Advanced Civil Engineering Part 01

Advanced Civil Engineering Individual
Assignment 01 Assignment
Table of contents
Introduction
Task 01 Page No
 Importance of tunnel construction 01 - 02

 Importance of ground investigation and field, laboratory tests 02 - 14
 Drill and blast method in tunneling 15
 Drilling patterns 16 - 17
Task 02
 Tunneling method of proposed project 18 - 19
Task 03
 Different equipment for road and railway construction 20 - 25

 Typical cross section of an asphalt paved road 26
 Tests of fined an appropriate soil for sub base 27 - 36
 Field compaction of the compacted layers of the embankment 37 - 39
 CBR test 40 - 44
 The railway track construction procedure 45 - 49
 Testing method to check the abrasion resistance of coarse aggregates for road 50 - 51
 Testing methods to check the water absorption capacity of the sub soil for railway 52 - 56
 Health and safety risks for highway and railway construction 57
 Risk matrix 58
 Resource plan 59
Reference
Batch 02
Introduction
Tunnels are the most popular civil work in the present construction industry and
tunnels are unlike any other civil engineering structures. In buildings or bridges, the building materials have
defined and testable properties, whereas this is not the case in tunneling.
By the way, a tunnel structure often needs support systems made up of concrete and
steel, it is ground that is the major part of the structure and this can have both a supporting and a loading role.
Batch 02
Task 01
1.1
 Importance of tunnel construction

 Desk Study
Desk study is a very important stage of any site investigation, which if done well, can save
considerable time, and hence money, later on in the investigation process. The aim of the desk study exercise is to
assess the conceptual model developed for the tunnel scheme using all the available records of the area where the
proposed scheme is to take place. Desk studies cover all aspects of the site, including current usage, overlying and
adjacent structures, historical usage and geology.
It is important that the desk study highlights any issues that could affect the health and safety of
personnel during the subsequent site investigation and also the construction of the project. It should also provide
as much information as possible to aid the planning of the subsequent stages of the site investigation, which in the
case of tunneling projects is usually the location, depth, and type of boreholes.
In most countries, there are numerous sources of information available that can aid a desk study,
for example, geological memoirs, geological maps, old and new topographic maps and local councils. It also
important to use site investigation companies that are familiar with the local area, as previous experience can be
invaluable.
 Site reconnaissance.
Site reconnaissance (sometimes termed „walkover survey‟) is the first site specific work. With
tunneling projects it is rarely possible to walk along the entire length of the tunnel alignment, but this should be
attempted as it can provide excellent detailed site knowledge for future planning.
This is particularly important when planning any intrusive ground investigation and for the
location of shafts. The objectives of a site reconnaissance include but are not limited to (after Allen 2006),
 Location/confirmation of buried services.

 Assessment of structures, particularly historic structures likely to be affected by the tunneling works.
 Identification of access restrictions.
 Identification of any evidence of existing geology. (e.g. – exposed cut faces)
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 Identification of any evidence of existing structural or geotechnical problems, cracks and settlements
of structures.
 Identification of ant new construction works. ( not shown on current maps )
 Identification of any unexpected hazards.
It is important to record site details via photographs, sketches and notes. The information is
checked against the desk study findings and further desk studies and/or further site visits undertaken as
appropriate. As with the desk study stage is relatively low cost compared to the later stages of a site investigation
and can produce valuable qualitative information. (Allen 2006)
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1.2
 Importance of ground investigation
The ground investigation element of the site investigation should be planned based on the findings
of the desk study and the site reconnaissance. The ground investigation should give information about the
stratigraphy of the ground. This is the genesis of the underground strata, i.e. the layering and the types of layers. It
is important to conduct description and classification and testing, to determine information on the properties and
parameters of the ground.
 Tests for ground investigation
Tests for ground

investigation
Field tests Laboratory tests

 Cone penetration test  Uniaxial test
 Dilatometer/pressuremeter  Plasticity limit test
 Double load plate test  Triaxial test
 Field tests
 Cone penetration test
The cone penetration test (CPT) is used in soft ground and consists of pushing a cone
(penetrometer tip) attached to the base of a series of rods into the ground. As pushed into the ground (at a constant
rate of 20 mm/s), cone tip resistance, qc, and the sleeve friction, fs, are recorded by the penetrometer tip.
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Test arrangement,
Example of an electric penetrometer cone,
The cone angle on the penetrometer tip is 60 and the cross-sectional area is 1000 mm2. There are
different types of equipment available on the market to conduct this test, but the most common involves a 20-
tonne truck, to push the penetrometer tip into the ground.
A typical plot from a CPT is given below,
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The fraction ratio, Rf is the ratio of the sleeve friction divided by the cone tip resistance, i.e.
Rf = fs / qc. The zone above the typical plot where the fs and qc values are higher indicate stiffer ground.
It has been found that by plotting the values of qc against Rf an approximate description of
the soil type can be obtained and it graph is given below,
Other relationships have been developed over the years between qc and a number of other
parameters, e.g. - undrained shear strength, and angle of shearing resistance, but local experience and correlation
with laboratory tests is essential. There are also penetrometer tips with pore water pressure measurement
(piezocone) and geophysical testing (seismic cone and resistivity cone).
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 Dilatometer/pressuremeter
A dilatometer (or a pressuremete, the terms seem interchangeable for rock testing) is a
borehole deformation device. It is used as a rock/soil loading test in boreholes with a defined diameter. The aim
of the dilatometer test is to determine the deformation modulus of the ground and horizontal stress. Some
definitions of modulus values graph given below,
The dilatometer consists of a cylindrical pressure cell containing strain arms within a cylindrical
rubber membrane, which is pressed hydraulically against the borehole wall.
The borehole walls are loaded and then unloaded (cyclically) causing the borehole walls to
deform (measured by the strain arms), thus allowing an estimate to be made of the deformation modulus of the
material for an associated change in radii. By conducting the test in different directions within the ground, it is
possible to determine the deformation modulus in different directions and hence obtain information on anisotropy
within the ground.
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As with all in situ experiments the validity of the results are potentially limited because only small
areas/sections of the ground are tested. Problems in validation can occur if the ground has many fractures, the
borehole wall is not even or when the borehole is not stable and rock is collapsing into the bore.
In these cases, it is necessary to secure the sides of the boreholes or smooth out contours to allow
the experiment to be conducted. This is usually done with concrete or cement slurry resulting in an improvement
of the ground at the borehole but can lead to possible false results for the test.
In soft ground (soils and weak rock), there are three types of pressuremeters available.
1. A pre-bored pressuremeter( dilatometer type or mènard type - mènard invented the original pressuremeter)
2. A self-boring pressuremeter
3. Push-in pressuremeter.
The pre-bored pressuremeters, typically I m long and 74 mm diameter, are lowered into a slightly
oversized pre-bored hole. As the name implies, the self-boring pressuremeter bores itself into the ground,
replacing the soil, and can operate up to pressures of approximately 4.5 MN/m2. This pressuremeter is particularly
useful for measuring horizontal stress. Push-in pressuremeter is usually 50 mm in diameter and displace the soil,
but have a pressure capacity of only half that of the self-boring pressuremeters.
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 Double load plate test
This test with the double load plate test, load plates are pressed against the rock using a
hydraulic jack.
At the load plates the deformation of the ground is measured and is used to determine the
deformation characteristics, and hence elasticity (Young‟s modulus, E). The double load plate experiment is
normally performed in test or trial tunnels where it is possible to use the opposite wall, or the crown or invert, as a
reaction. This equation is based on Hooke‟s law, can be used to determine deformation modulus Ed,
Where μ is Poisson‟s ratio, μ is a constant for the type of load plate, flexible or rigid, r is the
radius of the load plate, ∆σm is the difference between two load stages of the average normal stress on the plates,
∆sZ,R is the difference between two load stages of the average settlements of the centre and edge of the plate.
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 Laboratory tests
 Uniaxial test
This is a standard experiment for rock cores in order to obtain failure parameters (unconfined
compressive strength UCS, σu, εu), E and μ. For the uniaxial test the core sample is loaded in one direction.
Laboratory samples are made up of cylindrical shaped cores with diameter of at least 90 - 100 mm. During the
test, load is applied to the end of the sample given below,
Some considerations for sample preparation given below,
 The ends surface must be flat and even

