Hard Rock Tunnel Boring Vol. 7 - The Boring Process: October 2000

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Hard Rock Tunnel Boring Vol. 7 - The Boring Process
Thesis · October 2000

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Hard Rock Tunnel Boring
Doctoral theses at NTNU 1998:81
The Boring Process

Amund Bruland
Vol. 7 of 10
NTNU Trondheim
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology
Doctoral thesis
for the degree of doktor ingeniør
Faculty of Engineering Science
and Technology
Department of Civil and
Transport Engineering
PREFACE 1
0 GENERAL 3
0.1 Project Reports about Hard Rock Tunnel Boring 3
1 CHIPPING 6
1.0 General 6
1.1 Chip Analysis 10

1.10 Introduction 10
1.11 Chip Size 10
1.12 Chip Shape 12
1.13 Crack Formation 13
1.14 Chipping Frequency 18
1.15 Sieve Curves 22
1.2 Specific Energy 24
1.3 Elements of Rock Breaking 27
1.4 Conclusions 29
2 MACHINE FACTORS 30
2.1 Penetration Curves 30
2.2 Gross Thrust 33
2.3 Cutter Diameter 35
2.4 Cutter Spacing 37
2.5 Cutterhead RPM 39
2.6 Machine Stiffness 44
2.7 Machine Design 47
2.8 Cutter Ring Shape 49
3 TORQUE 51
3.1 Cutter Coefficient 51
3.2 Torque Demand 55
4 BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 56
4.0 Introduction 56
4.1 Marked Single Joints 57
4.2 Systematic Fractures 62
4.3 Mixed Face 66

5 CUTTER WEAR 68
5.1 Cutter Types 68
5.2 Cutter Wear Caused by Rock 70

5.21 Rock Abrasion 70
5.22 Cutter Life Index CLI 70
5.23 Vickers Hardness Number of Rock 71
5.24 Abrasion Pattern 73
5.25 Cutter Wear Caused by Fractures 74
5.3 Machine Factors Affecting Cutter Wear 76
5.4 Cutter Technology 80
APPENDICES 82
A. Previous Editions 82
B. Research Partners 83
C. List of Parameters 84
PREFACE
HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING The Boring Process

Project Report 1F-98
The report is one of six reports about hard rock tunnel boring:
• 1A-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Design and Construction

• 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear
• 1C-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Costs
• 1D-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Geology and Site Investigations
• 1E-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Performance Data and Back-mapping
• 1F-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING The Boring Process
In addition, HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Background and Discussion gives

general information about the basis of the above listed reports.
Combined with the other reports in the Project Report Series from the Department of
Building and Construction Engineering at NTNU, the reports present an updated and
systematised material on rock excavation and tunnelling to be used for:
• Economic dimensioning
• Choice of alternative
• Time planning
• Cost estimates, tender, budgeting and cost control
• Choice of excavation method and equipment.
A list of available Project Reports may be requested from the Department of Building
and Construction Engineering at NTNU.
The advance rate, cutter wear and excavation cost models also exist as a WINDOWS
programme.
The report is prepared by Amund Bruland and is part of his dr.ing thesis about
hard rock tunnel boring.
The reports listed above describes a comprehensive model developed at NTNU The
model covers the complete tunnel boring process from the early planning stage
1
PREFACE
through preinvestigations, time and cost estimates, tunnel excavation and finally ac-
quisition and treatment of experience data. The models and data presented in the
reports are meant to be a practical tool for owners, consultants and contractors,
more than a theoretical analysis of the tunnel boring process.
The project has been granted financial support by our external research partners, see
list in Appendix.
For reference, registration and similar, we ask for the following:
NTNU-Anleggsdrift (1998): Project Report 1F-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL

BORING The Boring Process.
When copying from the report, the source should be stated.
Trondheim, September 2000
Odd Johannessen
Professor
Contact address: Amund Bruland

