decimal, w = width
of street being crossed, m and l = length of a vehicle, m.

2.7 Operating Principle

Figure 2: Operation of an Actuated Phase

The Fig. 2 illustrates the operation of an actuated phase based on the three critical
settings: minimum green, maximum green, and unit or vehicle extension. When the
green is initiated for a phase, it will be at least as long as the minimum green period.
 The controller divides the minimum green into an initial portion and a portion equal to
one unit extension. If an additional call is received during the initial portion of the
minimum green, no time is added to the phase, as there is sufficient time within the
minimum green to cross the STOP line (yellow and all-red intervals take care of
clearing the intersection). If a call is received during the last U seconds (Unit
Extension) of the minimum green, U seconds of green are added to the phase.
Thereafter, every time an additional call is received during a unit extension of U
seconds, an additional period of U seconds is added to the green. Note that the
additional periods of U seconds are added from the time of the actuation or call. They
are not added to the end of the previous unit extension, as this would accumulate
unused green times within each unit extension and include them in the
total green period. The green is terminated in one of two ways:

1. a unit extension of U seconds expires without an additional actuation,

2. the maximum green is reached.

The maximum green begins timing out when a call on a competing phase is noted.
During the most congested periods of flow, however, it may be assumed that demand
exists more or less continuously on all phases. The maximum green, therefore, begins
timing out at the beginning of the green period in such a situation. Now-a-days, in
India, detectors are placed mostly at stop lines. In that case, the green times for
phases are primarily determined by arrival headway. The green time is extended until
the gap between two vehicles becomes equal to or greater than the pre-determined
threshold value. Generally threshold of 4 seconds is considered.

Table 2: Recommended Detector Locations & Timing Parameters

Approach Detector Set-Back Mimi-mum Passage

Speed (To front of loop) Green Time

 (kmph) (m) (sec) (sec)

24 12 8.0 3.0

32 18 10.0 3.0

40 24 12.0 3.0

48 30 14.0 3.5

56 41 18.0 3.5

64 52 22.0 3.5

72+ Volume density or multiple detectors recommended

2.8 Concept of Semi-Actuated Controller

2.8.1 Principles

• Detectors on minor approaches only.

• Major phase receives a minimum green interval.
• The green remains on the main street until a call for service on the side street
is registered.
• If the main street has had enough green, the side street is given the green for
just enough time to guarantee that its vehicles are processed.
• Usually Point Detectors are used.
• Detectors can be placed at either stop line or upstream location.

2.8.2 Advantages

• It can be used effectively in a coordinated signal system.

 • Relative to pre-timed control, it reduces the delay incurred by the major-road
through movements during periods of light traffic.
• It does not require detectors for the major-road through movement phases and
hence, its operation is not compromised by the failure of these detectors.
• Generally the main street indeed has the green whenever possible.

Figure 3: Semi-Actuated Control

2.8.3 Disadvantages

• Continuous demand on the phases associated with one or more minor

movements can cause excessive delay to the major road through movements
if the maximum green and passage time parameters are not appropriately set.
• Detectors must be used on the minor approaches, thus requiring installation
and ongoing maintenance.
• It also requires more training than that needed for pre-timed control.

2.9 Concept of Full-Actuated Controller

2.9.1 Principles

• Detectors on all approaches.

• Each phase has a preset initial interval.
• Phases are sequenced according to ”calls” for service on all approaches.
 • Green interval is extended by a preset unit extension for each actuation after
the initial interval provided a gap greater than the unit extension does not occur.
• Green extension is limited by preset maximum limit.
• Generally Point Detectors are used.
• Detectors can be placed at either stop line or upstream location.

Figure 4: Full-Actuated Control

2.9.2 Advantages

• Reduces delay relative to pre-timed control by being highly responsive to traffic

demand and to changes in traffic pattern.
• Detection information allows the cycle time to be efficiently allocated on a cycle-
by-cycle basis.
• Allows phases to be skipped if there is no call for service, thereby allowing the
controller to reallocate the unused time to a subsequent phase.

2.9.3 Disadvantages

• Initial and maintenance cost is higher than that of other control types due to the
amount of detection required.
 • It may also result in higher percentage of vehicles stopping because green time
is not held for upstream platoons.

2.10 Concept of Volume-Density Controller

Volume-Density Controllers are designed for intersections of major traffic flows having
considerable unpredictable fluctuations. They are generally used at intersections with
high approach speeds (≥ 45 mi/hr). Here, detectors are placed on all approaches.
Generally this type of controller is used with Area Detectors. To operate efficiently, this
type of control needs to receive traffic information early enough to react to existing
conditions. So, it is essential that detectors be placed far in advance of the intersection.

2.11 Numerical example

An isolated suburban intersection of two major arterial is to be signalized using a full

actuated controller. Area detection is to be used, and there are no driveways or other
potential entry points for vehicles within 90 m of the STOP line on all approaches. The
intersection is shown in the figure and all volumes have already been converted to
tvus for convenience. Left-turn slots of 75 m in length are provided for each approach.
The tvu conversions assume that a protected left-turn phase will be provided for all
approaches.

Figure 5: Intersection for the Example

Solution: Step 1: Phasing: The problem statement indicates that protected left-turn
phasing will be implemented on all approaches. Note that Kennedy Avenue has double
left-turn lanes in each direction and that Monroe Street has a single left-turn lane in
each direction. At a heavily utilized intersection such as this, quad-eight phasing would
be desirable. Each street would have an exclusive LT phase followed by a leading
green in the direction of heavier LT flow and a TH/RT phase. Such phasing provides
much flexibility in that LT phasing is always optional and can be skipped in any cycle
in which no LT demand is noted. The resulting signalization has a maximum of four
phases in any given cycle and a minimum of two. It is treated as a four-phase signal,
as this option leads to the maximum lost times. Quad-eight phasing involves overlaps
that would be taken into account if this were a pre-timed signal. As an actuated signal,
the worst-case cycle, however, would occur when there are no overlap periods. This
would occur when the LT flow in opposing directions are equal. Thus, the signal timing
will be considered as if this were a simple four-phase operation without overlaps. The
controller, however, will allow one protected LT to be terminated before the opposing
protected LT, creating a leading green phase. The four phases are:

• Phase I-Protected LT for Kennedy Avenue

• Phase 2-TH/RT for Kennedy Avenue
• Phase 3-Protected LT for Monroe Street
• Phase 4-TH/RT for Monroe Street

Step 2: Unit Extension: For approach speeds of 64 kmph, the recommended unit
extension (from Table) is 3.5 s.

Step 3: Minimum Green Times and Detector Placement: The problem specifies
that area detection shall be employed. For area detection, the far end of the detection
zone is placed such that the passage time is equal to unit extension. Since all
approaches (including LT approaches) have a 64 kmph approach speed, the far end
of detectors should be located as follows:
The near end of the detection zone would be placed within 0.3 m of the STOP line.
The minimum green time for area detection is variable, based on the number of
vehicles sensed within the detection area when the green is initiated. The value can
vary from the time needed to service one waiting vehicle to the time needed to service
Int(62/6) = 11 vehicles. The range of minimum green times can be established for each
approach. In this case, all values will be equal, as the approach speeds are the same
for all approaches and the detector location is common to every approach, including
the LT lanes, all of which are long enough to accommodate a 62 m setback.

Step 4: Critical-Lane Volumes: As the volumes given have already been

converted to tvus, critical-lane volumes for each phase are easily identified:

• Phase 1 (Kennedy Ave, LT) - 400/2 = 200 tvu/h

• Phase 2 (Kennedy Ave, TH/RT) - 1,600/4 = 400 tvu/h
• Phase 3 (Monroe St, LT) - 110/1 = 110 tvu/h
• Phase 4 (Monroe St, TH/RT) - 700/2 = 350 tvu/h

Therefore, VC = (200+400+110+700) = 1,060 tvu/h.

Step 5: Yellow & All-Red times With a 64 kmph average approach speed for all
movements, the S85 may be estimated as (64 + 8) = 72 kmph, and the S15 may be
estimated as (64 - 8) = 56 kmph. Then:
There are four phases in the worst-case cycle. The total lost time is equal to the sum
of the yellow and all-red intervals in the cycle: L = 2*5.8 + 2*7.0 = 25.6 sec.