 The ends must be parallel and at right angles to the sample axis in order to avoid bending stresses being
included in to the sample (which will give a reduced value of strength)
 During the test, friction is generated between the end surfaces of the sample and the end loading plates. This
has the potential for increasing the failure load of the sample as it restricts the sample expansion. This is
negligible if the height (h) to diameter (d) ratio is greater than or equal to 2(h/d ≥ 2), for example if there is
not enough intact material in the core sample, then equation can be used to adjust the stress, σu,adj ,
Care should be taken as the failure load can be reduced by up to 11% between stumpy and
slender samples.
The rate of loading is also important. However, as the load increment is dependent on the
deformation of the material, there are no set values. The strain calculated from the displacement measuring
transducer attached to the test rig should increase at a rate of, = 0.05% min, with the expectation that the test
should last at least 5 minutes. This is the general guideline for a material that does not deform much. If a more
ductile material is being tested and large strains are expected, the rate can be a lot higher, for example, rock salt εu
≈ 10%, therefore the rate is increased to 0.25 % /min.
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In comparison, for concrete εu ≈ 6 to 8%, i.e. approximately 10 times smaller than for soft rock
and for granite εu ≈ 3 to 4%. Experiments in which either the strain or stress are regulated are called in
unavoidable that the sample is completely destroyed at εu and so there is no information on the after failure strain
response. However, the demands put on the testing machine, i.e. the control techniques, are less than those for a
stress-controlled test.
One of the most important material parameters is obtained from Hooke‟s law, which is the
ratio of stress over strain (where E is the elastic modulus in the equation given below),
The required values are taken from the stress/strain graph. It depends on the section of the
curve investigated. This graph is given below,
As a rule, to determine the value of E from the results of laboratory experiments look at σ - ε
graph where the sample behaves elastically and also where it is linear, i.e. where E is constant (above equation
assumes linearity).
When doing an analysis on hard rock, the most reliable results are obtained using a reloading
modulus should be used and add the initial load should not exceed 60% of the failure load as this avoids local
overstressing because of inhomogeneities and microcracks within the sample. This means that E can be
determined from the intact sample.
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The value of E is often dependent on the stress situation; generally the higher the isotropic stress,
the higher E. It is, therefore, worth noting that in the case of the actual ground, there is a possibility that E will
change with depth and as a consequence the value of E at the crown and invert of the tunnel could be different.
The value of E in rock can well exceed 100,000 MN/m2 (this is an order of magnitude greater
than the value of concrete). This means that E of the ground cannot be higher than that of the rock/soil itself and
in reality, on average, the value of the ground is 10 to 20 times less. The value of E for the ground is, therefore, an
estimate and so it is always advisable to plan and do calculations based on a range of values. The value of
Poisson‟s ratio μ is important for structural analysis as this provides the ratio of horizontal strain to vertical strain
and the equation given below,
It is determined at the same location on the stress/strain graph as E. the Poisson‟s ratio, μ has
values of 0 to 0.5. A material with μ = 0.5 maintains volume under load. It should be noted that in German
literature, for example, Poisson‟s ratio has an inverse definition, i.e. it is between 2 and infinity.
The modulus ratio can be a useful parameter and is defined as E/UCS and is approximately 300
for must rocks; ˃ 500 for some strong rocks and stiff limestones; ˂ 100 for deformable rock, clays, and some
shales.
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 Plasticity limit test
Plasticity test is important to determine the water content, the particle size distribution, the
mineralogy of clay soils, and the percentage of air voids associated with the material. Indication of the particle
size ranges associated with various soil components given below,
For soils containing clay-sized particles, plasticity information is particularly useful to gauge
its behavior, for example atterberg limits (liquid limit (wL) and plastic limit (wP), and plasticity indices [plasticity
index (lP = wL - wP) and liquidity index (lL = (w - lP)/ (wL - wP) where w is the water content]. A plasticity chart
showing the A-line i.e. the distinction between soils with predominantly clay-sized particles (above the A-line)
and those with predominantly silt-sized particles (below the A-line). A chart is given below,
For example, a high plasticity clay, i.e. one with high lP and wL values, can be susceptible to
large swelling and shrinkage behavior when subjected to small changes in water content.
From the atterburg limits and the water content, w of the soil, the consistency index, l C can be
determined as shown equation given below,
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Consistency index is a useful way of estimating the state or condition of silts and clays. Some of
consistency index values are given below,
Furthermore, it is important to determine the time-dependent behavior of the materials in the long-
term. For example, for fine-grained soils, it is useful to do oedometer (one-dimensional consolidation) tests as this
can give information on the characteristics of how it will deform with time and also its permeability can be
estimated.
 Triaxial test
The difference between the triaxial and uniaxial test is the application of pressure to the
circumference of the sample as well as vertically along the sample axis. Sample and failure mode given below,
It can be considered that the uniaxial test us one in which σ2 = σ3 = 0, i.e. a special case of the
triaxial test. Therefore, the experimental procedures are similar and so is the analysis. The sample size
requirements, i.e. the h/d ratio, and the need for parallel end platens to be at right angles to the sample axis are
exactly the same. In addition, these tests can be conducted under both stress and strain control. The only difference
is that in a strain controlled triaxial test the axial and radial strains are increased equally until the axial strain has
reached the desired value. In the stress-controlled test the radial stress is kept constant while the axial stress is
increased (it should be noted that in an indirect tension test, the radial stress is increased and the axial pressure is
kept constant).
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Triaxial tests are usually done when there is an interest in the shear strength parameters from which
one can estimate the stand-up time for the ground. Which is particularly important for weaker materials such as
soils.
The stand-up time allows an understanding to be obtained of the time that an open void can stand on
its own without any support. Another reason to obtain the shear strength parameters of the material is to gain an
idea of the deformation characteristics of the sample, i.e. deformations in the tunnel that are independent of E.
deformations that are dependent on E are elastic deformations, however, in addition to these deformations, there
are plastic deformations, which are dependent on the apparent cohesion and internal friction angel of the material.
These can get much larger than the elastic deformations. Plastic deformations in rock can develop because of
crevassed and softening zones. The apparent cohesion, c, and internal friction angle, ϕ, give indications of how
strong the matrix structure of the whole ground is when disturbed.
The triaxial compression test can determine E and the compression stability of the soil and rock, and
they can be described in the same way as the uniaxial test. It should be noted that in the σ - ε plot, the stress
difference, σ1 - σ3, should be plotted on the y-axis and it diagram given below,
The results of three triaxial tests on the same material at different confining stress, σ3(σ1= σ3 + the
additional vertically applied stress during the test, and σ2 = σ3) on a τ - σ diagram (shear stress versus direct stress)
given below,
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1.3
 Drill and blast method in tunneling