Department of Building and Construction Engineering, NTNU
N-7491 Trondheim
NORWAY
Telephone +47 73 59 47 37 Fax +47 73 59 70 21

e-mail amund.bruland@bygg.ntnu.no
Internet http://www.bygg.ntnu.no/batek/batek.htm
2
0. GENERAL 0.1 Project Reports about Hard Rock Tunnel Boring
0.1 PROJECT REPORTS ABOUT HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
1F-98
The report gives a brief overview of the rock breaking process, the cutter wear
process and machine parameters affecting the performance for hard rock tunnel
boring.
The report treats the following items:
• Chapter 1 describes how chip analyses are used to explain the rock breaking
process and lists general findings from these analyses.
• In Chapter 2, the influence of the various machine parameters on the rock break-
ing process are discussed.
• Chapter 3 treats the cutter coefficient and the cutterhead torque in detail.
• Chapter 4 discusses the effect of rock mass fracturing on the penetration rate.
• Chapter 5 treats the cutter wear process with regard to rock mass and machine
parameters.
Project Report 1F-98 is partly based on the project reports 1-76, 1-79, 1-83, 1-88 and
1-94, all published by the Department of Building and Construction Engineering at
NTNU. The report presents updated and revised information from the previous re-
ports as well as experience from recent tunnelling projects.
Appendix A shows a list of previous editions of the HARD ROCK TUNNEL

BORING report.
Other Reports
The Project Report 1A-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Design and Con-
struction describes general design parameters such as tunnel profile, tunnel inclina-
tion and curve radius. Some features of various tunnel types like water, sewage, road
and rail tunnels are treated. Transport, ventilation and other necessary service systems
are presented.
3
The Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and
Cutter Wear provides methods and necessary data for estimation of time consump-
tion and cutter wear for tunnel boring. Geological parameters and machine factors of
significance for the penetration rate and the cutter wear are presented briefly.
The Project Report 1C-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Costs presents
models and data for estimation of tunnel excavation costs and total construction costs.
The Project Report 1D-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Geology and Site
Investigations treats the rock mass parameters of the model in more detail. Site in-
vestigations and building of an engineering geological model adapted to the estima-
tion models for penetration rate and excavation costs are treated closely.
The Project Report 1E-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Performance Data
and Back-mapping covers follow-up procedures and collecting of performance data
from tunnel boring projects. Engineering geological back-mapping is treated in detail.
Use of the Estimation Models
The estimation models are aimed at being used through several stages in a project:
• Preliminary and feasibility studies

• Project design and optimisation
• Tendering and contract
• Construction
• Possible claims.
The estimation models for Hard Rock Tunnel Boring should be used with care. Com-
bined with other estimation models in the Project Report Series from the Department
of Building and Construction Engineering, the Hard Rock Tunnel Boring reports pro-
vide a reliable and practical tool to be used for:
4
• Estimating net penetration rate and cutter wear

• Estimating time consumption and excavation costs, included risk
• Assess risk with regard to variation in rock mass boreability or machine
parameters
• Establish and manage price regulation in contracts
• Verify machine performance
• Verify variation in geological conditions.
Background
The estimation models are based on job site studies and statistics from tunnelling in
Norway and abroad, including more than 35 job sites and more than 250 km of tunnel.
The data have been systematised and normalised. The results are regarded as being
representative for well organised tunnelling.
A more detailed treatment of the background and the basis for the Hard Rock Tunnel
Boring estimation models is found in HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Back-
ground and Discussion.
5
1. CHIPPING 1.0 General
1.0 GENERAL
TBM boring is a form of rotating, crushing boring. The cutterhead is pressed with
large force against the rock while being rotated. The cutterhead penetrates into the
rock face for each revolution. In hard rock conditions, the penetration is typically be-
tween 1 mm and 15 mm per cutterhead revolution.
Penetration denotes the production or advance rate of the cutterhead, while indenta-
tion denotes the depth the cutter edge is pressed into the rock surface by the cutter-
head thrust.
The penetration i0 is measured in mm per revolution as an average for several revolu-