Step 6: Maximum Green Times and the Critical Cycle: The initial cycle length
for determining maximum green time is: Ci = 25.6/[1-1060/(1615*0.96*0.98)] = 84.8
sec. Green times are found as:

With area detection, the minimum green for all lane groups, including LT lanes, can
be as high as 24.0 s. This is inconsistent with Gmax values for the LT Phases 1 and 3.
Increasing the maximum greens beyond the computed values, however, will lead to
an excessively long critical cycle length. Thus, it is recommended that the LT lanes
use point detectors, placed so that the Gmin for Phases 1 and 3 is a constant 4.0 s.
The above Gmax results will work in this scenario. The Gmax results for Phases 2 and 4
(through phases) are close to the high value of Gmin for these phases, but would
provide some flexibility even in peak periods. It is, therefore, not recommended that
any of these times be arbitrarily increased. The critical cycle length becomes: CC =
16.8 + 5.8 + 33.5 + 5.8 + 9.2 + 7.0 + 29.3 + 7.0 = 114.4 sec
2.12 Numerical example

Consider an intersection of two streets with a single lane in each direction. Each
approach has identical characteristics and carries 675 veh/h with no left or right turns.
The average headway is 2.0 s per vehicle and the lost time per phase is 3.0 s.
Detectors are 9.1 m long with no setback from the stop line. The actuated controller
settings are as follows:

Setting Time (s)

Initial interval 10

Unit extension 3

Maximum green 46

Intergreen 4

Determine the phase time for this intersection with actuated controller for approach
speed 50 kmph.

Solution: The maximum phase time for each phase will be (46 + 4) = 50 s. The
minimum phase time will be 10 + 3 + 4 = 17 s. The first iteration will be used with a
34-s cycle with 17 s of green time on each approach. The effective green time will be
14 s, and the effective red time will be 20 s for each phase. For purposes of traffic-
actuated timing estimation It is recommended (HCM 2000) that, for a specified lost
time of n seconds, 1 s be assigned to the end of the phase and (n - 1) s be assigned
to the beginning. Here, start-up lost time = 2.0 secs. The following are the steps to
calculate the phase time required:

Step 1. Compute the arrival rate throughout the cycle, q: q = 675/3600 = 0.188
veh/s
 Step 2. Compute the net departure rate (saturation flow rate - arrival rate): (s
- q) =1800/3600- 0.188 = 0.312 veh/s

Step 3.Compute the queue at the end of 20 s of effective red time: qrr =
20 × (0.188) = 3.760veh

Step 4. Compute the queue calibration factor,fq: fq = 1.08 - 0.1(13∕46)2 = 1.072

Step 5. Compute the time required to serve the queue, gs: gs =

1.072(3.760∕0.312) = 12.919s

Step 6. Determine λ: Δ = 1.5 and b = 0.6 (for single lane from table in HCM)

Step 7. Determine the occupancy time of the detector: t0 = 3.6(9.1+ 5.5)/50,

vehicle length=5.5m, detector = 1.051 s length=9.1 m, approach speed=50 kmph

Step 8. The expected green extension time, ge:

Step 9. Compute the total phase time:

Step 10. Compute the phase time deficiency as the difference between the
trial phase time and the computed phase time: or 25.469 - 17.0 = 8.469 s. For next
iteration: Trial green time = 25.469 s. Cycle length = 50.968 s. This process is
continued through successive iterations until the solutions converge or the phase
 deficiency i.e. the error is negligible practically. The following figure shows the results
of successive iterations for this problem and the final convergence.

Figure 6: Calculation of phase time through iterations (HCM)

The final phase time is 37.710 s giving a cycle length of 75.420 s. The convergence
was considered for threshold of 0.1 difference in successive cycle times.

3 Conclusion

Modern actuated controllers give the traffic engineers a great deal of flexibility in
dealing with variations in demand. Area traffic control system along with Vehicle
actuated signals can reduce traffic delays substantially. These are highly complex
subject. Timing of VA signals is almost as much an art as a science, and more then
one solution is possible. Regarding ATC systems, SCOOT and SCAT are popular in
advance countries but such systems cannot cope up with Indian situations without
adaptation to Indian traffic scenario. Presently, an advance ATC system known as
CoSiCoSt has been developed considering the Indian Traffic scenario.

Exercises

1. Describe the working principle and various control parameters of a vehicle

actuated controller and its limitations.

ATC
 Parking studies
1 Overview

Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is
an impact of transport development. The availability of less space in urban areas has
increased the demand for parking space especially in areas like Central business
district. This affects the mode choice also. This has a great economical impact.

2 Parking system
2.1 On street parking

On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This
will be usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street
parking are as listed below. This classification is based on the angle in which the
vehicles are parked with respect to the road alignment. As per IRC the standard
dimensions of a car is taken as 5× 2.5 meters and that for a truck is 3.75× 7.5 meters.

1. Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here
there is no backward movement involved while parking or unparking the
vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking from the accident perspective.
However, it consumes the maximum curb length and therefore only a minimum
number of vehicles can be parked for a given kerb length. This method of
parking produces least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since least
road width is used. Parallel parking of cars is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Illustration of parallel parking

 The length available to park N number of vehicles, L =

2. 30∘ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30∘ with
respect to the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked
compared to parallel parking. Also there is better maneuverability. Delay
caused to the traffic is also minimum in this type of parking. An example is
shown in figure 2. From the figure,

For N vehicles, L = AC + (N-1)CE =5.58+(N-1)5 =0.58+5N

Figure 2: Illustration of 30∘ parking

3. 45∘ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can
be parked. Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more
number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of parking. From figure 3,
 length of parking space available for parking N number of vehicles in a given
kerb is L = 3.54 N+1.77

Figure 3: Illustration of 45∘ parking

4. 60∘ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60∘ to the direction of road. More
number of vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type. From the
figure 4, length available for parking N vehicles =2.89N+2.16.

Figure 4: Illustration of 60∘ parking

5. Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90∘ parking, the vehicles are
parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it consumes
maximum width kerb length required is very little. In this type of parking, the
vehicles need complex maneuvering and this may cause severe accidents. This
arrangement causes obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width
 is less. However, it can accommodate maximum number of vehicles for a given
kerb length. An example is shown in figure 5. Length available for
parking N number of vehicles is L = 2.5N.

Figure 5: Illustration of 90∘ parking

2.2 Off street parking

In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be
at some distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to
as off-street parking. They may be operated by either public agencies or private firms.
A typical layout of an off-street parking is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Illustration of off-street parking

2.3 Parking requirements

There are some minimum parking requirements for different types of building. For
residential plot area less than 300 sq.m require only community parking space. For
residential plot area from 500 to 1000 sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area
should be reserved for parking. Offices may require at least one space for every 70
sq.m as parking area. One parking space is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant where
as theatres and cinema halls need to keep only 1 parking space for 20 seats. Thus,
the parking requirements are different for different land use zones.

2.4 Ill effects of parking

Parking has some ill-effects like congestion, accidents, pollution, obstruction to fire-
fighting operations etc.

1. Congestion: Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering

of the road capacity. Hence, speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will
also subsequently increase. The operational cost of the vehicle increases
leading to great economical loss to the community.
2. Accidents: Careless maneuvering of parking and unparking leads to accidents
which are referred to as parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents
occur while driving out a car from the parking area, careless opening of the
doors of parked cars, and while bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for
parking.
3. Environmental pollution: They also cause pollution to the environment
because stopping and starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results
in noise and fumes. They also affect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings
because cars parked at every available space creates a feeling that building
rises from a plinth of cars.
4. Obstruction to fire fighting operations: Parked vehicles may obstruct the
movement of firefighting vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants
and access to buildings.
3 Parking statistics

Before taking any measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding
availability of parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand is essential. It is
also required to estimate the parking fares also. Parking surveys are intended to
provide all these information. Since the duration of parking varies with different
vehicles, several statistics are used to access the parking need. The following parking
statistics are normally important.

1. Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a

given instant of time. Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve.
Accumulation curve is the graph obtained by plotting the number of bays
occupied with respect to time.
2. Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a
given duration of time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The
actual volume of vehicles entered in the area is recorded.
3. Parking load : Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It
can also be obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying
the parking area at each time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as
vehicle hours.
4. Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number
of vehicles parked.

(1)

5. Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to

the number of parking bays available. This can be expressed as number of
vehicles per bay per time duration.

(2)
 6. Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is
defined as the ratio of number of bays occupied in a time duration to the total
space available. It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively the parking
space is utilized. Parking index can be found out as follows

(3)

3.0.1 Numerical Example

To illustrate the various measures, consider a small example in figure 7, which shows
the duration for which each of the bays are occupied(shaded portion). Now the
accumulation graph can be plotted by simply noting the number of bays occupied at
time interval of 15, 30, 45 etc. minutes is shown in the figure.

Figure 7: Parking bays and accumulation curve

The various measures are calculated as shown below: Parking volume is given as

5 vehicles. Parking load is given as (1 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 1) = = 2.75

veh hour. Average parking duration is computed as = 33 minutes.

Parking turnover is obtained as = 0.83 veh/hr/bay. Parking index is

calculated as × 100= 45.83%

 4 Parking surveys

Parking surveys are conducted to collect the above said parking statistics. The most
common parking surveys conducted are in-out survey, fixed period sampling and
license plate method of survey.