The typical cycle of excavation by blasting performed in following steps,
 Drill blast holes and loading with them explosives.
Types of explosives,
 Dynamite and gelatins

 Aniitti
 Original ANFO
 Reduced ANFO
 Heavy ANFO
 Slurries
 Emulsion explosives
 Detonating the blast, followed by ventilation to remove blast fumes.
 Removal of the blasted rock (mucking).
 Scaling crown and walls to remove loosened pieces of rock.
 Installing initial ground support.
 Advancing rail, ventilation, and utilities.
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1.4
 Drilling patterns
The drilling patterns ensure the distribution of the explosive in the rock and desired blasting
result. Several factors must be taken into account when designing the drilling pattern,
 Rock dill ability

 Blast ability
 The type of explosives
 Blast vibration restrictions
 Accuracy requirements of the blasted wall
There are have many types of drilling patterns. Two types of drilling patterns given below,
1. Wedge cut pattern

2. Parallel drill hole cut
1. Wedge cut pattern

This angular cut a wedge is detonated out the centre of the face and after that the remaining part
of the advance length is detonated. The wedge can be positioned vertically or horizontally (or at an angle
depending on the layering of the ground) as a single or staged wedge and wedge cut shown as given below,
The cross sectional area is 92 m2 and the diameter of the drill holes is 51 mm. the numbers next
to the drill holes show the detonation sequence.
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It timed detonators are used, the charges detonate in a space of 20 to 30 milliseconds

(millisecond effect). This short time sequence is sufficient in order to create free surfaces for the consecutive
charges starting from the wedge and to achieve an advantageous blasting effect. As the drill holes are not allowed
to run into each other, very precise drilling is required. In tunneling, the detonation charges are generally ignited
at the tip of the drill hole furthest away from the face. This results in the greatest detonation power.
The detonated ground can be thrown over significant distances, hence a minimum safety
distance of 200 to 300 m from the face should be maintained. In order to avoid large pieces of rock being
scattered too far, a crushing drill hole, i.e. a drill hole with no explosive, can be placed in the middle of the
wedge.
2. Parallel drill hole cut

The characteristics for this cut is that the drill holes are the same length and obviously parallel to
each other. The positioning and the distance of the drill holes in the middle are important for a successful
detonation result. They should be arranged symmetrically and mirrored and, depending on the type of explosive and
ground, not lie further apart than approximately 30 to 50 cm. The parallel drill hole method is applicable for ground
conditions of lower hardness and toughness.
Due to significantly simplified drilling works, parallel cut arrangements are often used in
tunneling. The drill holes can be drilled from one position using the drill carriage and are the same length for most
parallel cut arrangements. There is no interference between the drill hammers for a multi-armed drill carriage due
to angling. However, it is important that the drill holes are exactly parallel in order to ensure the success of the
explosion. The drill carriages have to be constructed so that the drill hammers can be positioned quickly and
reliably in parallel. The blasting effect for the parallel drill hole method relies mainly on a crushing effect.
Therefore there are higher requirements for the blasting material, smaller pieces of rock are produced and the
debris is thrown greater distances.
The last two points can be influenced by a suitable choice of millisecond detonators, and in
particular by omitting individual time steps. In order to achieve an economic detonation effect when using a
parallel cut, it is necessary to use milliseconds or half-second detonators and the detonation should start from the
deepest end of the drill hole. With small cross sections, there is usually no other choice than a parallel cut pattern
accompanied by unloaded drill holes, as “Burn cut”.
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Task 02
 Tunneling method of proposed project

