SS121 ETHICS

LESSON 4

Ethical Theories and Principles

Key Concepts
4.1 Virtue Ethics
4.2 Natural Law Theory
4.3 Kantian Ethics
4.4 Utilitarianism
4.5 Justice and Fairness

FIRST SEMESTER 2022-2023

DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE

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Lesson 4: Ethical Theories and Principles
Learning Outcomes:
 Define the different ethical theories and principles
 Apply each principle in a given situation
 Evaluate the best moral framework that suits one’s personal experience

Activity:
Recall some of your views on the different ethical problems prevalent today. Fill in the table below
by marking (x) if you think it is always good, always bad, or it depends upon the situation.

ISSUE ALWAYS GOOD ALWAYS BAD DEPENDS

1.Abortion

2.Euthanasia

3.Teenage
Pregnancy
4. Cheating in the
online
examinations.
5. Divorce

6. Same-sex union

Analysis:
Having already recalled your personal views, review your stand on different ethical issues
prevalent today. How do you reflect to the following questions below? State your opinion in a short
and concise manner.
1. What is the basis of your opinion on a particular ethical issue? Is it rooted on your personal
idea or derived from an ethical framework?
2. Would it be possible to have a unified society despite believing in different ethical
frameworks? Why or why not?

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Abstraction:
Virtue Ethics
Main Proponent: Aristotle

 Aristotle lived and died around 384-322 B.C.E.

• Born in Stagira, Greece.
• His father was Nicomachus, a court physician during
the reign of King Amyntas III.
• Became tutor of Alexander the Great.
• Became student of Plato in Academy.
• Founded the Lyceum.

Moral Code:
“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”
“Act as a virtuous person would act in your situation.”

Virtue Ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of character
and virtue in living one’s life rather than in doing one’s duty or in acting to bring about good
consequences. In simple terms, it means striving to become the best version of yourself and it will
ensure that good things will naturally and effortlessly flow from you.

How does Virtue Ethics work?

It believes in the fixed nature of a thing, nature being the principle of operation. The only
way for a thing to flourish is to adhere to its nature, the way it is originally designed to function.
Hence, it posits the idea of proper functioning. Every creature has a designed function. If a thing
fulfills its function, it is good. If it doesn’t, it’s bad. Furthermore, being virtuous is not about God’s
plan, it is not concerned with the divine. Rather, it believes that our nature as a human being has
built into us the desire to be virtuous.

What does it mean to be virtuous?

For Aristotle, it means doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right
amount, toward the right people. This means that a virtuous person is someone who is able to
assess a situation first, before deciding what is the appropriate action to be done.

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What is Virtue?

In this theory, it highlights virtue as the Golden Mean or the midpoint between the Vices of
Deficiency and Excess. The right action is always the midpoint between two actions. Below are
examples of Virtues with its corresponding deficiency and excess.

Defect or too Virtues Excess or too

little (Golden much
Mean)
Impassivity Even temper Irascibility

Cowardice Bravery Foolhardiness

Disadvantage Justice Gain

Mock modesty Truthfulness Boastfulness

Churlishness Friendliness Flattery

Mean spirit Pride Vanity

Disdain Dignity Servility

Cowardice Courage Recklessness

A virtuous person, therefore, is someone who always seeks to identify the golden mean in
a particular situation, and strives to act in accordance with the golden mean.

How do you become virtuous?

Virtues are not acquired from books. It is a skill, a way if living, and that’s something that
can only be learned through experience. Virtue therefore is practical wisdom. A virtuous character
is developed through habituation- if you do a virtuous thing over and over again, eventually it
will become part of your character. You also need to find Moral Exemplars, people who already
possess virtue. They will serve as our guide as we strive to become virtuous.

Why do you need to become virtuous?

In Virtue Ethics, it is important to become virtuous in order to attain Eudaimonia. It is a

Greek word Aristotle referred to as happiness. In practical terms, eudaimonia is a pleasant
activity or excellent rational action where one judges his whole life as successful and is worth

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living. It is not an immediate result of a certain human action, but a conglomeration of human
virtuous acts so as to achieve a eudaemon life.