tions of the cutterhead. The indentation ip is not measurable by any practical method;
it must be derived from laboratory tests, torque measurement, chip analyses, etc.
One should also bear in mind that it is the penetration that is of interest when it comes
to time and cost estimates. The indentation is mostly of interest for studies of rock
breaking and related topics. Hence, the Project Report Series 1-98 HARD ROCK
TUNNEL BORING relates to penetration per cutterhead revolution.
MB
SB
ip i0
Figure 1.1 Penetration and indentation of a disc cutter.
In the contact zone between the cutter edge and the rock surface, the rock is crushed
to powder due to high stresses. From this zone, cracks propagate radially from the
6
1. CHIPPING 1.0 General
cutter ring edge, and the rock loosens along these cracks between the cutter kerfs as
coarse chips.
T h ru s t fo rc e
C h ip A d ja c e n t k e r f
R a d ia l fis s u r e s R o c k m a s s p la n e
C ru s h e d ro c k p o w d e r o f w e a k n e s s
Figure 1.2 The principle of chipping under a disc cutter.
Sideways chipping from the kerf is the result of crack formation in the rock along the
principal stress trajectories. This crack formation is the least energy demanding fail-
ure mechanism for a material. Specific energy is assumed to be distributed on crush-
ing and crack formation in a ratio of approximately 9 to 1.
The stress field under a cutter edge, and how efficiently it is utilised when boring,
may be studied indirectly by recording chip form and crack pattern (see Figures 1.3
and 1.4). Some general findings from chip shape and crack formation analyses are
presented in Section 1.3.
7
A m p h ib o litic g n e is s A m p h ib o litic g n e is s P h y llite G r a n itic g n e is s
1. CHIPPING
S J = 3 0 S J = 7 S J = 3 2 S J = 9
S 20 = 2 2 S 20 = 4 0 S 20 = 3 8 S 20 = 4 9
In c r e a s in g th r u s t
Figure 1.3 Typical chip shapes and crack patterns for various rock types.
= c u tte r in d e n ta tio n
8
1.0 General
T ro n d h je m ite
A r k o s ite G r a n itic g n e is s (Q u a r tz d io r ite ) G n e is s
S J = 1 1 S J = 1 5 S J = 1 8 S J = 2 4
1. CHIPPING
S 20 = 5 4 S 20 = 5 7 S 20 = 6 1 S 20 = 6 2
In c r e a s in g th r u s t
Figure 1.4 Typical chip shapes and crack patterns for various rock types.
= c u tte r in d e n ta tio n
9
1.0 General
1. CHIPPING 1.1 Chip Analyses
1.1 CHIP ANALYSES
1.10 Introduction
The stress field under a cutter edge, and how efficiently it is utilised when boring,
may be studied indirectly by recording chip shape and crack patterns.
The studies are based on the following methodology:
• A sufficient number (e.g. 20) of the largest chips is picked from the machine con-
veyor during a short period of time, in which the machine is operated at constant
parameters.
• The size of the chips is measured in three dimensions.
• Selected chips are cut by diamond saw and the crack pattern is registered.
The most complete and informative data are gained when chips are collected during
all steps of a penetration test, see Chapter 2 and the Project Report 1E-98 HARD
ROCK TUNNEL BORING Performance Data and Back-mapping.
1.11 Chip Size
The Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the average chip size as a function of the gross average
cutter load. One should note that at the highest cutter loads, the width of the largest
chips is often larger than the cutter spacing of the face cutters. It is also important to
observe that at very low cutter loads, one or more dimensions (length and thickness)
of the largest chips may be larger than the average size occurring at a somewhat
higher cutter load. This indicates that it is not the chip size alone that best reflects the
efficiency of the chipping mechanism. The chip shape must also be considered.
The three dimensions of a chip may be combined into the cubic chip size [1.1] as an
expression of the chip volume. The cubic chip size usually gives a stronger expression
of the relation between chip size and cutter thrust, with a curve shape similar to the
penetration test curve.
10
Figure 1.5 The largest chips collected during a penetration test of a 6.25 m diame-
ter TBM with 432 mm cutters in granitic gneiss. The numbers indicate
thrust level in psi, 4400 psi is approximately 236 kN/cutter.
250
mm
Length
200
150
Width
100
50
Thickness
0
100 150 200 250
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.6 Chip size of the 20 largest chips collected during a penetration test of a
5 m diameter TBM with 483 mm diameter cutters in mica gneiss.
11
Vch = l ch ⋅ wch ⋅ hch (mm3) [1.1]
lch = average length of the largest chips (mm)