Method - normal excavation method by using excavators (open cut method)
Follow as below sketch,
Assumes,
- If can cross, only start and end in the tunnel.
- Construction material - concrete (RCC) Center line of the road
4.5 km 1.5 km
Stage 01
Stage 02
1.5 km
Ends of the road
Stage 03
1.5 km
PLAN
In this construction, can‟t use the drill and blast method. Hence, there are no hard rocks and
haven‟t any space for it and the other side, Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) can‟t use to this construction. Hence,
there is no any space for set up the machine and its cost is higher than suggestion method. The open cut method is
simple and only one way to construct this tunnel.
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By the way, the open cut method is the most suitable and most commonly used method in
proposed tunnel construction.
 Firstly, allocate the required space of the proposed tunnel construction. (Setting out)
 Next, clean the surfaces of stages. (Cut trees, center pavement and etc.)
 Then, excavate and arrange the necessary dimensions of stage 01 by using excavators, pickaxe, hoe, and
specifications. (Choose suitable traffic control methods like as optional roads or any method)
 After that, prepare the stage 01 bed surface to the screed by using specification.
 Concrete the bed and after the couple hours curing the concrete by using specification.
 Next, arrange the reinforcements of stage 01 by using drawings and after that arrange the formworks and
check all reinforcements and formworks with quality control officers, supervisors or technical officers.
 Then, concrete the structure of the formwork by using specification.
 After that, check the quality of the concrete works with technical officers.
 As mentioned above, complete stage 01, 02 and 03 by using specification.
Batch 02 19
Task 03
a)
 Different equipment for road and railway construction
Construction equipments
Road construction equipments Railway construction equipments
 Motor grader  Tamping machine

 Asphalt paver  Ballast clearing machine
 Chip spreader  Concrete sleeper layer
 Bitumen spreader  Rail shifting machine
 Scraper  Rail-road excavator
 Road roller  Highway drainage machine
Road construction equipments
 Motor grader
Motor graders are typically used in construction and maintenance of dirt and gravel roads. When
constructing saved roads the graders are used to create an even flat surface to lay the asphalt on. They are also
used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grades prior to construction. In present, various type and sizes of
motor graders are available and used for various road construction jobs.
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 Asphalt paver
A paver is a piece of construction equipment used to lay asphalt on roads, bridges, parking lots and
such other places. It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor compaction before it is compacting by a roller.
 Chip spreader
Chipping spreader is used for spreading chippings in the process of constructing a road. It is used for
spreading chips as underlying seal coat of higher-graded road construction, especially for large-scale continuous
road construction work.
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 Bitumen spreader
Bitumen spreader is the most complicated equipment in the road construction. Some of the spreaders
have bitumen and asphalt or both. This is used for laying bitumen neatly and low thick.
 Scraper
A scraper is commonly used in road construction, subdivision development, and mining.
Suitable for,
1. Excavation in large quantities
2. Spread material over a large area
3. Economical for hauling distance between 100m to 3km
4. Commonly used are self propelled motor scraper and elevating scrapers
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 Road roller
A road roller is a compactor type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or
asphalt in the road constructions and foundations.
Railway construction equipments
 Tamping machine
A tamping machine or ballast tamper is a machine used to pack the track ballast under railway tracks
to make the tracks more durable. Prior to the introduction of mechanical tampers, this task was done by manual
labour with help of beaters. As well as being faster, more accurate, more efficient and less labour-intensive,
tamping machines are essential for the use of concrete sleepers since they are too heavy (usually over 250 kg) to
be lifted by hand. Always this machine used by makes railway tracks.
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 Ballast clearing machine

This is also known as undercutter a machine that specializes in cleaning the railway track ballast
(gravel, blue stone or other aggregate) of impurities. Ballast cleaning removes that worn ballast, screens it and
replaces the „dirty‟ won ballast with fresh ballast. The advantage of ballast cleaning is that it can be done by an
on-track machine without removing the rail and sleepers, and it is therefore cheaper than a total excavation.
 Concrete sleeper layer

Concrete sleeper layer or runner and rail positioning machine is used for,
 Spacing order and positioning according to the axis of the existent track of the frame bearing track.
 Runner laying on the rails
 Separation and alignment of the new rails (operation which can be led at the same at the time that the
pervious operation is being led)
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 Rail shifting machine

This is having an auto motor engine with the hydraulic control which fastly aligns the track and with
precision without changing the ballast bed. With workability it required only one operator. It can work during
short traffic breaks because it is easy to be put on and out of the track and it is also easy to turn quickly upside
down.
 Rail-road excavator
These machines are designed to handle rails and sleepers. With suitable accessories they can shift
ballast, earth or other materials, clear ditches, remove undergrowth, carry out demolition, etc.
 Highway drainage machine

This is self-propelled machine which, fixes the earthwork, under the track, of the elements which cause
the depreciation of the capping layer and accurate, without raising the track,
 Materials which will restore this capping layer

 Anti-contaminant textile mat
 Sand and gravel compacted
 Possibility a gravel cement mixture, before the reconstitution of the ballasted layer.
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b)
 Typical cross section of an asphalt paved road
Cross section,
Typical layer thickness,

Typical layer characteristics,
Batch 02 26
c)
 Tests of fined an appropriate soil for sub base
Soil types
Very coarse Coarse soil Fine soil Organic soil