For Aristotle, therefore, morality is about striving to become the best version of ourselves
by honing our strengths and overcoming our weaknesses. It is an on-going process of always
seeking the golden mean, the virtue, in every situation and trying to emulate what a virtuous
person will do if put in a particular situation. Copying what a moral exemplar should do in a moral
situation might seem to be a bit inauthentic at first, but virtue ethics is about forming habits. By
repeatedly doing what is good, it naturally becomes part of our character and will lead us to
become a virtuous person.

Natural Law Theory

Main Proponent: St. Thomas Aquinas
 St. Thomas Aquinas was born on January 28, 1225
and died on March 7, 1274, aged 48-49.
• Born in Roccasecca, Italy.
• Known as a Doctor of the Church because of his
immense contribution to theology and the doctrine
of the Catholic Church
• His most important works are the Summa
Theologica where he expounded on the 5 proofs of
God’s existence and the Summa Contra Gentiles or
the “Book on the truth of the Catholic faith against
the errors of the unbelievers”.
•
Moral Code:
“God is good. He is the one who created you. Therefore, you are good. In order to
follow the Natural Law, it is important is that you don’t forget you are good.”

The Natural Law Theory is one of the theistic ethical frameworks that are prevalent in the
Catholic and Protestant traditions. Its main tenet is based on the belief of God. According to St.
Thomas Aquinas, God created the world according to natural laws. Natural laws are predictable,
goal-driven systems whereby life is sustained, and ensures that everything functions smoothly.

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If the Natural Law Theory is based on the belief of God, how will people know
it if they do not know or believe in God?

Thomas Aquinas argued that when God created us, He already designed us with the
capacity we need to know the good. It is based on the idea that God wants us to want things, things
that are good. Hence, we don’t need the bible, religious education, or the Church in order to know
the Natural Law. It is through our natural instinct and our rationality that we are able to identify
the natural law from the basic goods God designed us to want and seek. It is our instinct that shows
us the basic good, and our reason allows us to derive the natural law from them. The things that
we are designed to seek are called as the basic goods and there are 7 of them.

The Basic Goods

1. Life
2. Reproduction
3. Educate one’s offspring
However, because of the way God designed us, Aquinas classified goods that are exclusive
to humans.
4. Seek God
5. Live in society
6. Avoid offense
7. Shut ignorance
Every basic good also corresponds to a prohibition and a positive injunction, or a formal
command.

Example: I recognize the basic good of life, because of the reason that I value my own life. This is
evident due to the fact that my survival instinct helps me avoid danger and dangerous situations. As
a rational person, my reason allows me to see that the lives of others are as valuable as my life is
valuable.

Prohibition The Basic Positive Injunction

Good
Do not kill Life Promote life
Don’t prevent reproduction Reproduction Procreate

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If God created us men to seek the good, and he created us with the ability to
recognize and seek the good, then why do we violate the natural law?

According to Aquinas, there are two reasons why people despite having been designed to
seek what is good, violate the natural law.

1. Ignorance 2. Emotion

As humans, we seek things that Following the Aristotleian

seems to be good. However, tradition, Aquinas believes that
we might be wrong in men are both rational and
identifying these things as emotional creatures. Despite
good simply because we are having the natural capacity to use
ignorant. his reason, there are instances or
situations wherein his emotions
overpower his reason.

For Aquinas, therefore, morality is understood in terms of following the natural law. Right
or moral acts are simply those that acts are in accordance with the natural law.

Deontological/ Kantian Ethics

Main Proponent: Immanuel Kant

 Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724

and died on February 12, 1804, aged 79.
• Born in Konigsberg, East Prussia (present-day
Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia) in 1724.
• His works related to moral philosophy are the
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
(1785) and The Critique of Practical Reason
(1788).

Moral Code:
“In order to determine what is right, you have to use reason.”