wch = average width of the largest chips (mm)
hch = average thickness of the largest chips (mm)
600
3
1000 mm
500
400
300
100 150 200 250
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.7 Cubic chip size based on data in Figure 1.6.
1.12 Chip Shape
The largest chips may be characterised by a shape factor as shown in Figure 1.8. The
general trend is that the shape of the chips moves from flat and elongated at low thrust
levels towards a more elongated, and even more cubic shape at higher thrust levels.
12
1
w ch/lch
0.9
FLAT CUBIC
0.8
0.7
0.6 FLAT AND ELONGATED
0.5
Shape Shape
trend with trend ELONGATED
0.4
increasing with
rock increasing
0.3
strength thrust in
constant
0.2
geology
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
hch/w ch
Figure 1.8 Shape factors of the 20 largest chips. Data as in Figure 1.6.
1.13 Crack Formation
When the chips are cut by a diamond saw, it is possible to register how the crack for-
mation is developing. In the cross section of a chip as shown in Figure 1.9, one can
see at least three different cracks that have propagated from the kerf. It is likely that at
least two of these cracks have been made during a previous pass of the cutter than the
pass that made the chip.
It is however not all of the large chips that contains cracks which may be identified as
cracks from previous passes of the cutter, i.e. some large chips may be formed by only
one pass of the cutter.
13
c u tte r e d g e
in d e n ta tio n
c u tte r e d g e
in d e n ta tio n
Figure 1.9 Typical cross section of a chip.
The chip formation is further revealed when one chip is cut in several slices, provid-
ing a three-dimensional model of the cracks within the chip. Figure 1.10 shows an
example of cross sections along a single chip.
Observations from such studies combined with observations of partly formed chips at
the tunnel face suggest that the largest chips are formed by cracks from several passes
of the adjacent cutters. The process is illustrated in Figure 1.11.
The chipping process is of course more complex than shown in Figure 1.11. For each
revolution of the cutterhead, the cutter edge is pressed deeper into the kerf. In most
cases the cutter edge will not be in the same position relative to the chip for two or
more consecutive cutterhead revolutions. The overall forming of a chip is most likely
a combination of new cracks propagating towards existing cracks from the neighbour-
ing kerfs and enlarging of existing cracks from previous passes of the cutter edge.
14
1
7
1 0
5
1 1
1 2
6
1 3
Figure 1.10 A series of cross sections of a chip. The spacing between the cross sec-
tions is 10 mm.
15
M B
S B
D is c p a th
2 . 1 .
3 .
A d ja c e n t k e r f
1 . E x te n t o f fra c tu re g r o w th fr o m th e 1 s t d is c p a s s in g
2 . E x te n t o f fra c tu re g r o w th fr o m th e 2 n d d is c p a s s in g
3 . F ra c tu re g ro w th c o m p le te d ; r e s u ltin g in c h ip lo o s e n in g
a fte r th e 3 rd d is c p a s s in g
Figure 1.11 A chip formed by three passes from one cutter. After Arne Lislerud: Prin-
ciples of Mechanical Excavation, Helsinki 1997.
From the large chips collected during a penetration test, one may be able to find the
kerf depth and the cutter edge indentation relative to the chip thickness. Figure 1.12
shows cross sections of typical chips taken during a penetration test of three cutter
thrust levels. The decrease in the ratio of kerf depth to chip thickness is obvious, as
shown in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.12. The ratio may be used as an indicator of the cut-
ting efficiency of the cutterhead in the given rock conditions.
16
ik
h c h
c u tte r e d g e
in d e n ta tio n
Figure 1.12 Cross sections of chips collected during a penetration test.
ik
f kd = [1.2]
hch
fkd = kerf depth factor

ik = kerf depth at chip forming (mm)
hch = maximum chip thickness (mm)
17
Thrust Kerf depth Chip thickness Kerf depth factor