4.1 In-out survey

In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning.
Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is
counted. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The final
occupancy in the parking lot is also taken. Here the labor required is very less. Only
one person may be enough. But we wont get any data regarding the time duration for
which a particular vehicle used that parking lot. Parking duration and turn over is not
obtained. Hence we cannot estimate the parking fare from this survey. For quick
survey purposes, a fixed period sampling can also be done. This is almost similar to
in-out survey. All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the survey. Then after a
fixed time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to i hour, the count is again taken.
Here there are chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a short
duration.

4.1.1 Numerical Example

From an in-out survey conducted for a parking area consisting of 40 bays, the initial
count was found to be 25. Table gives the result of the survey. The number of vehicles
coming in and out of the parking lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is as shown in the
table 1. Find the accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy and efficiency
of the parking lot.

Table 1: In-out survey data

Time In Out

5 3 2

10 2 4

15 4 2

20 5 4

25 7 3

30 8 2

35 2 7

40 4 2

45 6 4

50 4 1

55 3 3
 60 2 5

Solution The solution is shown in table 2

Table 2: In-out parking survey solution

Time In Out Accumulation Occupancy Parking load

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

5 3 2 26 65 130

10 2 4 24 60 120

15 4 2 26 65 130

20 5 4 27 67.5 135

25 7 3 31 77.5 155
30 8 2 37 92.5 185

35 2 7 32 80 160

40 4 2 34 85 170

45 6 4 36 90 180

50 4 1 39 97.5 195

55 3 3 39 97.5 195

60 2 5 36 90 180

Total 1735

• Accumulation can be found out as initial count plus number of vehicles that
entered the parking lot till that time minus the number of vehicles that just exited
for that particular time interval. For the first time interval of 5 minutes,
accumulation can be found out as 25+3-2 = 26. It is being tabulated in column
4.
• Occupancy or parking index is given by equation For the first time interval of

five minutes, Parking index = × 100 = 65%. The occupancy for the
remaining time slot is similarly calculated and is tabulated in column 5. Average
 occupancy is the average of the occupancy values for each time interval. Thus
it is the average of all values given in column 5 and the value is 80.63%.
• Parking load is tabulated in column 6. It is obtained by multiplying accumulation
with the time interval. For the first time interval, parking load = 26 × 5 = 130
vehicle minutes.
• Total parking load is the summation of all the values in column 5 which is equal
to 1935 vehicle minutes or 32.25 vehicle hours

4.2 License plate method of survey

This results in the most accurate and realistic data. In this case of survey, every
parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license
plate number is noted down. This will give the data regarding the duration for which a
particular vehicle was using the parking bay. This will help in calculating the fare
because fare is estimated based on the duration for which the vehicle was parked. If
the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers.
But this method is very labor intensive.

4.2.1 Numerical Example

The parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is s
shown in the table 3 below. Find the average occupancy, average turn over, parking
load, parking capacity and efficiency of the parking lot.

Table 3: Licence plate parking survey data

Bay Time

0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60

1 1456 9813 - 5678

2 1945 1945 1945 1945

3 3473 5463 5463 5463

4 3741 3741 9758 4825

5 1884 1884 - 7594

6 - 7357 - 7893

7 - 4895 4895 4895

8 8932 8932 8932 -

9 7653 7653 8998 4821

10 7321 - 2789 2789

11 1213 1213 3212 4778

 12 5678 6678 7778 8888

Solution See the following table for solution 4.

Table 4: Licence plate parking survey solution

Bay Time Time

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Turn
15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 over

1 1456 9813 - 5678 1 1 0 1 3

2 1945 1945 1945 1945 1 1 1 1 1

3 3473 5463 5463 5463 1 1 1 1 2

4 3741 3741 9758 4825 1 1 1 1 3

5 1884 1884 - 7594 1 1 0 1 2

6 - 7357 - 7893 0 1 0 1 2

7 - 4895 4895 4895 0 1 1 1 1

8 8932 8932 8932 - 1 1 1 0 1

9 7653 7653 8998 4821 1 1 1 1 3

10 7321 - 2789 2789 1 0 1 1 2

11 1213 1213 3212 4778 1 1 1 1 3

12 5678 6678 7778 8888 1 1 1 1 4

Accum
ulation 10 11 9 11

Occupa
ncy 0.83 0.92 0.75 0.92 2.25
 Columns 1 to 5 is the input data. The parking status in every bay is coded first. If a
vehicle occupies that bay for that time interval, then it has a code 1. This is shown in
columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the table corresponding to the time intervals 15, 30, 45 and
60 seconds.

• Turn over is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that
particular hour. For the first bay, it is counted as 3. Similarly, for the second bay,
one vehicle is present throughout that hour and hence turnout is 1 itself. This is
being tabulated in column 10 of the table. Average turn over

= = 2.25
• Accumulation for a time interval is the total of number of vehicles in the bays 1
to 12 for that time interval. Accumulation for first time interval of 15 minutes =
1+1+1+1+1+0+0+1+1+1+1+1 = 10
• Parking volume = Sum of the turn over in all the bays = 27 vehicles
• Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the
vehicles. It can be calculated as sum of the accumulation for each time

interval × time interval divided by the parking volume = =

22.78 minutes/vehicle.
• Occupancy for that time interval is accumulation in that particular interval
divided by total number of bays. For first time interval of 15 minutes, occupancy
= (10×100)/12 = 83% Average occupancy is found out as the average of total
number of vehicles occupying the bay for each time interval. It is expressed in

percentage. Average occupancy = × 100 = 85.42%.

• Parking capacity = number of bays × number of hours = 12× 1 = 12 vehicle
hours
• Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time

interval × time = = 10.25 vehicle hours

• Efficiency = = = 85.42%.
5 Summary

Providing suitable parking spaces is a challenge for traffic engineers and planners in
the scenario of ever increasing vehicle population. It is essential to conduct traffic
surveys in order to design the facilities or plan the fares. Different types of parking
layout, surveys and statistics were discussed in this chapter.
 Congestion study
1 Introduction

Transportation system consists of a group of activities as well as entities interacting

with each other to achieve the goal of transporting people or goods from one place to
another. Hence, the system has to meet the perceived social and economical needs
of the users. As these needs change, the transportation system itself evolves and
problems occur as it becomes inadequate to serve the public interest. One of the
negative impacts of any transportation system is traffic congestion. Traffic congestion
occurs wherever demand exceeds the capacity of the transportation system. This
lecture gives an overview of how congestion is generated, how it can be measured or
quantified; and also the various countermeasures to be taken in order to counteract
congestion. Adequate performance measures are needed in order to quantify
congestion in a transportation system. Quality of service measures indicates the
degree of traveller satisfaction with system performance and this is covered under
traveller perception. Several measures have been taken in order to counteract
congestion. They are basically classified into supply and demand measures. An
overview of all these aspects of congestion is dealt with in this lecture.

2 Generation of traffic congestion

The flow chart in Fig. 1 shows how traffic congestion is generated in a transportation
system. With the evolution of society, economy and technology, the household
characteristics as well as the transportation system gets affected. The change in
transport system causes a change in transport behaviour and locational pattern of the
system. The change in household characteristics, transport behaviour, locational
pattern, and other growth effects result in the growth of traffic. But the change or
improvement in road capacity is only as the result of change in the transportation
system and hence finally a situation arises where the traffic demand is greater than
the capacity of the roadway. This situation is called traffic congestion.
Figure 1: Generation of traffic congestion

2.1 Effects of congestion

Congestion has a large number of ill effects on drivers, environment, health and the
economy in the following ways.

• Drivers who encounter unexpected traffic may be late for work and other
appointments causing a loss in productivity and their valuable time.
• Since congestion leads to increase in travel time i,e.,vehicles are made to travel
for more time than required which consumes large amount of fuel there by
causing fuel loss and economic loss to the drivers.
• One of the most harmful effects of traffic congestion is its impact on the
environment. Despite the growing number of vehicles ,cars stopped in traffic
still produces a large volume of harmful carbon emissions . Increase in
pollutants (because of both the additional fuel burned and more toxic gases
produced while internal combustion engines are in idle or in stop-and-go traffic)
• Drivers who become impatient may be more likely to drive aggressively and
dangerously and leads to high potential for traffic accidents
 • Negative impact on people’s psychological state, which may affect productivity
at work and personal relationships
• Slow and inefficient emergency response and delivery services
• Decrease in road surface lifetime: When a vehicle moves over the surface, the
areas of contact (where the vehicles’ tyres touch the road) are deflected
downwards under the weight of the vehicle and as the vehicle moves forward,
the deflection corrects itself to its original position.
• Vehicle maintenance costs; ’Wear and tear’ on mechanical components of
vehicles such as the clutch and brakes is also considerably increased under
stop-start driving conditions and hence increasing the vehicle maintenance
costs.
• One beneficial effect of traffic congestion is its ability to encourage drivers to
consider other transportation options like a subway, light rail or bus service.
These options reduce traffic on the roads ,thereby reducing congestion and
environmental pollution.