Kant believed that morality and religion should be kept apart from each other. If religion is
the basis of morality, there would be disagreement since different religions teach and follow
different moral codes. For him, morality exists as something that is always constant, almost as in
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a mathematical sense. 1 plus 1 is 2, no matter what your religion is or even if you are an atheist.
Moral truths are something that is absolute, it exempts and excuses no one. For him, we are
obligated to follow the moral truths. Hence, it is our duty and its imperative for us to be moral, at
all times and in all circumstances.

What are the imperatives?

An imperative is something that is defined as duty that is essential and urgent. Kant
distinguished two kinds, hypothetical and categorical. Take a look at a brief comparison of both.
Hypothetical Imperatives Categorical Imperatives
 Commands that you must follow if you  Commands that you must follow
want something. These are things that regardless of your desires.
we ought to do for non-moral reasons.  Moral obligations are derived from
 These are based on our desire and is pure reason.
based on prudence.
 EXAMPLE: If you want money, you
ought to get a job.
 EXAMPLE: If you want to get good
grades in the exam, you ought to put in
effort in studying.

How do you know what is moral?

Categorical Imperatives
For Kant, moral commands are always categorical and not hypothetical. Categorical is all
about ought, that is to say, one ought to do the moral law without any conditions since it is simply
done out of duty.

First formulation of Categorical Imperative:

The Universalizability Principle “act only according to a maxim by which you can, at the same time
will, that it shall become a universal law”.
Key Terms:
Maxim- a rule or principle of action
Universal Law- something that must be done in similar situations.

Second formulation of Categorical Imperative:

The Formula of Humanity “act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”
Key Terms:

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 Mere means- to use something for your own benefit, without considering the benefit or
interests of the thing you are using.

From these two formulas, the two principles/determinants of Moral Imperative are derived as:

UNIVERSALIZABILITY – an act is considered morally good if a maxim or law can be universal. That
maxim or law is made not only for our selves but also for others as well to perform or to prohibit.
Kant uses the example of lie and promise to illustrate the point of contradiction under
universalizability.

PERSON – respect for person is the basic thing about how we treat people we encounter in our
daily living. For Kant, the act that is good happens only when we deal with other people not as
merely means. The respect for person as end and means, and never solely as means to serve one’s
end must be considered at all times. In our treatment of other person, we should always keep in
mind not to treat them as “mere means” due to the fact that each of us are self-governed. As
humans, we are free and therefore we can always choose and make decisions with our rational
will.

Utilitarianism
Main Proponent: Jeremy Bentham

 Jeremy Bentham was born on February 15, 1748 and

died on June 6, 1832, aged 84.
• Born in London, England.
• Founder of Utilitarianism.
• His famous works related to moral philosophy are:
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
and A Fragment on Government.

Moral Code:
“Seek pleasure and avoid pain.”
“We should act always so as to produce the greatest good for the greatest number.”

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical framework. It focuses on the results, or

consequences, of our actions, and treats intentions as irrelevant. Actions should be measured in
terms of the happiness, or pleasure, that they produce.
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How does Utilitarianism classify an action as moral or immoral?

1. The basis for treating an act as morally right or wrong is its consequence.
2. What matters in every action is the amount of pleasure it produces. If an act does not yield
pleasure, then it is morally wrong.
3. The happiness experienced by every person is counted the same.

Bentham uses the Hedonic Calculus, a method that can calculate or measure happiness and
pain. Accordingly, Bentham is a hedonist and he understands happiness as pleasure in which
pleasure’s partner is pain.

Now to measure happiness or pleasure, all we need to do is to count all the happiness or
pleasure that an act brings minus the amount of pain that an act will also bring. If the amount of
happiness or pleasure is greater than the pain, then the act is good.

Hedonic Calculus: Amount of Pleasure (–) Amount of pain = moral or immoral act

Considerations in assessing an act:

1. Happiness/pleasure should be more intense;

2. Happiness/pleasure should last longer;
3. Happiness/pleasure should be more certain to occur;
4. Happiness/pleasure should be happening sooner rather than later;
5. Happiness/pleasure will produce in turn many happiness and few pains;
6. In determining the amount of happiness/pleasure, one has to consider how many people
will be affected.

