Unit: Concrete Design

Task: Concrete Industry (Task 02)

Student ID: 50664 ENR No. :

Candidate name: D.K.K Hewage

Date of submission: 2017.11.28

Concrete Design
Concrete Industry

Table of contents

 Methods of produce concrete

 Batching by volume
 Batching by weight
 Factors of considered in the reinforcement concrete
 Tension and compression of the structural elements
 Reinforcement arrangement
 Bar spacing
 Clear concrete cover to reinforcement
 Requirements of shear reinforcement
 Strength of steel
 Uses of plants and equipment for concreting
 Types of plants and equipments, and their operations and handling
 Uses of formwork and false work
 Formwork
 False work
 Basic principles of formwork
 Strength of formwork
 Durability of formwork
 Economy of formwork
 Health and safety
 For concreting
 Importance of health and safety
 Measuring of health and safety
 Risk assessment sheet
 References
Concrete Design
Concrete Industry

Introduction
Concrete is the most popular and most important in past and present construction industry. In this
assignment, discuss the concrete producing, uses of concrete plants and equipments, formwork and false work and
health and safety.
Concrete Design
Concrete Industry

 Methods of produce concrete.

Producing Concrete

Batching

Manual

By Volume By Weight Semi-automatic

Fully automatic

 By volume

Batching by volume means measuring volume each material of concrete [Cement, Fine aggregates
(sand), coarse aggregates (Metal)]. In this concrete generally made at the site.

 Method of concrete making

 Generally one bag of cement is used for each batching. By the way, sometimes cement is used by
using gauge box.(gauge box = one cement bag , i.e 35 liters)
 All fine and coarse aggregates are measured by above box.(ex: if 1:2:4 mix proposition, 1 part or
one cement bag, 2 parts of fine aggregates by using gauge box, 4 parts of coarse aggregates by
using gauge box)
 Water required to mixing per bag cement is 0.5 x 50 = 25kg or 25liters.
 Concrete is generally mixed by concrete mixer at the site.

Gauge Box Concrete Mixer

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Concrete Industry
 Transportation of concrete
 In this concrete can transport by using wheelbarrows or concrete buggy and it can‟t transport long
distance places. But concrete can transport some long distance by using retarders. By the way, it‟s
easier to concrete for near the site.
 Placing of concrete
 Pour the mixture in to formwork by using wheelbarrows, steel wok or concrete buggy with
supervision.
 Its same equipment for concrete transportation.
 Compacting, finishing and curing
 Concrete is compacting by using vibrators and using specifications.(vibrating time, etc)
 Concrete surface can change by given specifications and concrete is must be curing minimum 21
days without admixtures.
 It can be reduced by using admixtures.

Concrete placing

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Concrete Industry

 By weight

Weight batching is the correct and preferred method of measuring constituents of concrete. It‟s done
in very important modern concrete batching and mixing plants. It‟s also called ready-mix plants. This is most
useful for huge constructions.

Weight batching

Manual Semi-automatic Fully automatic

In manual batching weighting of
all concrete ingredients is done
manually. This system may be
used for small jobs.
In this system the aggregate bin gates
are opened by manually operated
switches and gates are closed
automatically when the material has
been delivered.
These systems have automatic
microprocessor controlled
batching arrangements. Not only
the aggregates are batched
correct proportion but also their
moisture content is automatically
determined and necessary
corrective action taken so that mix
has desired consistency. These
types of batching plant are mostly
suitable for large and very
important jobs like mass
concreting.

 Method of concrete making

 All materials mixing by plant mixer and while mixing, include the water automatically.
 It can arrange various mix propositions.

Control room of concrete plant

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Concrete Industry

Batching Plant
 Transportation of concrete
 Concrete can transport by using ready mix trucks, concrete pump cars with using admixtures by
using specifications.
 It can handle and planning to delays, early stiffening and drying out and segregation.

Ready Mix Truck

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Placing of concrete
 Pour the mixture into formwork by using wheelbarrows, concrete buggy or using transportation
equipment (ready-mix trucks, concrete pump cars) with supervision.
 Mainly used in transportation equipment for concreting.

Concrete Pump Car

 Compacting, finishing and curing

 All methods are same as batching by volume concrete.
 Especially in this method are used admixtures ever. Hence, it helps to reduce the time wastage for
reach the strength of concrete.