The summation of all these effects yields a considerable loss for the society and the
economy of an urban area

2.2 Traffic congestion

A system is said to be congested when the demand exceeds the capacity of the
section. Traffic congestion can be defined in the following two ways:

1. Congestion is the travel time or delay in excess of that normally incurred under
light or free flow traffic condition.
2. Unacceptable congestion is travel time or delay in excess of agreed norm which
may vary by type of transport facility, travel mode, geographical location, and
time of the day.

Fig. 2 shows the definition of congestion. The solid line represents the travel speed
under free-flow conditions and the dotted line represents the actual travel speed.
During congestion, the vehicles will be travelling at a speed less than their free flow
speed. The shaded area in between these two lines represents the amount of
congestion.
Figure 2: Definition of congestion

Traffic congestion may be of two types:

1. Recurrent Congestion: Recurrent congestion generally occurs at the same

place, at the same time every weekday or weekend day. This is generally the
consequence of factors that act regularly or periodically on the transportation
system such as daily commuting or weekend trips. Recurrent congestion is
predictable and typically occurs during peak hours. It displays a large degree
of randomness in terms of duration and severity.
2. Non-Recurrent congestion: Non-Recurrent congestion is the effect of
unexpected ,unplanned large events( road woks, accidents, special events and
so on) that affect transportation system more or less randomly and as
such,cannot be easily predicted.

3 Measurement of congestion
3.1 Need and uses of congestion measurement

Congestion has to be measured or quantified in order to suggest suitable counter

measures and their evaluation. Congestion information can be used in a variety of
policy, planning and operational situations. It may be used by public agencies in
assessing facility or system adequacy, identifying problems, calibrating models,
developing and assessing improvements, formulating programs policies and priorities.
It may be used by private sector in making locational or investment decisions. It may
be used by general public and media in assessing traveler’s satisfaction.
3.2 System performance measurement

Performance measure of a congested roadway can be done using the following four
components:

1. Duration,
2. Extent,
3. Intensity, and
4. Reliability.

3.3 Duration

Duration of congestion is the amount of time the congestion affects the travel system.
The peak hour has now extended to peak period in many corridors. Measures that can
quantify congestion include:

• Amount of time during the day that the travel rate indicates congested travel on
a system element or entire system.
• Amount of time during the day that traffic density measurement techniques
(detectors, aerial surveillance, etc.) indicate congested travel.

Duration of congestion is the sum of length of each analysis sub period for which the
demand exceeds capacity. This component measures the performance of a particular
road in handling traffic efficiently i,e.,with the increase in the duration of congestion,
poorer will be the performance of the transportation system. The maximum duration
on any link indicates the amount of time before congestion is completely cleared from
the corridor. Duration of congestion can be computed for a corridor using the following
equation: For corridor analysis,

(1)

where, H is the duration of congestion (hours), N is the number of analysis sub periods
for which v∕c > 1, and T is the duration of analysis sub-period (hours). For area wide
analysis,
 (2)

where, Hi is the duration of congestion for link i (hours), T is the duration of analysis
period (hours), r is the ratio of peak demand to peak demand rate, vi is the vehicle
demand on link i (veh/hr), and ci is the capacity of link i (veh/hr).

3.4 Extent

Extent of congestion is described by estimating the number of people or vehicles

affected by congestion and by the geographic distribution of congestion. These
measures include:

1. Number or percentage of trips affected by congestion.

2. Number or percentage of person or vehicle meters affected by congestion.
3. Percentage of the system affected by congestion.

Performance measures of extent of congestion can be computed from sum of length

of queuing on each segment. Segments in which queue overflows the capacity are
also identified. This is useful for ramp metering analysis. To compute queue length,
average density of vehicles in a queue need to be known. The default values
suggested by HCM 2000 are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Queue density default values

Subsystem Storage density Spacing

(veh/km/lane) (m)
 Free-way 75 13.3

Two lane highway 130 7.5

Urban street 130 7.5

Queue length can be found out using the equation:

(3)

where; QLi is the queue length (meter), v is the segment demand (veh/hour), c is the
segment capacity (veh/hour), N is the number of lanes, ds is the storage density
(veh/meter/lane), and T is the duration of analysis period (hour). If v < c, Qi=0 The
equation for queue length is similar for both corridor and area-wide analysis.

3.4.1 Numerical example

Consider a road segment of 6 lanes with a capacity of 2400 veh/hr/lane. It is observed

that the storage density is 75 veh/meter and the segment demand is found to be 2800
veh/hr/lane. Given that the duration of analysis sub period is 2 hrs calculate the queue
length that is formed due to congestion.

Solution The queue length of a particular road segment is given by,

(4)

It is given that Number of lanes, N=6, Duration of analysis sub period, T= 2 hrs,
Segment Capacity=c=2400 veh/hr/lane, Segment Demand=v=2800 veh/hr/lane,
Storage Density=ds=75 veh/meter. Now,the queue length can be calculated by using
the above formula as follows: QL = 2 * (2800 - 2400) * 6∕(6 * 75) =
10.667mts Therefore, the extent of congestion in terms of queue length is 10.667mts

3.5 Intensity

Intensity of congestion marks the severity of congestion. It is used to differentiate

between levels of congestion on transport system and to define total amount of
congestion. It is measured in terms of:

• Delay in person hours or vehicle hours;

• Average speed of roadway, corridor, or network;
• Delay per capita or per vehicle travelling in the corridor, or per person or per
vehicle affected by congestion;
• Relative delay rate (relative rate of time lost for vehicles);

Intensity in terms of delay is given by,

(5)

where, DPH is the person hours of delay, TPH is the person hours of travel under actual
conditions, and TPH0 is the person hours of travel under free flow conditions.
The T PH is given by:

(6)

where, OAV is the average vehicle occupancy, v is the vehicle demand (veh), l is the
length of link (km), and S is the mean speed of link (km/hr). The TPH is given by:

(7)
where, OAV is the average vehicle occupancy, v is the vehicle demand (veh), l is the
length of link (km), and S0 is the free flow speed on the link (km/hr)

3.5.1 Numerical example

On a 2.8 km long link of road, it was found that the demand is 1000 Vehicles/hour
mean speed of the link is 12 km/hr, and the free flow speed is 27 km/hr. Assuming that
the average vehicle occupancy is 1.2 person/vehicle, calculate the congestion
intensity in terms of total person hours of delay.

Solution: Given data: Length of the link=l=2.8 km, Vehicle demand=v=1000 veh,
Mean Speed of the link=S=12 km/hr, Free flow speed on the link=So=27 km/hr, and
Average Vehicle Occupancy=AVO=1.2 person/veh. Person hours of delay is given as

Person hours of travel under actual conditions,

Person hours of travel under free flow conditions,

Therefore, person hours of delay can be calculated as follows,,

 Hence, the intensity of congestion is determined in terms of person hours of delay as
156 person hours.
3.6 Relationship between duration, extent, and intensity of congestion

The variation in extent and duration of congestion indicates different problems

requiring different solutions. Small delay and extent indicates limited problem, small
delay for large extent indicates general congestion, great delay for small extent
indicates critical links and great delay for large extent indicates critical system-wide
problem. Fig. 3 also illustrates the relationship between duration, extent and intensity
The extent of congestion is seen on the x-axis, the duration on the y-axis. The intensity
is shown in the shading. Based on the extent and duration the congestion can be
classified into four types as shown in Fig.4.

Figure 3: Intensity of congestion-relation between duration and distance

Fig.3 indicates a time distance graph with the shaded area indicating congestion
in individual road segments for discrete time periods. The figure shows the relationship
between duration, extent, and intensity.
Figure 4: Intensity of congestion-Relation between extent and duration of delay

The product of extent and duration indicates the intensity, or magnitude of the
congestion problem.

3.7 Reliability

Reliability is a measure of a drivers ability to accurately predict and plan for a certain
travel time. The more unexpected events that occur on a roadway, the less reliable it
is. Non recurrent congestion has a bigger impact on the reliability of the roadway
relative to concurrent congestion. In other words, Travel-time reliability is defined as
the level of consistency in travel conditions over time and is measured by describing
the distribution of travel times that occur over a substantial period of time. Reliability
is an important component of roadway performance and perhaps more importantly, of
motorists perceptions of roadway performance. The importance of measuring and
managing reliability in reducing congestion is explained as follows.