 Boulders  Peats
Gravels Sand Clay Slits
 Cobbles  Organic clay, slit
 Coarse  Coarse  Coarse
or sand
 Medium  Medium  Medium
 Fine  Fine  Fine
Very coarse
 Boulders
 Particle sizes: Anything above 200 mm.
 Particle shape: Angular, sub-angular, rounded, flat, elongated.
 Texture: Smooth, or polished.
 Compactness: Loose
 Strength field test: By inspection of voids and particle packing.
 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.
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 Cobbles
 Particle sizes: 60 - 200 mm.
 Compactness: Dense.
 Strength field test: By inspection of voids and particle packing.
Coarse soil
 Gravels
 Coarse gravels
 Particle sizes: 20 - 60 mm. easily visible to the naked eye meaning that grading can be
described. Well graded means there is a wide range of grain sizes; poorly graded means
there is a limited range.
 Composite soil types: Clay or slit content of under 5%. Classified as „slightly clayey‟ or
„slightly slity‟.
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 Medium gravels
 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.
 Compactness: Loose.
 Composite soil types: Clay or slit content of 5 - 15 %. Classified as „clayey‟ or „slity‟.
 Strength field test: Can be excavated with a spade; 50 mm wooden peg can be easily
driven.
 Fine gravels
 Compactness: Dense.
 Composite soil types: Clay or slit content of 15 - 35 %. Classified as „very clayey‟ or
„very slity‟.
 Strength field test: Excavation requires a pick; 50 mm wooden peg is difficult to drive.
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 Sand
 Coarse sands
 Particle sizes: 0.6 - 2 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no
cohesion. Grading can be described.
 Compactness: Slightly cemented.
 Composite soil types: Classified as „ sandy gravel‟ or „gravelly sand‟. Clayey composites
are described as plastic or cohesive. Silty composites are described as non-plastic or of
low plasticity.
 Strength field test: Visual examination; pick removes soil in lumps.
 Medium sands
 Particle sizes: 0.2 - 0.6 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no
 Composite soil types: Classified as „sandy gravel‟ or „gravelly sand‟. Clayey composites
low plasticity.
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 Fine sands
 Particle sizes: 0.06 - 0.2 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no
 Composite soil types: Classified as „sandy gravel‟ or „gravelly sand‟. Clayey composites
low plasticity.
Fine soil
 Clays
 Particle sizes: 0.02 - 0.06 mm. Barely visible to the naked eye.
 Particle nature: Intermediate plasticity through to high plasticity.
 Compactness: Soft.
 Strength field test: Soft (moulded by light finger pressure), firm (moulded by strong finger
pressure), stiff (can be indented by thumb), very stiff (can be indented by thumb nail).
 Structure: Fissured, intact, homogeneous, inter-stratified, or weathered.
 Dry limps can be broken but not powdered between fingers; smooth to the touch; shrinks
on drying which usually leaves cracks.
Batch 02 31
 Slits
 Coarse slits
 Particle sizes: 0.02 - 0.06 mm. Barely visible to the naked eye.
 Particle nature: Non-plastic or of low plasticity.
 Compactness: Soft or loose.
 Strength field test: Easily moulded or powdered between fingers.
 Medium slits
 Particle sizes: 0.006 - 0.02mm. Not visible to the naked eye.
 Compactness: Firm or dense.
 Strength field test: Can be moulded or powdered between fingers with strong pressure.
 Fine slits
 Particle sizes: 0.002 - 0.006 mm. Not visible to the naked eye.
 Compactness: Very soft
 Composite soil types: Sand or gravel content of 35 - 65 %. Classified as „sandy‟ or
„gravelly‟.
 Strength field test: Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand.
Batch 02 32
Organic soil
 Peats
 Particle sizes: Varies.

 Visual identification: Predominantly plant material which remains dark brown or black,
usually with a distinctive smell and low-bilk density.
 Compactness: Spongy, plastic.
 Strength field test: Very compressible and open structure; can be moulded by hand.
 Structure: Fibrous (plant remains recognizable and retains some strength); amorphous
(recognizable plant absent).
 Organic clay, slit or sand
 Particle sizes: Varies.
 Visual identification: Contains substantial amounts of organic vegetable matter.
 Composite soil types: Sand or gravel content of 35 - 65 %. Classified as „sandy‟ or
„gravelly‟.
 Compactness: Firm.
 Strength field test: Fibres already compressed together.
 Structure: Fibrous (plant remains recognizable and retains some strength); amorphous
(recognizable plant absent).
Batch 02 33
Types of tests
Plasticity test Thumb penetration test
Plasticity test
Consistency limits for fine grained soils,
Clays and silts are classified according to their after berg limits.
The most commonly used after berg limits are,
1. Liquid limit (L.L)
2. Plastic limit (P.L)
The plasticity index (P.I) of a particular soil specimen is defined as the difference between the liquid
limits and plasticity limit of the specimen.
P.I = L.L - P.L
Example values (Sample should oven dry for 24 hours in 1050C)
Sample number 01 02 03
Container number 24 21 25
Number of blows 17 25 34
Mass of empty container(M1)gm 44.9 46 44.6
Mass of container+ well soil(M2)gm 78.3 31.3 76.8
Mass of container+ dry soil(M3) gm 70 75.30 74.10
Water content W= (M2-M3/M3-M1)×100% 33.07 20.30 10.00
Batch 02 34
Water content (%)
Liquid state line of flow line
LL=46.9%
Number of blows, N- logarithmic scale
25
(Figure3.20)
Procedure to determine the plastic limit of soil,
 Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing through
425𝜇m is sieve.
 Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporation dish and leave the soil mass for some time
 Take about 8g of the soil and roll it with fingers on the glass plate
 The threads can be reduced to less than 3mm without any cracks appearing. The water content
more than its plastic limit)
 Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles.
 Collect and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread in the container used to determine the
moisture content.
 Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each time.
Plastic index = Liquid limit - Plastic limit
Batch 02 35
Hand roll-plasticity test Liquid limit test
Plasticity index testing
Thumb penetration test
 Press thumb firmly into the soil.

 If the thumb penetrates no further than the length of the nail, it is probably type B soil.
 If the thumb penetrates the full length of the thumb, it is probably type C soil.
 This is the least accurate testing method.
Batch 02 36
d)
 Field compaction tests of the compacted layers of the embankment
Proctor compaction test
Procedure,
 Obtain a 5.5lb sample of soil, break up lumps and pass through #4 sieves (#4 - 4.76 mm)
 Discard granular component retained on sieve.
 Assemble and secure the mold to the base plate.
 Weight the empty mold and base plate without collar and record.
 Place the mold on a level surface and use a scoop to place, layer of soil.
 The mold will be filled by 3 layers.
 Compact each layer with 25 blows from the hammer.
 Distribute the blows over the entire surface. The hammer should freefall 12'' on to the soil
surface.
 On the 3rd layer the collar must be secured to top of mold to compact layer.
 After the layer is placed and compacted, remove the collar gently so as not to disturb the
sample.
 Use the straightedge to trim soil even with the top of the mold. Fill any holes on the surface
with trimmings.
 Weight the mold and compacted sample and record.
 Remove the materials from the mold and slice vertically through the center.
 Take a representative sample of the material from one of the cut faces and determine the
moisture content.
Batch 02 37
Equations,
1. Moisture unit weight = moist soil/volume of mold