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Factors of considered in the reinforcement concrete
 Tension and compression of the structural elements

Tension is the most important factor in the reinforcement concrete. Tension

members are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile forces.

Compression members are structural elements that are pushed together or carry a
load, more technically they are subjected only to axial compressive force. That is, the loads are applied on the
longitudinal axis through the centroid of the member cross-section, and the load over the cross-sectional area
gives the stress on the compressed member, in buildings columns are almost always compression members as
are the top chord of trusses.

 Beams

A beam is a horizontal structural member that spans some open space and is
supported near the ends. Commonly beams are the also tension and compression member. When a beam has
weight placed on top of it, that weight causes the beam to deflect (bend). Small weight on stiff beams causes
almost no deflection, while large weight on flexible beams causes significant deflection. The deflection in the
beam causes two things to happen,

 The top surface of the beam is compressed and tries to get shorter
 The bottom surface is in tension and tries to get longer.

Beam alignment is balanced by due to tension. But sometimes can fail it.

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Columns

A column is a vertical structural member that vertical columns joined the

end of beams. Especially columns are compression member. Columns are helped to all loads distribute to the
earth. When column is highly compression, it can buckle or kneeling. Its start on surface cracking and it
principal stress in a compression member is therefore the normal stress,
F
σ=
A

The failure of a short compression member resulting from the compression axial force looks like,

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry

 Reinforcement arrangement
Reinforcements are the main item in structural elements. It‟s an important component
of reinforced concrete. It is usually formed from ridged carbon steel, the ridges give frictional adhesion to the
concrete. Rebar is used because although concrete is very strong in compression it is virtually without strength
in tension.

In past any material with sufficient tensile strength could conceivably be used to
reinforced concrete, steel is used in concrete as they have similar coefficients of thermal expansion. This means
that a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal stress as a result of different
expansions of the two interconnected materials due to temperature changes.

 Bar spacing
Bar spacing is most important thing in technically methods. It‟s much needed thing
and it‟s depends on given specifications. It‟s minimum spacing between bars in tension. The minimum
horizontal spacing between two parallel main bars shall be diameter of lager bar or maximum size of coarse
aggregate plus 5 mm.

 Concrete cover to reinforcement

Concrete cover in reinforced concrete is the least distance between the surface of embedded
reinforcement and the outlet surface of the concrete. It‟s required to protect the rebar against corrosion and to
provide resistance against fire. The thickness of cover depends on environmental conditions and type of
structural member. The concrete cover must have a minimum thickness for three main reasons given below.
 To protect the steel reinforcement bars (rebars) from environmental effect to prevent their corrosion.
 To provide thermal insulation, which protects are the reinforcement bars from fire.
 To give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to enable them to be stressed without slipping.

Country Concrete code Rage of concrete cover (mm)

UK BS: 8110 25 - 50
EU EN 1992 (EC2) Diameter + 10 - 55
USA ACI: 318 40 – 55
Australia AS: 3600 15 - 78

Other national concrete cover requirements

Commonly used concrete covers

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Concrete Industry
 Shear reinforcement requirement

Mainly, shear reinforcements are used in beams and it‟s used according to
BS 5400-4:1990.The reinforcement concrete beams show different behavior at the failure stage in shear
compare to the bending, which is considered to be unsafe mode of failure. The diagonal cracks that develop due
to excess shear force are considerable than flexural cracks. Beams steel stirrups, is shear reinforcement and it‟s
added to resist the portion of the shear force not resisted by the concrete. It‟s also called “shear stirrups”.

 Steel strength
Steel strength is important in reinforcements. It‟s called “tensile strength”. The tensile
strength of concrete mush lower than its compressive strength. Hence, concrete is subject to cracking when
subjected to tensile stresses. In structural uses, the cracking is restrained by using reinforcement, as shown in
below, to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values.