• Motorists have less tolerance for unexpected delay than for expected delay
• Cost associated with unreliable travel
• Reliability is a valued service in other industries and utilities

Therefore, it is clear that reliability is the impact of non-recurrent congestion on

transport system and it can be expressed as average travel rate or speed standard
deviation or delay standard deviation.
4 Congestion countermeasures

Fully eradicating roadway congestion is neither an affordable, nor feasible goal in

economically dynamic urban areas. However, much can be done to reduce its
occurrence and to lessen its impacts on roadway users within large cities congestion
is a phenomenon that can be better and more effectively managed. There are many
possible measures that can be deployed to treat or mitigate congestion.

4.1 classification

Congestion countermeasures include supply measures and demand measures.,which

will be discussed in detail in the next section. Other than these two measures, an
additional longer-term tool used against traffic problems is land-use planning and
policy. It has the potential

• To control the number and growth of major traffic generators along congestion
corridors.
• To establish sensible allocations of land for future development given present
constraints and expansion plans for the transportation network and
• To enforce balanced employment and residential development, thus reducing
the long home-to-work trips.

4.2 Supply measures:

They add capacity to the system or make the system operate more efficiently. They
focus on the transportation system. All measures in this category supply capacity so
that demand is better satisfied and delays and queuing are lessened. Supply
measures include

1. Development of new or expanded infrastructure: This includes civil projects

(new freeways, transit lines etc), road widening, bridge replacements,
permanent freeway lane conversions, technology conversions(a new rail
technology, a modernized bus fleet and ITS)
2. Small scale capacity and efficiency improvements: This includes signal system
upgrade and coordination, freeway ramp metering, re-location of bus stops,
 lane management schemes, bottleneck elimination through channelization and
operational improvements.

4.3 Demand measures:

Demand measures focuses on motorists and travelers and attempt to modify their trip
making behaviour. All the measures that are employed in this category aim to modify
travel habits so that travel demand is considerably reduced or switch to other
modes,other times or other locations that have more capacity to accommodate it. The
demand measures include Congestion pricing, Parking pricing and Restrictions on
vehicle ownership and use. Congestion pricing is the method in which users are
charged on congested roads. This is discussed in detail in the next section. Parking
pricing discourages use of private vehicles to specific areas. It includes heavy import
duties, separate licensing requirement, heavy annual fees, expensive fuel prices, etc
to restrain private vehicle acquisition and use. Heavy annual fees, strict periodic
inspections and expensive fuel prices also restrict use of private vehicles. Intelligent
Transportation systems (ITS) provide tools for implementation of both supply and
demand congestion measures. Supply type ITS tools include early incident detection
and resolution, optimized signal operation based on real time demand, freeway
management with ramp metering, accident avoidance with variable message
signs(VMS) warning of upcoming conditions(congestion, fog etc.,) and bus system
coordination. Demand-type ITS include the provision of real-time traffic congestion
information at various places for informed travel decisions.

4.4 Congestion pricing

Congestion pricing is a method of road user taxation, charging the users of congested
roads according to the time spent or distance travelled on those roads. The principle
behind congestion pricing is that those who cause congestion or use road in congested
period should be charged, thus giving the road user the choice to make a journey or
not.

4.4.1 Economic principle behind congestion pricing

 Journey costs include private journey cost, congestion cost, environmental cost, and
road maintenance cost. The benefit a road user obtains from the journey is the price
he prepared to pay in order to make the journey. As the price gradually increases, a
point will be reached when the trip maker considers it not worth performing or it is
worth performing by other means. This is known as the critical price. At a cost less
than this critical price, he enjoys a net benefit called as consumer surplus(es) and is
given by:

(8)

where, x is the amount the consumer is prepared to pay, and y is the amount he
actually pays. The basics of congestion pricing involves demand function, private cost
function as well as marginal cost function. These are explained below.

4.4.2 Demand

Fig. 5 shows the general form of a demand curve. In the figure, area QOSP indicates
the absolute utility to trip maker and the area SRP indicates the net benefit.

Figure 5: Demand Curve

4.4.3 Private cost

Total private cost of a trip, is given by:

 (9)

where, a is the component proportional to distance, b is the component proportional

to speed, and v is the speed of the vehicle (km/h). In the congested region, the speed
of the vehicle can be expressed as,

(10)

where, q is the flow in veh/hour, d and e are constants.

4.4.4 Marginal cost

Marginal cost is the additional cost of adding one extra vehicle to the traffic stream. It
reduces speed and causes congestion and results in increase in cost of overall
journey. The total cost incurred by all vehicles in one hour(CT ) is given by:

(11)

Marginal cost is obtained by differentiating the total cost with respect to the flow(q) as
shown in the following equations.
 Note that c and q in the above derivation is obtained from
Equations 9 and 10 respectively. Therefore the marginal cost is given as:

(18)

Fig. 6 shows the variation of marginal cost per flow as well as private cost per flow.

Figure 6: Private cost/flow and cost and marginal curve

It is seen that the marginal cost will always be greater than the private cost, the
increase representing the congestion cost.

4.4.5 Equilibrium condition and Optimum condition

Superimposing the demand curve on the private cost/flow and marginal cost/flow
curves, the position as shown in Fig. 7 is obtained. The intersection of the demand
curve and the private costs curve at point A represents the equilibrium condition,
obtained when travel decisions are based on private costs only. The intersection of
the demand curve and the marginal costs curve at point B represents the optimum
condition. At this point the flow Q0 corresponds to the cost C0 which is the marginal
cost as well as the value of the trip to the trip maker. The net benefit under the two
positions A and B are shown by the areas ACZ and BY CY Z respectively. If the
conditions are shifted from point A to B, the net benefit due to change will be given by
area CCyY X minus AXB. If the area CCyY X is greater than arc AXB, the net benefit
 will be positive. The shifting of conditions from point A to B can be brought about by
imposing a road pricing charge BY. Under this scheme, the private vehicles continuing
to use the roads will on an average be worse off in the first place because BY will
always exceed the individual increase in benefits XY.

Figure 7: Relation between material cost, private cost and demand curves.

4.5 Numerical example

Vehicles are moving on a road at the rate of 500 vehicle/hour, at a velocity of 15 km/hr.
Find the equation for marginal cost.

Solution: Private cost of the trip is given by,

It is given that Flow rate, q=500 veh/hr. Speed of the vehicle is given by,

Marginal Cost is given by,

Therefore, the equation of marginal cost for the vehicles moving on the given
congested road is given by M = a + (b∕15) + [(d - 15) * b∕225]
4.6 Uses of congestion pricing

1. Diverts travelers to other modes

2. Causes cancellation of non essential trips during peak hours
3. Collects sufficient fund for major upgrades of highways and other road
maintenance works.
4. Cross-subsidizes public transport modes thereby fetching income to the
government.

4.7 Requirements of a good pricing system

1. Charges should be closely related to the amount of use made of roads

2. Price should be variable at different times of day/week/year or for different
classes of vehicles
3. It should be stable and ascertainable by road users before commencement of
journey
4. Method should be simple for road users to understand and police to enforce
5. Should be accepted by public as fair to all
6. Payment in advance should be possible
7. Should be reliable
8. Should be free from fraud or evasion
9. Should be capable of being applied to the whole country

5 Conclusion

Causes and effects of congestion along with various performance measures and with
many other counter measures are discussed in detail considering the actual or
technical definition of congestion. The congestion performance measures described
are generalized measures. There are several other performance measures and
indices. Advanced study on congestion can include improved measurement schemes
and the combined travel demand modeling and route choice under congested
conditions. With the implementation of all the counter measures traffic congestion, the
most pronouncing problem of transportation may be reduced or controlled to certain
extent. The principle and process of congestion pricing was also discussed with the
help of certain graphs..

Exercises

1. Describe in detail how congestion can be quantified. Illustrate with equations

and sketches.
2. Describe congestion management measures: both demand and supply side.
3. On a 2.8 km long link of road, it was found that the vehicle demand was
1000 veh/hr, mean speed of the link 12 km/hr, and free flow speed 27 km/hr.
Assuming the Average vehicle occupancy as 1.2 person/vehicle, calculate
congestion intensity in terms of total person hours of delay.
 Accident studies & Road safety audit
1 Overview

This lecture covers one of the most important negative impact of transportation
system, namely the accidents. This lecture first presents some introductory stuff
including some salient accident statistics, causes of accidents, accident data
collection, accident reconstruction, safety measures and safety audit.

2 Introduction

The problem of accident is a very acute in highway transportation due to complex flow
pattern of vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic along with pedestrians. Traffic
accident leads to loss of life and property. Thus the traffic engineers have to undertake
a big responsibility of providing safe traffic movements to the road users and ensure
their safety. Road accidents cannot be totally prevented but by suitable traffic
engineering and management the accident rate can be reduced to a certain extent.
For this reason systematic study of traffic accidents are required to be carried out.
Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose preventive measures
in terms of design and control.