2. Volume of mold = 1/30 cubic feet
3. Moisture content = Mw/Ms
4. Dry unit weight = moist unit weight/(1+w)
Dry density
Maximum dry density
(Figure3.25)
Optimum moisture content
Moisture content
𝛾Total = 𝛾d (1+w/100)
Where, w = moisture content of soil expressed as a percentage
𝛾d = dry density in kg/m3
𝛾total = total density in kg/m3
Note: the importance of calculate optimum moisture content and moisture dry density is the required
compaction is expressed as a %of maximum dry density. This is specially used in embankment
construction work.
Batch 02 38
Typical values of maximum dry density and optimum moisture density (OMC),
Type of soil Maximum dry density kN/m3 OMC %

Sand 19.0 11
Sandy clay 18.1 14
Silty clay 16.3 21
Clay 15.2 28
Gravel sand clay mixture 20.0 9
Batch 02 39
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
CBR test is conducted in a laboratory. This test provides the load penetration resistance of
soil. CBR value is obtained by the measuring the relationship between force and penetration when a cylindrical
plunger is made to penetrate the soil at a standard rate.
The CBR test is used for the evaluation of subgrade strength of road and pavements. The
CBR value obtained by this test is used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its
component layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.
Even though the provision of subsoil drains reduces the effect of water on the subgrade,
fully soaked CBR test shall be considered to be appropriate for road construction projects.
Batch 02 40
 CBR test procedure
This is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with the standard
circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min, to that required for the corresponding penetration of standard material
or (crushed stone).
Test Load
CBR = x 100
Standard Load
Following points should be taken care of while soil testing for road construction,
 Sampling and testing: the sampling of soil tests in laboratory or in-situ is to be carefully done by an
experienced engineer. The requirement for the various mass/volume of soil at different points of a road
project shall be followed as per the specification and standard codes.
 Test data logging: logging of all the soil sample and test data shall be done by trained staff who has the
knowledge of soil properties and tests results.
 Testing frequency: the testing frequency of soil shall be as per input from an engineer. The decision on the
testing frequency is usually taken on basis of results obtained from previous tests.
 Sample preparation
 Prepare the remolded specimen at proctors maximum dry density or any other density at which
CBR is required.
 Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or field moisture as required.
 The material used should pass 20 mm sieve but should be retained on 4.75 mm.
 Prepare the specimen either by static or dynamic compaction.
Batch 02 41
 Dynamic compaction
 Take 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water (OMC).
 Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould.
 Insert the spacer disc over the base, and place the filter paper over the spacer disc.
 Compact the mix soil in the mould either using light compaction or heavy compaction.
- Light compaction: - compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given
55 blows by the 2.6 kg rammer
- Heavy compaction: - compact the soil in 5 equal layers, each layer being given
55 blows by the 4.89 kg rammer
 Remove the collar and trim off the soil.
 Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the spacer disc.
 Weight the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
 Observation & Recording
 Optimum water content (%)
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen (gm)
 Weight of empty mould (gm)
 Volume of specimen (cm2)
 Bulk density (g/cc)
 Dry density (g/cc)
 Light compaction
 Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give desired density when
occupying standard specimen volume in the mould from expression.
W = desired dry density x (1 + w) V; W - Weight of the soil
w - Desired water content
V - Volume of specimen in the mould = 2250cm3
 Take the weight W (calculate as above) of the mixed soil and place it in the mould.
 Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of the soil.
 Keep the mould assembly in a static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer disc
till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
 Keep the load for some time and then release the load, remove the displacer.
Batch 02 42
 The test must be conducted for soaked as well as unsoaked conditions if the sample is soaked, (for
both light and heavy compactions), put a filter paper on the top of the soil and place the adjustable
stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
 Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and pavement
expected in actual construction, each 2.5 Kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction.
 A minimum of 2 weights should be used.
 Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours and remove the
mould for compaction test.
 Observations and recordings for light compaction
 Dry density (gm/cc)
 Moulding water content
 Wet weight of the compacted soil (gm)
 Period of soaking 96 hours (4 days)
 Procedure for penetration test
 Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero.
 Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weight on the penetration test machine, but in no
case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample established.
 Apply the load on the piston so that the penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
 Record the load readings at penetration of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10, 12.5 mm.
Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm.
 Detach the mould from the loading equipment.

 Take about 20 to 50 gm of soil from the top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.
 Interpretation and recording

 If the initial portion of the curve (load vs. penetration) is concave upwards, apply correction by
drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin.
 Fine and record the correct load reading corresponding to each penetration.
CBR = PT x 100 ; PT - corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load
PS
penetration curve
PS - standard load for the same penetration
Penetration of crushed stone and the corresponding load that causes the penetration.
Batch 02 43
Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)

2.5 1370
5.0 2055
7.5 2630
10 3180
12.5 3600
 The CBR values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5mm.
 Generally, the CBR value of 2.5 mm will be greater than that at 5 mm and in such a case the former (2.5
mm CBR value) should be taken as a design CBR.
 If CBR for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test shall be repeated.
 If identical results follow, the CBR corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.
Batch 02 44
 Railway construction procedure

 Earth formation
In railroad construction, the first step is the earth formation. We have to improve
the existing ground conditions with suitable improvement methods providing a proper drainage system. This
includes the provision of earthen, RRM, RC and subsoil drains according to the site conditions. Ground
improvement methods such as Geogrids and boulder fillings should be introduced depending on the site
condition.
Preparation of earth formation and drains
Batch 02 45
 ABC foundation
In this project, a layer of 200mm thick compacted ABC (Aggregate Base Course) is used as a
ground improvement method in addition to other special ground improvement methods. Formation width is taken
as 6.1m for single line BG (broad gauge-) track.
 Initial blasting
Compacted ABC formation is followed by initial ballasting for a width of 4m to a thickness of