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Concrete Design
 Uses of plants and equipment for concreting
 Types of plants and equipments, and their operations and handling
Plants
Mixing Plants
1. Tilting mixer - these use a conical drum rotating on
a movable axis to mix small amounts of concrete on-
site. The materials are discharged from the tilting
drum once mixed. Hydraulic rams are used to
control the tilting action. Typical outputs are around
200 liters per batch
2. Non-tilting mixer - these are suitable for larger
outputs, usually of around 10 m³ per hour. A circular
drum has a side outlet for loading and an outlet on
the opposite side for discharging. A chute catches
the falling concrete from the top of the drum.
3. Reverse mixer - these are similar to non-tilting
drum mixer but rotate in one direction which mixes
the material and discharges in the opposite direction.
The concrete is retained until the drum is reversed
by the use of special baffles.
4. Paddle mixer - these use a stationary pan with
rotating paddles that may be either fixed or rotate
inside the pan. This provides for consistent mixes
and. so is suitable for high-grade concrete. The lack
of portability of this mixer means that it tends to be
used at a central mixing point or pre- casting
location.
Concrete Industry
Distribution Plants (Equipment)
1. Mono-rail - this consists of a power unit mounted
on a single rail, which can travel at around 90 m
min-1. The power unit is fitted with a side-tipping
skip with a capacity of around 300-500 liters.
Mono-rails are typically useful on congested sites
or in areas with poor ground conditions.
2. Hoists - this is a manually-operated tipping skip
which carries concrete vertically by a hoist mast
and discharges it at working level through
hoppers.
3. Pumps - it‟s can transport large volume of
concrete in a short time to the required location
on site. Pipe lines typically have a diameter of
110-150 mm and are capable of pumping for a
distance of 300m horizontally and 30 m
vertically. Pumps can be either trailer or lorry
mounted with extendable steel boom. The pump
woks hydraulically with a diesel-driven piston
that force concrete along the pipes.
4. Pacer units - concrete is fed into a hopper and
then into an airtight cylinder. The concrete is
driven along the pipeline by compressed air that
is admitted to the cylinder. Discharge at the
placing point is through a special discharge box
that incorporates a vent for the compressed air to
escape.
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Concrete Industry

Distribution Plants (Equipment)

5. Cableways - large civil engineering works can use cableways for constructing dams and other such structures.
Where the concrete has to be transported large distance over inaccessible ground. Mast can be mounted to
allow for fixed two-dimensional coverage or with pivots to cover segmental areas.
6. Conveyors - this is narrow continuous belt running over a series of rollers that carries a constant stream of
concrete. This allows for full coverage and has the advantage of being easily removed and repositioned for use
on large areas. Belts can travel at up to 150m min-1 which delivers between 50-100 m³ of concrete per hour
(depending on the belt width).
7. Tremie pipes, elephant trunking and chutes - these are non-mechanical pieces of plant that are frequently
used for placing concrete below ground level, such as in piling works, or for basement or diaphragm walls.
Tremie pipes are made of rigid metal or plastic tubes, at the head of which is a feed hopper. By contrast,
elephant trunking are more flexible PVC tubes, and chutes are open metal or plastic channels down which
concrete is poured to the placing point.
8. Shotcrete machine - Shotcrete machines are used for concrete spraying application at the construction sites.
These are usually employed wet and dry concrete spraying applications. Because of their compact designs,
these are useful at locations where space at premium. Lining of water tanks, swimming pools and backfilling
of tunnel construction are some applications where these shotcrete machines are used.

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Uses of formwork and false work
 Formwork

Formwork is the most important factor in steps of concreting. It‟s used for temporary
works. According to BS 6100-6.5: the section of the temporary used to give the required shape and to support
the fresh concrete. It consists of sheathing materials (ex: wood, plywood, metal sheets or plastic sheets) in direct
contact with the concrete, and joists or stringers that directly support the sheathing.

 False work

Briefly in concrete construction, false work is the temporary work for during the set of
concrete. According to BS 5975: any temporary structure used to a support a permanent structure while it is not
self-supporting. Some equipment items are used as both false work and formwork. In this chapter these have
been classified according to their main function. In any case, requirements and recommendations should be
applied according to the type of work to accomplish for each part of the equipment.

Formwork

False work

 Basic principles of formwork

 Strength of formwork

Strength of formwork is very important factor for during the concreting and durability
of formwork. It‟s depends on manufacturing of formworks and its uses. Strength of formwork must be have any
formworks when it using.

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Durability of formwork

Durability is another important factor in the cost management. It‟s directly affecting the construction. Low
durability is reducing the profit of construction project and high durability is increase the profit of construction
project. By the way, constructors are used various methods to protect durability of formwork. Some of they are
given below.

 Safety transportation.
 Safety storages.
 Formworks reuse by applying oils.
 Design formwork for minimum wastage.
 Use method statement for formwork
 Formwork use in onesly, after the work done, immediately removes the formwork.
 Economy of formwork

Formwork is the single largest cost component of a concrete building‟s structural

frame. The cost of formwork exceeds the cost of the concrete or steel, and in some situations, the
formwork costs more than the concrete and steel combined.