2.1 Objectives of accident studies

Some objectives of accident studies are listed below:

1. To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential

location
2. To evaluate existing design
3. To compute the financial losses incurred
4. To support the proposed design and provide economic justification to the
improvement suggested by the traffic engineer
5. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in
the problem.
2.2 Causes of road accidents

The various causes of road accidents are:

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure
to perceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness,
fatigue, alcohol,sleep etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst,lighting
system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance,
inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control
devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow,
smoke and heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving
unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level
crossing not closed when required etc..

2.3 Accident statistics

The statistical analysis of accident is carried out periodically at critical locations or road
stretches which will help to arrive at suitable measures to effectively decrease accident
rates. It is the measure (or estimates) of the number and severity of accident. These
statistics reports are to be maintained zone-wise. Accident prone stretches of different
roads may be assessed by finding the accident density per length of the road. The
places of accidents are marked on the map and the points of their clustering (BLACK
SPOT) are determined. By statistical study of accident occurrence at a particular road
or location or zone of study for a long period of time it is possible to predict with
reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurrence per day or relative safety
of different classes of road user in that location. The interpretation of the statistical
data is very important to provide insight to the problem. The position of India in the
year 2009 in country-wise number of person killed per 100000 populations as shown
in the Figure 1 and the increase in rate of accident from year 2005 to year 2009 is
shown in the table. 1. In 2009, 14 accidents occurred per hour.
Figure 1: Country-wise number of person killed per 100000 populations (Ref. Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways Transport Research Wing)

Table 1: Number of Accidents and Number of Persons Involved : 2001 to 2009(Ref.

Ministry of Road Transport and Highways Transport Research Wing)

No. of Accidents No. of persons affected Accident severity

(No. of persons
Year Total Fatal Killed Injured killed

per 100 accidents)

2005 4,39,255 83,491 94,968 4,65,282 22

 2006 4,60,920 93,917 1,05,749 4,96,481 23

2007 4,79,216 1,01,161 1,14,444 5,13,340 24

2008 4,84,704 1,06,591 1,19,860 5,23,193 25

2009 4,86,384 1,10,993 1,25,660 5,15,458 25.8

Figure 2: Percent share in total road accident by type of motor vehicle involved (Primary
responsible) in year 2009 (Ref. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways Transport
Research Wing)
Figure 3: Causes of road accident in year 2009 (Ref. Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways Transport Research Wing)

Figure 2 and 3 gives the percent of accident occurring from a specific vehicle class
and the causes of accident in the form of pie-chart. Since the data collection of
accident is mostly done by the traffic police its the users who are put to blame in
majority of cases. Thus such statistical records are not much useful for the traffic
engineer.

3 Accident Analysis
3.1 Accident data collection

The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection
of the accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are
secondary data which are filed by motorists themselves. The data to be collected
should comprise all of these parameters:

1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like

fatal, serious, minor
2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident
3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle,
loading detail, vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface
characteristics,type of traffic, traffic density etc..
 6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already
mentioned) which are the main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal
injury and casualty

These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following purpose. The
purposes are as follows:

1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident

occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes
of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large
number of accidents occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors
to give insight into general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc.

3.2 Accident investigation

The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the
following procedure:

1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:

a. Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in
all accidents fatal or injurious.
b. Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all
accidents at which an officer is present. This generally includes fatal
accidents or mostly accidents involving serious injury required
emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy property
damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as
measurement of skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of
final position of vehicles, examination of condition and functioning of traffic
control devices and other road equipments.
 3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization
and interpretation of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight
distance, preparing drawing of after accident situation, determination of critical
and design speed for curves is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from
whatever data is available how the accident occurs from the available data. This
involves accident reconstruction which has been discussed under Section No.7
in details. It is professionally referred as determining behavioral or mediate
causes of accident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred
from the data available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies..

3.3 Accident data analysis

The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and
roadway. Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:

1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships

of accidents to physical capacities and to psychological test results.
2. Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity,
location and extent of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to
characteristics of the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of
changes related to roadways.

It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of

highway. These rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of different
highway and street system and traffic controls. Another is accident involvement by the
type of drivers and vehicles associated with accidents.

1. Accident Rate per Kilometer :

On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents
of all types per km of each highway and street classification.
 (1)

2. where, R = total accident rate per km for one year, A = total number of
accident occurring in one year, L = length of control section in kms

3. Accident involvement Rate :

It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics
who were involved in accidents per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.

(2)

4. where,R = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of

travel, N = total number of drivers of vehicles involved in accidents during the
period of investigation and V = vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the
period of investigation

5. Death rate based on population :

The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of traffic
fatalities per 100,000 populations. This rate reflects the accident exposure for
entire area.

(3)

6. where, R = death rate per 100,000 population, B = total number of traffic

death in one year and P = population of area

7. Death rate based on registration :

The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number
of traffic fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident
exposure for entire area and is similar to death rate based on population.
 (4)

8. where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B = total number

of traffic death in one year and M = number of motor vehicles registered in the
area

9. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :

The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million
vehicle km of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by
the miles of travel of the motor vehicle than the population or registration.

(5)

10. where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C =
number of total accidents in one year and V = vehicle kms of travel in one year

3.3.1 Numerical Example

The Motor vehicle consumption in a city is 5.082 million liters, there were 3114 motor
vehicle fatalities, 355,799 motor vehicle injuries, 6,721,049 motor vehicle registrations
and an estimated population of 18,190,238. Kilometer of travel per liter of fuel is 12.42
km/liter. Calculate registration death rate, population death rate and accident rate per
vehicle km.

Solution Approximate vehicle kms of travel = Total consumption o fuel × kilometer of

travel per liter of fuel =5.08 × 109 × 12.42 = 63.1 × 109 km.

1. Registration death rate can be obtained from the equation

 Here, R is the death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B (Motor vehicle
fatalities) is 3114, M (Motor vehicle registered) is 6.72 × 106. Hence,

2. Population Death Rate can be obtained from the equation.

Here, R is the death rate per 100,000 population, B (Motor vehicle fatalities) is
3114, P (Estimated population) is= 18.2 × 106.

3. Accident rate per vehicle kms of travel can be obtained from the equation below
as:

Here, R is the accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C (total
accident same as vehicle fatalities) is 3114, V (vehicle kms of travel) is
63.1 × 109.

4 Accident reconstruction

Accident reconstruction deals with representing the accidents occurred in schematic

diagram to determine the pre-collision speed which helps in regulating or enforcing
rules to control or check movement of vehicles on road at high speed. The following
data are required to determine the pre-collision speed:
 1. Mass of the vehicle
2. Velocities after collision
3. Path of each vehicle as it approaches collision point

Below in Figure 4 a schematic diagram of collision of two vehicles is shown that occur
during turning movements. This diagram is also known as collision diagram. Each
collision is represented by a set of arrows to show the direction of before and after
movement. The collision diagram provides a powerful visual record of accident
occurrence over a significant period of time.

Figure 4: Collision diagram of two vehicles

The collision may be of two types collinear impact or angular collision. Below each
of them are described in detail. Collinear impact can be again divided into two types :

1. Rear end collision

2. Head-on collision.

It can be determined by two theories:

1. Poisson Impact Theory

2. Energy Theory
 4.1 Poisson impact theory

Poisson impact theory, divides the impact in two parts - compression and restitution.
The Figure 5 shows two vehicles travelling at an initial speed of v1 and v2 collide and
obtain a uniform speed say u at the compression stage. And after the compression
stage is over the final speed is u1 and u2. The compression phase is cited by the
deformation of the cars.

Figure 5: Compression Phase

From the Newtons law F = ma,

(6)

where, m1 and m2 are the masses of the cars and F is the contact force. We know that
every reaction has equal and opposite action. So as the rear vehicle pushes the
vehicle ahead with force F. The vehicle ahead will also push the rear vehicle with same
magnitude of force but has different direction. The action force is represented by F,
whereas the reaction force is represented by -F as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Force applied on each vehicle

In the compression phase cars are deformed. The compression phase terminates
when the cars have equal velocity. Thus the cars obtain equal velocity which
generates the following equation:

(7)

where, Pc ≡∫ 0τcF dt which is the compression impulse and τ c is the compression time.
Thus, the velocity after collision is obtained as:

(8)

The compression impulse is given by:

(9)

In the restitution phase the elastic part of internal energy is released

where, Pr ≡∫ 0τrF dt is the restitution impulse and τ r is the restitution time. According to
Poissons hypothesis restitution impulse is proportional to compression impulse
(12)

Restitution impulse e is given by:

 (13)

The total impulse is P = Pc + Pr

(14)

The post impact velocities are given by:

where Δv = v1 -v2. But we are required to determine the pre-collision speed according
to which the safety on the road can be designed. So we will determine v1 and v2 from
the given value of u1 and u2 .