kN/cutter mm mm
144.5 17 21.5 0.79
166.4 16 26 0.62
210.2 16 38 0.42
Table 1.1 Kerf depth factor for a penetration test of a 3.5 m diameter TBM with
394 mm diameter cutters in amphibolitic gneiss.
The ratio may also be an indicator of the failure mechanisms that form the chip. A
visual interpretation of the chip cross sections in Figure 1.12 indicates that the chip
taken at the highest thrust level to a large extent is formed by tensile cracks originat-
ing from the cutter edge. The contribution from shear failure must be quite low.
The chip cross section from the lowest thrust level may suggest a somewhat different
distribution between tensile and shear failure, but with the tensile failure still
dominating the chip formation.
1.14 Chipping Frequency
The chipping frequency at the face may be indicated by the thickness of the largest
chips versus the penetration in mm/revolution. Table 1.2, Figure 1.14 and Figure 1.15
show data from a specific penetration test. The chipping frequency fch may be inter-
preted as the inverse of the number of cutterhead revolutions necessary to accomplish
one total chipping at the face, see Figure 1.16. This interpretation is only an approxi-
mation, since it is the maximum chip thickness that is measured while the consecutive
chipping between two kerfs may be following the pattern outlined in Figure 1.17.
1
f ch = (rev −1 ) [1.2]
hch
i0
18
i0 = TBM penetration per revolution (mm/rev)

hch = average thickness of the largest chips (mm)
0.9
ik/hch
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
125 150 175 200 225
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.13 Ratio of kerf depth to chip thickness. TBM data and geology as for Table
1.1.
Thrust, Penetration, Penetration, Chip thickness, Chipping frequency

kN/c mm/5 min mm/rev mm
173.4 34 1.17 22.5 0.052

183.1 50 1.72 24.8 0.069
192.7 60 2.07 25.2 0.082
207.2 79 2.72 30.0 0.091
221.6 87 2.99 31.6 0.095
Table 1.2 Chipping frequency during a penetration test of an 8.5 m diameter TBM
in mica gneiss.
19
4 40
mm/rev
Measured penetration
Penetration curve mm
Chip thickness
3 35
2 30
1 25
0 20
150 175 200 225 250
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.14 Penetration and chip thickness during a penetration test. TBM data and
geology as for Table 1.2.
The normalised penetration curve is found by regression. For details on how to per-
form the regression, see the Project Report 1E-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL
BORING Performance Data and Back-mapping.
b
M 
3.736
 MB 
i 0 =  B  =   (r 2 = 0.94) (mm/rev) [1.3]
 M1   161.46 

MB = gross average thrust per cutter (kN/cutter)
M1 = critical thrust to achieve a penetration of 1 mm/rev (kN/cutter)
b = penetration coefficient.
20
25 0.1
Frequency
fch
hch/i0
20 0.08
15 0.06
Thickness/penetration
10 0.04
5 0.02
0 0
150 175 200 225 250
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.15 Chipping frequency during a penetration test. TBM and geology as for
Table 1.2.
k e rf i + 1
C h ip s fr o m 1 s t p a s s in g
k e rf i C h ip s fr o m 2 s t p a s s in g
Figure 1.16 One total chipping between two kerfs.
21
lc h ip
io ( m m /r e v ) h c h ip
2 ·io
3 ·io
4 ·io
c h ip fin e s
Figure 1.17 Consecutive chipping between two kerfs.
1.15 Sieve Curves
The sieve curve of the TBM muck may also give an indication of the efficiency of the
rock cutting process. Figure 1.18 shows TBM muck from a sieve test. The sieve curve
for the same material is shown in Figure 1.19. The general machine development over
the last years has obviously contributed to the efficiency of the cutting process. Figure
1.20 shows normalised sieve curves for two machine design generations.
Figure 1.18 TBM muck separated in sieve fractions.