For some structures, placing priority on the formwork design for a project can reduce
the total frame costs by as much as 25 %. This saving includes both direct and indirect costs. Formwork
efficiencies accelerate the construction schedule, which can result in reduced interest costs during
construction and early occupancy for the structure. Other benefits of formwork efficiency include
increased jobsite productivity, improved safety, and reduced potential for errors.

In order to reduce the cost of formwork for concrete structures the following are to be
considered,

 Design the formwork to provide adequate but not excessive strength and rigidity.
 Fabricate the forms into modular sizes to provide more reuses without refabricating when
practical.
 Prepare working drawings prior to fabricating the forms.
 Prefabricate form sections on the ground rather than on scaffolding.
 Use the most economical formwork material considering the initial cost and reuses.
 Use no more nails than are needed to join the forms together safely.
 Remove the formwork as soon as it is permissible.
 Clean and oil forms by using releasing agent after each use.
 When it is permissible install construction joints to reduce the total quantity of form material
required and permit the carpenters to work more continuously.

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Concrete Design
Concrete Industry
 Health and safety
 For concreting

Concrete is the activity of the chemical reactions. Its have more harm full chemicals
for human body. In concreting, health and safety regulations must be considered as follows,

 Can be break down of the concreting.

 Formwork and false work can be not fixation.
 Slacking of the scaffoldings when during the concreting.
 Formworks can be slip using of the vibrator.
 Concrete can be dispersal to masons ryes uncertainly using of vibrator
 When concreting, use the safety boots, hand gloves and safety jackets.

 Importance of health and safety

Health and safety in construction is not a matter to be taken lightly. In fact, health and
safety need to be front of mind in every aspect of construction at all times. The construction industry is prone to
many hazards and accident potential. Construction materials, tools, machinery and handling techniques all some
of their own dangers. The main types of accidents which cause death or serious injury on construction sites
include fails, incidents with site vehicles, collapsing materials and contact with overhead power lines.
Most accidents can be avoided by implementing stringent health and safety protocols
and ensuring those protocols are constantly maintained. Health and safety methods will ensure the construction
site has good design, good planning and uses tried and tested safety techniques.
There is simply no excuse for slacking or cutting corners when it comes to health and
safety in construction. Poorly implements health and safety techniques, design and management can result in
accidents, illness and even death.

 Measuring of health and safety

The only measures used in workplaces and by government authorities are „negative‟
measures. These are known as outcome indicators, and while they are important, they generally reflect the
results of past actions.
Outcome indicators may hide potential risks. For example, having a low incidence of
injury does not necessarily mean that adequate safety systems and controls are in place. Examples of outcome
indicators are,
 Numbers of claims.
 Number of hours/days lost.
 Claims costs.

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Concrete Industry
These are not measures of the success or otherwise of controls in the workplace, but a
measure of failure. Mostly correct measuring method in, measurement of activities specifically undertaken to
improve performance, it‟s called „positive performance indicators‟ and its measuring methods as follows,
 Number of safety audits conducted.
 Percentage of sub-standard conditions identified and corrected.
 Percentage of employees with adequate health and safety training.
 Risk assessment sheet

Variation of risks
Items Risks
Low Medium High

Break down of the column concrete

Columns false works can be not fixation

Columns formworks can be not fixation

Columns

Slacking of the scaffoldings by halfway of

column concreting

Columns formworks can be slip using of the

concrete vibrator

Break down of the beams and slab concrete

Beams and slab false works can be not

fixation

Beams Beams and slab formworks can be not

& fixation
Slab
Concrete can be dispersal to masons eyes
uncertainly using of the concrete vibrator

Unawares vibrate the fairly hard concrete

thereby fail the construction

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 References
 http://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/top_nav/what_is_concrete/reinforcement.aspx - Reinforcement
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_cover - Concrete Cover
 http://apolloinffratechblog.apolloinffratech.com/types-of-concrete-construction-equipment/ - Concrete
Equipments
 https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Concreting_plant - concrete Plant
 http://www.mmp.ie/the-importance-of-health-and-safety-in-construction/ - Health and safety
 http://www.ohsrep.org.au/tool-kit/how-to/measure-health-and-safety-performance - Health and safety
 Formwork and false work for heavy construction - book of international federation for structural concrete(fib)

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