For Utilitarians, therefore, the better position would be when there are more people affected
positively, that is, greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and fewer affected
negatively.

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Justice as Fairness
Main Proponent: John Rawls

 John Rawls was born on February 21, 1921 and

died on November 24, 2022, aged 81.
• Born in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
• His works related to moral philosophy are A
Theory of Justice and Lectures on the History of
Moral Philosophy.

Moral Code:
“Each person possesses and inviolabilty founded on justice that even the welfare of
the state cannot override. Therefore, the rights secured by justice are not subject to
political bargaining or to the calculus of social interest.- John Rawls”

John Rawls is one of the foremost political philosophers of recent times. In his book A
Theory of Justice, he sought to answer one prevalent ethical problem and thus presented an ethical
framework centered on distributive justice. Distributive justice, or economic justice, is concerned
with giving all members of society a "fair share" of the benefits and resources available.

How can Rawls’ theory of justice be actualized?

Justice as Fairness

Original Position Veil of Ignorance

 Individuals agree on specific social  Individuals choose the basic structure

rules and institutions. of society that they thought is just.

 An individual sets aside his sex, race,  An individual who possess a

economic status. generalized point of view that
somewhat reflects a moral point of
view.

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  Parties do know
 Parties do not know
o The race, ethnicity, gender, age,
income, wealth, natural
endowments, comprehensive
doctrine, etc. of any of the
citizens in society, or to which
generation in the history of the
society these citizens belong;
o The political system of the
society, its class structure,
economic system, or level of
economic development.
o That citizens in the society have
different comprehensive
doctrines and plans of life; that
all citizens have interests in
more primary goods;
o That the society is under
conditions of moderate scarcity:
there is enough to go around,
but not enough for everyone to
get what they want;
o General facts and common
sense about human social life;
general conclusions of science
(including economics and
psychology) that are
uncontroversial.

Rawls theory of justice is somewhat moral contractarian in nature. It relies on the

individuals’ choice to freely agree and enter into contract with his fellowmen. In this sense, if
individuals who adopted the original position choose to promote equality, justice as fairness will
be achieved. If, however, they choose to uphold inequality, then injustice will prevail. Hence, if one
wants to accept a social order that is just, then they should see to it that the object of agreement is
fair, that is, that social order takes into account the interest of all members of such society equally.
This is the barometer of where justice as fairness prevails.

Two Basic Principles of Justice as Fairness

First Principle:

“Each person has the same indefeasible claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic
liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme of liberties for all;”

As a foundation of a just society, equal access to the basic human needs, rights, and
liberties must be given to every person. It is the right of each person to have the quality
and quantity of liberty that is same with the liberty of others.

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Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:

a. They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair
equality of opportunity;
b. They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society
(the difference principle) (JF, 42–43).

It emphasizes the idea that everyone must receive equal opportunity in

society, and of the equal distribution of socio-economic inequalities. Social and economic positions
must be for everyone’s advantage and is open to all.

Key Principles in understanding Rawls’ Theory of Justice

1. Life should not be sacrificed for the sake of majority.

This serves as a direct challenge against consequentialist ethics, particularly
utilitarianism.

2. Erroneous theory is tolerable in the absence of a good one

The second principle puts emphasis on the importance of law in the society. For
Rawls, an unjust law is better than no law at all. Hence, an act of injustice is tolerable if
and only if it is necessary to avoid greater act of injustice.

3. Individual liberties should be restricted in order to maintain equality of opportunity

Certain restrictions must be imposed through law to preserve freedom and
democracy.