4.1.1 Numerical Example

Two vehicles travelling in the same lane have masses 3000 kg and 2500 kg. The
velocity of rear vehicles after striking the leader vehicle is 25 kmph and the velocity of
leader vehicle is 56 kmph. The coefficient of restitution of the two vehicle system is
assumed to be 0.6. Determine the pre-collision speed of the two vehicles.

Solution Given that the: mass of the first vehicle (m1) = 3000 kg, mass of the second
vehicle (m2) = 2500 kg, final speed of the rear vehicle (u1) = 25 kmph, and final speed
of the leader vehicle (u2) = 56 kmph. Let initial speed of the rear vehicle be v1, and let
initial speed of the leader vehicle be v2.

Step 1: From equation. 15,

 Step 2: From equation. 16,

Step 3: Solving equations. 17 and 18, We get the pre collision speed of two
vehicles as: v1 = 73 kmph, and v2 = 62 kmph.

Step 4: Initial speed of the rear vehicle, v1 = 73 kmph, and the initial speed of
leader vehicle, v2 = 62 kmph. Thus from the result we can infer that the follower vehicle
was travelling at quite high speed which may have resulted in the collision. The
solution to the problem may be speed restriction in that particular stretch of road where
accident occurred.

4.2 Energy theory

Applying principle of conservation of energy or conservation of momentum also the

initial speed of the vehicle can be computed if the skid marks are known. It is based
on the concept that there is reduction in kinetic energy with the work done against the
skid resistance. So if the vehicle of weight W slow down from speed v1 to v2, then the
loss in kinetic energy will be equal to the work done against skid resistance, where
work done is weight of the vehicle multiplied by the skid distance and the skid
resistance coefficient.

(19)
where, f is the skid resistance coefficient and S is the skid distance. It also follows the
law of conservation of momentum (m1, v1 are the mass and velocity of first vehicle
colliding with another vehicle of mass and velocity m2, v2 respectively)

(20)

4.2.1 Numerical example

A vehicle of 2000 kg skids a distance of 36 m before colliding with a stationary vehicle

of 1500 kg weight. After collision both vehicle skid a distance of 14 m. Assuming
coefficient of friction 0.5, determine the initial speed of the vehicle.

Solution: Let the weight of the moving vehicle is WA, let the weight of the
stationary vehicle is WB, skid distance before and after collision
is s1 and s2 respectively, initial speed is v1, speed after applying brakes before
collision is v2 and the speed of both the vehicles A and B after collision is v3, and the
final speed v4 is 0. Then:

1. After collision: Loss in kinetic energy of both cars = Work done against skid
resistance (can be obtained from equation mentioned below). Substituting the
values we obtain v3.

2. At collision: Momentum before impact = momentum after impact (can be

obtained from equation. 20)
 3. Before collision (can be obtained from equation. 19): Loss in kinetic energy of
moving vehicle = work done against braking force in reducing the speed

Ans: The pre-collision speed of the moving vehicle is 100 kmph.

4.3 Angular collision

Angular collision occurs when two vehicles coming at right angles collies with each
other and bifurcates in different direction. The direction of the vehicles after collision
in this case depends on the initial speeds of the two vehicles and their weights. One
general case is that two vehicles coming from south and west direction after colliding
move in its resultant direction as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Angular collision of two vehicles resulting in movement in resultant direction

The mass of the car 1 is m1 kg and the car 2 is m2 kg and the initial velocity
is v1 m/s and v2 m/s respectively. So as the momentum is the product of mass and
velocity. The momentum of the car 1 and car 2 is m1v1 kgm/s and m2v2 kgm/s
respectively. By the law of conservation of momentum the final momentum should be
equal to the initial momentum. But as the car are approaching each other at an angle
the final momentum should not be just mere summation of both the momentum but

the resultant of the two, Resultant momentum = kg m/s.

The angle at which they are bifurcated after collision is given by tan -1(h∕b) where h is
the hypotenuse and b is the base. Therefore, the cars are inclined at an angle. Inclined
at an angle = tan -1(m 2v2∕m1v1). Now, since the mass of the two vehicles are same the
final velocity will proportionally be changed. The general schematic diagrams of
collision are shown in Figs. 8 to 10.

Figure 8: After collision movement of car 1 north of west and car 2 in east of north
Figure 9: After collision movement of car 1 and car 2 in north of east

Figure 10: After collision movement of car 1 north of east and car 2 in south of east

4.3.1 Numerical example

Vehicle A is approaching from west and vehicle B from south. After collision A skids
600 north of east and B skids 300 south of east as shown in Figure 10. Skid distance
before collision for A is 18 m and B is 26 m. The skid distances after collision are 30m
and 15 m respectively. Weight of A and B are 4500 and 6000 respectively. Skid
resistance of pavement is 0.55 m. Determine the pre-collision speed.
Solution Let: initial speed is vA1 and vB1, speed after skidding before collision
is vA2 and vB2, speed of both the vehicles A and B after collision is vA3 and vB3, final
speed is vA4 and vB4 is 0, initial skid distance for A and B is sA1 and sB1, final skid
distance for A and B is sA2 and sB2, and weight of vehicle A is WA and Weight of vehicle
B is WB.

1. After collision: Loss in kinetic energy of each cars= Work done against skid
resistance (can be obtained from equation. 19)

As vA4 = 0, it is not considered in the above equation

Similarly, we calculate vB3 using the similar formula and using sB2

2. At collision: Momentum before impact is momentum after impact (resolving

along west-east direction and using equation. 20)

Resolving the moments along south- north direction

 3. Before collision: Loss in kinetic energy of each cars= Work done against skid
resistance (can be obtained from equation. 19)

Similarly, using the same equation and using sB2

Answer: The pre-collision speed of the vehicle A (approaching from west)

is vA1 = 99 km/hr and vehicle B (approaching from south) is vB1 = 63.26 km/hr.

5 Safety measures

The ultimate goal is to develop certain improvement measures to mitigate the

circumstances leading to the accidents. The measures to decrease the accident rates
are generally divided into three groups engineering, enforcement and education.
Some safety measures are described below:
5.1 Safety measures related to engineering

The various measures of engineering that may be useful to prevent accidents are
enumerated below

5.1.1 Visual guidance to driver

There is consecutive change of picture in drivers mind while he is in motion. The

number of factors that the driver can distinguish and clearly fix in his mind is limited.
On an average the perception time for vision is 1∕16th, for hearing is 1∕20th and for
muscular reaction is 1∕20th. The number of factors that can be taken into account by
organs of sense of a driver in one second is given by the formula below.

(21)

where, M = No. of factors that can be taken into account by the organ of sense of
driver for L m long, V = speed of vehicle in m/sec. Factors affecting drivers attention
when he is on road can be divided into three groups:

1. Factors relating to the road elements of road that directly affect the driving of a
vehicle are traffic signs, changes in direction of road, three legged intersection
and various other things.
2. Factors connected with traffic Other vehicles, cycles, pedestrians.
3. Factors related indirectly to the vehicle motion Building and structures that
strike the eye, vegetation, landscape, etc.

So using the laws of visual perception certain measures have been suggested:

1. Contrast in visibility of the road should be achieved by provision of elements

that differ from its surrounding by colors, pattern such as shoulder strips,
shoulder covered with grass, edge markings.
2. Providing road side vegetation is an effective means.
3. The visibility of crown of trees from a distant location is also very useful in visual
guiding.
 4. The provision of guard rails of different contrasting colors also takes drivers
attention and prevent from monotonous driving.

Figure 11 and 12 is a visual guidance measure. Planting trees along side of roadway
which has a turning angle attracts attention of the driver and signals that a turn is
present ahead.

Figure 11: Bifurcation of the highway

The figure below is another example, when the direction of road has a hazardous
at-grade intersection trees are planted in such a way that it seems that there is dense
forest ahead and driver automatically tends to stop or reduce the speed of the vehicle
so that no conflicts occur at that point.
Figure 12: Road seemed to be stopped by a dense forest

Driver tends to extrapolate the further direction of the road. So it is the responsibility
of the traffic engineer to make the driver psychologically confident while driving that
reduces the probability of error and prevent mental strain.