approximately 100mm.
Batch 02 46
 Leading of sleepers and rails
 Then Rails are welded using an on track flash butt welding machine
Batch 02 47
 Second ballasting using DMT
 Tamping
Compacting by maintaining the track in the designed profile.
Batch 02 48
 Destressing
Smoothening to the vertical profile.
Batch 02 49
3.2
a)
 Testing method to check the abrasion resistance of coarse aggregates for road
 Los Angeles Abrasion Value Test (LAAV)
This applies only to coarse aggregates. Aggregates vary in their resistance to fracturing under
impact (toughness) and breaking down into smaller pieces from the abrasive action (hardness). The acceptable
limits are set by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAAV) in the test method AASHTO T 96. The limits vary from
30.0 to 50.0 percent, depending on the classification of the aggregate. The percentage is a measure of the
degradation or loss of material as a result of the impact and abrasive actions.
 Procedure
 Prepare the sample by the portion of an aggregate sample retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve
and place in a large rotating drum that contains a shelf plate attached to the outer wall.
 Prepared sample is placed in the abrasion-testing machine.
 A specified number of steel spheres are then placed in the machine and the drum is rotated for 500
revolutions at a speed of 30 - 33 revolutions per minute (RPM).
 The material is then separated into material passing the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve and material
retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve.
Batch 02 50
 Dry the sample in an oven.
 Calculate percentage loss due to Abrasion by calculating the difference between the retained
material (larger particles) compared to the original sample weight. The difference in weight is
reported as a percent of the original weight and called the "percent loss".
Initial Mass - Final Intact Mass

Percentage loss = x 100 %
Initial Mass
Batch 02 51
b)
 Testing methods to check the water absorption capacity of the sub soil for railway
This is a test to determine the moisture content of soil as a percentage of its percentage of its dry
density (BS: 1377, BS: 1967). The sample is weighed, dried in an oven, then reweighed under standard
conditions. It is calculated as,
Weight of the container with wet soil minus the weight of the container with dry soil x 100 %
Moisture content =
Weight of the container with dry soil minus the weight of the container
 Apparatus
 19.0 mm, 9.50 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 425 μm, and 75 μm AS sieves.
 A balance with a limit of performance of 0.5 g.
 Metal dishes, approximately 100 mm, 225 mm and 350 mm diameter.
 A metal mixing and quartering tray.
 Mixing apparatus such as a trowel and spatula, and quartering apparatus such as metal plates 400 mm by
125 mm and 200 mm by 125 mm.
 Sieve brushes.
 A porcelain mortar with porcelain and rubber pestles.
 Sample dividers (riffle boxes) of appropriate size openings (optional).
 A thermostatically controlled oven with good air circulation, capable of maintaining a temperature not
exceeding 50 °C.
 A thermostatically controlled oven with good air circulation, capable of maintaining a temperature
within the range of 105 °C to 110 °C.
 Pyrex beakers, squat form, 1 liter capacity, with lip and pouring spout. Graduation marks are to be made
on the side of each beaker to indicate levels 30 mm and 110 mm above the base of the beaker.
 Rubber-tipped glass stirring rods.
 A timing device indicating in seconds and minutes.
 A thermometer indicating within the range 0 -100 °C.
 A bench-type sieve shaking machine (optional).
 A decantation bench.
 A heating device with a rapidly adjustable temperature agent.
 A dispensing device for the dispersing agent.
 A 20% ammonia solution.
 Watch-glass, approximately 100 mm diameter.
Batch 02 52
 Desiccator preferably cabinet type.

 A constant temperature water bath having a depth of approximately 150 mm thermostatically controlled
to maintain a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C.
 A 500 mL volumetric flask.
 A rigid metal conical mould 38 ± 3 mm diameter at the top, 90 ± 3 mm diameter at the bottom and 73 ±
3 mm high.
 A metal tamping rod with a mass of 350 g having a flat circular tamping face approximately 25 mm in
diameter.
 Preparation
 Allow the sample to dry sufficiently to enable it to be crumbled. If necessary, dry the sample in an oven
at a temperature not exceeding 50 °C.
 Break up any aggregations of particles in such as way as to avoid crushing any discrete particles. All
aggregations are to be broken down so that if the sample was screened on a 2.36 mm AS sieve, only
discrete uncrushed particles would be retained. A rubber pestle should be used to avoid breaking down
sound pieces of mineral matter. Adhering material should be brushed from the coarse particles. When in
doubt as to whether lumps are to be broken, place some in water and boil. If slaking occurs, the material
should be broken further with the rubber pestle.
 Screen the sample on a 2.36 mm AS sieve. To facilitate this operation and to avoid overloading of
sieves, screen the sample on 19.0 mm, 9.50 mm and 4.75 mm AS sieves prior to separation on 2.36 mm
AS sieve.
 Dry the material passing the 2.36 mm AS sieve to constant mass at a temperature within the range 105-
110 °C. The material must not be left in the oven for longer than 18 hours. Cool in a desiccator.
 Reduce the dried sample of material passing the 2.36 mm AS sieve, by quartering or riffling, so as to
obtain approximately 500 g of the sand-silt fraction.
 Divide the sample by riffling or quartering into portions of approximately 50 g and treat each portion as
set out in Preparation of Samples given below,
 Place one of the portions in a Pyrex beaker marked at 30 mm and 110 mm from the bottom,
add about 500 mL of water and boil for 1 hour, stirring briskly every 10 minutes,
replenishing water if necessary.
 Add water to raise the level of liquid to the top mark on the beaker and add 10 mL of a 20%
ammonia solution.
 Stir with a rubber-tipped glass stirring tod, working sand on the bottom towards the pouring
side and finishing with a to and fro motion to avoid rotation on ceasing stirring. 1
Batch 02 53
 After stirring, allow the beaker and contents to stand undisturbed for the required settling
time, which is determined by the temperature of the water in the beaker, as shown in the
following table. 2
 Carefully pour off liquid until the quantity remaining corresponds to the lowest mark on
the beaker (30 mm from the base). It is essential that the pouring be so conducted that
turbulence is avoided.
 Make up to the top mark on the beaker with water and add 10 mL of 20% ammonia
solution. Repeat processes in Preparation of Samples 1 to 2 until the liquid poured off
is clear.
 After the final pour, stand the beaker at an angle of 45 degrees for about 5 minutes and
pour off the balance of the clear water taking care not to remove any of the remaining soil
particles.
 Transfer the residue into a clean beaker by carefully washing down all soil particles with
small amounts of distilled water using a wash bottle with a fine tip.
 Combine the residue from each of the portions to constitute the sample for further testing.
 Agitate gently or stir with a glass rod to remove any entrapped air from the surface of the soil.
 Allow the sample to remain immersed for a period of 24 hours.
Batch 02 54
 At the end of the period of soaking, drain the water off carefully and expose the material to a gently
moving current of warm air, stirring frequently to achieve uniform condition.
 Continue drying until the material approaches the free-flowing condition.
 To assess the saturated surface dry condition place part of the material in the conical mould and tamp
lightly using 25 blows of the tamper.
 Lift the mould vertically. If free moisture is present the cone of material will retain its shape.
 Continue drying with constant stirring until the cone of material just slumps on the removal of the mould
which indicates that the saturated surface dry condition has been reached.
Note: If the cone of material slumps at the first test, it is possible that the material has been dried past the
saturated surface dry condition. In this case add a few milliliters of water and mix thoroughly and allow the
aggregate to stand in a covered container for 30 minutes. Resume the process of drying and testing until the
saturated surface dry condition is achieved.
 Procedure
 Fill a clean conical flask to the mark with distilled water at 25 ± 1 °C and determine the mass of the
flask and water (Mass D).
 Remove the water from the flask.
 Immediately the saturated surface dry condition is reached, place a test portion of approximately 400 g
on to a weighing dish and determine the weight of the saturated material (Mass B).
 Dry the material to constant weight and determine (Mass A).
 Place the sample in the volumetric flask through a funnel, taking care not to lose any material during
transfer by carefully washing down all soil particles with small amounts of distilled water using a wash
bottle with a fine tip.
 Fill the flask to near the mark with distilled water. Roll and shake the flask to eliminate all air bubbles
and remove all froth.
 Bring the temperature of the contents of the flask to 25 ± 1 °C by standing in the water bath. Adjust the
level of water exactly to the 500 mL mark. Remove from the bath, dry the outside of the flask and
determine the mass of the flask and contents (Mass C).
Note: Mass to be determined to the nearest 0.1 g.
Batch 02 55
 Calculations and reporting