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References:
Image of Aristotle
https://www.google.com/search?q=aristotle&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3hfjBxYf7AhXrkVYBHajPB4oQ_AUoAXoECAMQAw&biw=1366&bih=657&dpr
=1

Image of St. Thomas Aquinas

https://www.google.com/search?q=st+thomas+aquinas&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwidp4XDxYf7AhVXfN4KHS0nAa0Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=st+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMgoIABCxAxCDARBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMg
QIABBDMggIABCxAxCDATIICAAQgAQQsQMyCwgAEIAEELEDEIMBMgsIABCABBCxAxCDATIICAAQsQMQgwE6BwgAELEDEEM6BQgAEIAEUNAFWMYIYIsXaABwAHgAgAG9AogBrAaSAQcwLjIuMS4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3d
zLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=2DZeY53bH9f4-QatzoToCg&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=Q1Fzr0piJqBdPM

Image of Jeremy Bentham

https://www.google.com/search?q=jeremy+bentham&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiXn4eayYf7AhXyRvUHHZWDBLIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=jeremy+b&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgAMggIABCABBCxAzIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCA
BDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDoKCAAQsQMQgwEQQzoECAAQQzoHCAAQsQMQQzoICAAQsQMQgwE6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOgcIABCABBADUOsRWN0mYPE1aABwAHg
AgAHJAYgBugqSAQUwLjguMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=tDpeY5f1EvKN1e8PlYeSkAs&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=rDDpM_N5Rr_xxM

Image of Immanuel Kant

https://www.google.com/search?q=immanuel+kant&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZgrHLp4z7AhUYfd4KHX65BiQQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=683&bih=6
56&dpr=1#imgrc=9rWBLYJPCPP8JM

Image of John Rawls

https://www.google.com/search?q=john+rawls&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjU4774qIz7AhVF95QKHQQvARIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=john+rawls&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzILCAAQgAQQsQMQgwEyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgA
QyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQ6CAgAEIAEELEDOgQIABBDOgcIABCxAxBDOgoIABCxAxCDARBDUI0LWMYXYIYZaABwAHg AgAGtAogB_A-
SAQcwLjguMi4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=9rdgY9SQKcXu0wSE3oSQAQ&bih=656&biw=683#imgrc=Eyp45Ja0rBpQYM

Crash Course on Philosophy: Natural Law Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

Crash Course on Philosophy: Kantian Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw

Crash Course on Philosophy: Utilitarianism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI

Crash Course on Philosophy: Virtue Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

PHILO-notes: John Rawls’ Theory of Justice

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EM5G-cXH_9M

25+ Moral Dilemma Examples, Questions, and Scenarios

https://upjourney.com/moral-dilemma-examples-questions-and-scenarios

Maiese, Michelle,. Burgess, Heidi. Types of Justice. Retrieved.

https://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/types_of_justice#:~:text=This%20article%20points%20out%20that,All%
20four%20of%20these%20are

Wenar, Leif, "John Rawls", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/rawls/>.

Additional Reading Materials:

Bulaong, Oscar. Et al (2018). Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation. Rex Book Store, Inc., Manila. DNSC LIB

Maboloc, Christopher Ryan (2010). Ethics and Human Dignity. Rex Book Store, Inc., Quezon City. DNSC LIB

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Montemayor, Felix (1994). Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. National Book Store, Inc., Manila. DNSC LIB

Pasco, Marc Oliver & Suarez, V. Fullente & Rodriguez, Augustine Martin (2018). Ethics. C & E Publishing, INC., Quezon
City. (pp. 132-151) DNSC LIB

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Application:

The Whistleblower Dilemma

You encounter someone doing something wrong. Do you speak up? Do you report it? Do
you have the courage of your convictions?

Ethics is a class not just about theory, but also about concrete action.

Imagine you are doing very poorly in the class. Assume your teacher know cheating during
the final examination has taken place, but your teacher needs the support of a witness to make the
charge stick. If you have the courage to come forward and confirm the cheating by your
classmate/s you too know have cheated, your teacher will give you a “1.0” grade in the class – you
will have earned it with your actions.” Your teacher promises confidentiality, but you will almost
certainly be found out anyway as the one who spoke up. You will be ostracized and cast out by
your classmates as a whistleblower. Will you come forward and report, or will you just keep
quiet? Why? Choose one ethical framework (Virtue Ethics, Natural Law Theory, Kantian
Ethics, Utilitarianism, Justice as Fairness) to support your answer.

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