5.1.2 Road reconstruction

The number of vehicles on the road increases from year to year, which introduces
complications into organization of traffic, sharply reduces the operation and
transportation characteristic of roads and lead to the growth of accident rate. This
leads to the need of re constructing road. The places of accidents need to be properly
marked so that the reconstruction can be planned accordingly.
Figure 13: Diagram of accidents before and after reconstruction

The Figure 13 shows that there were too many conflict points before which reduced
to a few number after construction of islands at proper places. Reconstruction process
may also include construction of a new road next to the existing road, renewal of
pavement without changing the horizontal alignment or profile of the road,
reconstruction a particular section of road. Few more examples of reconstruction of
selected road section to improve traffic safety are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Road reconstruction technique

 The Figure 14 (a) shows separation of direction of main stream of traffic from the
secondary ones by shifting place of three-leg intersection, Figure 14(b) shows
separation of roads with construction of connection between them and Figure 14(c)
shows the construction of additional lane for turning vehicles. The plus sign indicates
the conflict points before the road reconstruction has been carried out. The after
reconstruction figure shows that just by little alteration of a section of road how the
conflict points have been resolved and smooth flow of the vehicles in an organized
manner have been obtained.

5.1.3 Channelization

The Channelization of traffic at intersection separates the traffic stream travelling in

different direction, providing them a separate lane that corresponds to their convenient
path and spreading as far as possible the points of conflict between crossing traffic
streams. The traffic lanes are separated by marking relevant lines or by constructing
slightly elevated islands as shown in Figure 15. Proper Channelization reduces
confusion. The number of decision required to be made by the driver at any time is
reduced allowing the driver time to make next decision. The principles of proper
channelized intersection are:-

1. The layout of intersection should be visibly clear, simple and understandable

by driver.
2. Should ensure superiority to the vehicles using road of higher class.
3. Layout of intersection makes it necessary for a driver running through it to
choose at each moment of time one of not more than two possible direction of
travel. This is achieved by visual guidance, islands and markings.
4. The island provided should separate high speed, through and turning traffic
flows.
5. The width of traffic lane should ensure unhampered turning to the big vehicles.
Width of straight section without kerb should be 3.5 m and that of traffic lane
near island is 4.5-5 m at entry and 6 m at exit.
6. Pedestrian crossing should be provided
Figure 15: Channelized Intersection ensuring safety

5.1.4 Road signs

Road signs are integral part of safety as they ensure safety of the driver himself
(warning signs) and safety of the other vehicles and pedestrians on road (regulatory
signs). Driver should be able to read the sign from a distance so that he has enough
time to understand and respond. It is essential that they are installed and have correct
shape, colour, size and location. It is required to maintain them as well, without
maintenance in sound condition just their installment would not be beneficial.
According to British investigation height of text in road sign should be

Where, N = No. of words on the sign, v = speed of vehicle (kmph), L = distance from
which inscription should be discernible (m)

5.1.5 Other methods

Various other methods of traffic accident mitigation are described below:

1. Street lighting
Street lightning of appropriate standard contributes to safety in urban area
 during night time due to poor visibility. Installation of good lighting results in 21%
reduction in all accidents, 29% reduction in “all casualty” accidents, 21%
reduction in “non pedestrian casualty” accidents, and 57% reduction in
“pedestrian casualty” accidents.
2. Improvement in skid resistance
If road is very smooth then skidding of the vehicles may occur or if the pavement
is wet then wet weather crashes occur which account about 20-30%. Thus it is
important to improve the skid resistance of the road. Various ways of increasing
the skid resistance of road are by constructing high-friction overlay or cutting of
grooves into the pavement.
3. Road markings
Road markings ensure proper guidance and control to the traffic on a highway.
They serve as supplementary function of road sign. They serve as
psychological barrier and delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance
from traffic hazards for the safe movement of traffic. Thus their purpose is to
provide smooth and safe traffic flow.
4. Guide posts with or without reflector
They are provided at the edge of the roadway to prevent the vehicles from being
off tracked from the roadway. Their provision is very essential in hilly road to
prevent the vehicle from sliding from top. Guide posts with reflector guide the
movement of vehicle during night.
5. Guard rail
Guard rail have similar function as of guide post. On high embankments, hilly
roads, road running parallel to the bank of river, shores of lake, near rock
protrusion, trees, bridge, abutments a collision with which is a great hazard for
a vehicle. It is required to retain the vehicle on the roadway which has
accidentally left the road because of fault or improper operation on the part of
the driver. Driver who has lost control create a major problem which can be
curbed by this measure.
6. Driver reviver stop
Driver reviver stop are generally in use in countries like U.S.A where driver can
stop and refresh himself with food, recreation and rest. They play a very
important part in traffic safety as they relieve the driver from the mental tension
 of constant driving. These stops are required to be provided after every 2 hour
travel time.
7. Constructing flyovers and bypass
In areas where local traffic is high bypasses are required to separate through
traffic from local traffic to decrease the accident rate. To minimize conflicts at
major intersections flyovers are required for better safety and less accident rate
8. Regular accident studies
Based on the previous records of accidents the preventive measures are taken
and after that the data related to accidents are again collected to check the
efficiency of the measures and for future implementation of further preventive
measures.

5.2 Safety measures related to enforcement

The various measures of enforcement that may be useful to prevent accidents at spots
prone to accidents are enumerated below. These rules are revised from time to time
to make them more comprehensive.

5.2.1 Speed control

Checks on spot speed of all vehicles should be done at different locations and timings
and legal actions on those who violate the speed limit should be taken

5.2.2 Training and supervision

The transport authorities should be strict while issuing licence to drivers of public
service vehicles and taxis. Driving licence of the driver may be renewed after specified
period, only after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is fit

5.2.3 Medical check

The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals of time

5.3 Safety measures related to education

The various measures of education that may be useful to prevent accidents are
enumerated below.
5.3.1 Education of road users

The passengers and pedestrians should be taught the rules of the road, correct
manner of crossing etc. by introducing necessary instruction in the schools for the
children and by the help of posters exhibiting the serious results due to carelessness
of road users.

5.3.2 Safety drive

Imposing traffic safety week when the road users are properly directed by the help of
traffic police as a means of training the public. Training courses and workshops should
be organized for drivers in different parts of the country.

5.4 Safety audit

It is the procedure of assessment of the safety measures employed for the road. It has
the advantages like proper planning and decision from beforehand ensures
minimization of future accidents, the long term cost associated with planning is also
reduced and enables all kinds of users to perceive clearly how to use it safely. Safety
audit takes place in five stages as suggested by Wrisberg and Nilsson, 1996. Five
Stages of Safety Audit are:

1. Feasibility Stage - The starting point for the design is determined such as
number and type of intersection, relationship of the new scheme to the existing
road, the relevant design standards.
2. Draft Stage - In this stage horizontal and vertical alignment, junction layout are
determined. After the completion of this stage decision about land acquisition
is taken.
3. Detailed design stage - Signing, marking, lighting, other roadside equipment
and landscaping are determined.
4. Pre-opening stage - Before opening a new or modified road should be driven,
walked or cycled. It should be done at different condition like bad weather,
darkness.
5. Monitoring of the road in use - Assessment is done at the final stage after the
road has been in operation for few months to determine whether the utilization
 is obtained as intended and whether any adjustment to the design are required
in the light of the actual behavior of road users.

An example of safety audit is discussed below.

5.4.1 Road reconstruction safety audit

To estimate the effectiveness of improvement of dangerous section the number of

accidents before and after is compared. To do this Chi Square test is used to check
whether the experimental data meet the allowable deviation from the theoretical
analysis. In the simplest case one group of data before and after road reconstruction
is considered.

(22)

where, t1 and t2 = period of time before and after reconstruction of a stretch of road for
which statistical data of accident is available, n1 and n2 = corresponding numbers of
accident, Xnorm2 = minimum values of Chi Square at which probability of deviation of
laws of accident occurrence after reconstruction P from the laws existing before
reconstruction does not exceed permissible values (usually 5%) The relationship
between P and Xnorm2 is shown in Table. 2.

Table 2: Relationship between P and Xnorm2

P 10 8 5 3 2 1 0.1

Xnorm2 1.71 2 2.7 3.6 4.25 5.41 9.6

5.4.2 Numerical example

Before reconstruction of an at-grade intersection, there were 20 accidents during 5

years. After reconstruction there were 4 accidents during 2 years. Determine the
effectiveness of the reconstruction.

Solution: Using Chi square test, we have (with P = 5 %)

Thus the statistical data available are not yet sufficient for considering with probability
of 95 % that the relative reduction in number of accident is due to intersection
reconstruction. Assuming one more accident occurs next year.

Therefore additional analysis confirms that the reduction in accident is due to road
reconstruction.
6 Conclusion

This chapter provides an important subject of highway safety and accident studies.
Everything a traffic engineer does, from field studies, planning and design; to control
operation is related to the provision of the safety system for vehicular travel. This
chapter gives an insight of how the analysis of traffic accident can be done from the
viewpoint to reduce it by designing proper safety measure.