 Obtain the mass of the water displaced by the fine sand fraction D - (C - B).
 Calculate the volume of the water displaced by the sand-silt fraction in mL by dividing the mass by
0.997.
Volume of water displaced = D - (C-B) mL

0.997
Report as:-
A x 0.997
Particle Density = g/mL
D - (C-B)
B x 0.997
Particle Density (SSD) = g/mL
D - (C-B)
Water Absorption per cent = B-A x 100%

A
A = Mass of the oven dried test portion.
B = Saturated surface dry mass of the test portion.
C = Mass of the flask, water and fine sand.
D = Mass of the flask and water.
Batch 02 56
3.3
a)
Health and safety risks for highway and railway construction
 Material and manual handling.

 Electricity.
 Slips, trips and falls.
 Being hit by an oncoming train.
 Possibility of accident with tools or machinery.
 Respiratory diseases.
 Hand arm vibration syndrome.
 Harmed by items falling from above.
 Excavation and trenches collapse.
 Exposure to harmful substances.
 Moving objects (moving vehicles and trades people-overhead lifting equipment shifting heavy
loads, supply vehicles, dumper trucks etc.)
 Excessive noise.
Batch 02 57
b)
Risk matrix
Variation of risks
Risks Low Medium High
Material and manual handling
Electricity
Slips, trips and falls
Being hit by an oncoming train.
Possibility of accident with tools or machinery
Respiratory diseases
Hand arm vibration syndrome
Harmed by items falling from above
Excavation and trenches collapse
Exposure to harmful substances
Moving objects
Excessive noise
More effective
Least effective
Batch 02 58
3.4
Resource plan X-X
Lane 3.1 m
500 m
X -X cross-section,
50 mm
Team members Technical officer, Site supervisor, six laborers, equipment operator
Materials Fresh asphalt concrete, bitumen, gravel.
Equipment Milling machines, distributor tanks, dump trucks, asphalt compactor,

asphalt rake, asphalt banding machine
requirement Team and resources must be available to complete the job in 1 day.
Batch 02 59
Reference
 Lecture notes
 https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Types_of_soil
 Introduction to tunnel construction book - David Chapman, Nicole Metje and Alfred Stärk
Batch 02

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Advanced Civil Engineering Individual

 Importance of tunnel construction 01 - 02

 Tunneling method of proposed project 18 - 19

 Different equipment for road and railway construction 20 - 25

 Importance of tunnel construction

 Location/confirmation of buried services.

 Tests for ground investigation

Tests for ground

Field tests Laboratory tests

Example of an electric penetrometer cone,

A typical plot from a CPT is given below,

 Double load plate test

Some considerations for sample preparation given below,

 The ends surface must be flat and even

 Plasticity limit test

 Drill and blast method in tunneling

 Drill blast holes and loading with them explosives.

 Dynamite and gelatins

 Rock dill ability

1. Wedge cut pattern

1. Wedge cut pattern

It timed detonators are used, the charges detonate in a space of 20 to 30 milliseconds

2. Parallel drill hole cut

 Tunneling method of proposed project

Follow as below sketch,

- Construction material - concrete (RCC) Center line of the road

 Different equipment for road and railway construction

Road construction equipments Railway construction equipments

 Motor grader  Tamping machine

Road construction equipments

1. Excavation in large quantities

2. Spread material over a large area

3. Economical for hauling distance between 100m to 3km

Railway construction equipments

 Ballast clearing machine

 Concrete sleeper layer

 Rail shifting machine

 Highway drainage machine

 Materials which will restore this capping layer

Typical layer thickness,

Very coarse Coarse soil Fine soil Organic soil

 Particle sizes: Varies.

Plasticity test Thumb penetration test

Consistency limits for fine grained soils,

The most commonly used after berg limits are,

1. Liquid limit (L.L)

2. Plastic limit (P.L)

P.I = L.L - P.L

Example values (Sample should oven dry for 24 hours in 1050C)

Water content (%)

Liquid state line of flow line

Number of blows, N- logarithmic scale

Procedure to determine the plastic limit of soil,

Plastic index = Liquid limit - Plastic limit

Hand roll-plasticity test Liquid limit test

Plasticity index testing

Thumb penetration test

 Press thumb firmly into the soil.

1. Moisture unit weight = moist soil/volume of mold

Maximum dry density

Optimum moisture content

Where, w = moisture content of soil expressed as a percentage

𝛾d = dry density in kg/m3

𝛾total = total density in kg/m3