22
C L A Y S IL T S A N D G R A V E L
1 0 0
P e rc e n ta g e < d
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 6 0 .0 2 0 .0 6 0 .2 0 .6 2 6 2 0 6 0
G r a in s iz e d , m m
Figure 1.19 Sieve curve of the material shown in Figure 1.18.
C L A Y S IL T S A N D G R A V E L
1 0 0
1 9 8 0 m a c h in e s p e c ific a tio n s
P e rc e n ta g e < d
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0 1 9 9 5 m a c h in e
s p e c ific a tio n s
0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 6 0 .0 2 0 .0 6 0 .2 0 .6 2 6 2 0 6 0
G r a in s iz e d , m m
Figure 1.20 Normalised average sieve curves of two TBM design generations.
The muck from the 1995 generation of TBMs has a higher percentage of large chips
or rock fragments than the 1980 generation. This indicates a more efficient rock
breaking process for the newer machine generation.
23
1. CHIPPING 1.2 Specific Energy
1.2 SPECIFIC ENERGY
The cutting efficiency of a cutterhead in given rock conditions may be indirectly stud-
ied by the performance data from a penetration test. An example of test data and esti-
mated specific energy are shown in Table 1.3. The energy consumption does not in-
clude the cutterhead thrust system, which has an installed power of around 10 % or
less compared to the cutterhead torque system.
The variation of the specific energy to cutter thrust for the penetration test is shown in
Figure 1.21. The figure indicates that there is still a potential for more efficient rock
cutting if one is able to increase the average cutter thrust for a given cutter diameter.
The opposite approach, to increase the number of cutters, is limited by the available
space on the cutterhead, especially for small and medium size TBMs.
One should note that specific energy analyses are used as a measure of the rock cut-
ting efficiency of the cutterhead in given rock conditions. The energy consumption
itself is of less interest since the cost of energy usually contributes to less than 5 % of
the total excavation costs.
Figure 1.22 shows specific energy consumption for various rock conditions. The trend
of the three lowest curves may not give a correct representation of the actual devel-
opment in specific energy with increased cutter thrust. The cutter constant cc in the
Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and
Cutter Wear is only shown for the highest applicable cutter load for a given cutter
diameter. At lower cutter loads, the losses in the torque system are relatively higher
than for the highest applicable cutter load, meaning that the cutter constant will be
higher at lower thrust levels than presupposed in Figure 1.22.
As indicated by Figure 1.22, the specific energy for tunnel boring may be as low as 45
MJ/m3 in very favourable rock conditions, but there is still a potential to achieve even
more energy efficient boring with TBMs in hard rock conditions.
24
Specific
Thrust Penetration Amperage Power Production
cosϕ ⋅ η 3 Energy
(kN/cutter) (mm/rev) (A) (kWh/h) (m /h) 3
(MJ/m )
225.6 1.02 120 0.780 428 7.89 195.3

255.1 1.79 150 0.813 558 13.84 145.0
284.5 2.79 190 0.832 723 21.58 120.6
304.1 3.86 220 0.840 845 29.86 101.9
Table 1.3 Specific energy for rock cutting with a 3.5 m diameter TBM.
Geology: Metagabbro with fissure class 0+/0-I, kekv ≈ 0.3.
Machine data: dc = 483 mm, RPM = 13.4, Ntbm = 25.
250
MJ/m3
200
150
100
50
0
200 250 300 350
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.21 Specific energy during a penetration test.
25
100
MJ/m3
90
80
kekv = 0.5
70
60
kekv = 1.0
kekv = 1.5
50
kekv = 2.5
40
150 200 250 300 350
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 1.22 Specific energy according to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK
TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear.
26
1. CHIPPING 1.3 Elements of Rock Breaking
1.3 ELEMENTS OF ROCK BREAKING
Observations and analyses of the largest chips from a large number of TBM tunnels
displays the following main tendencies:
• Rocks with high brittleness have most crack formation and chipping to the sides.
The parameters fkd and fch are low.
• Rocks with low brittleness have less crack formation and chipping. The parame-
ters fkd and fch are high.
• Rocks with high surface hardness (low SJ-value) have particularly thin and long
chips. The cutter edge rolls on the surface with low indentation.
• Rocks with low surface hardness (high SJ-value) have a lot of crushed rock pow-
der in the kerfs and relatively thick and rectangular chips.
• Increasing the thrust results in thicker and more rectangular chips.
• In fractured rock, chips are more cubic, since one or more of the chipping planes
are fissure or joint planes.
• It is the combination of chip shape and chip size which reveals the efficiency of
the boring process.
The cutter edge indentation determines the depth of the crack formation into the rock
face, and thus how efficient the chipping will be.
For more information on the material properties of TBM chips, see the Project Re-
port 16-91 TBM MUCK Properties and Utilisation (published in Norwegian).
D R I = 4 4 D R I = 4 4
S J = 3 2 S J = 7
S 20 = 3 8 S 20 = 4 5
Figure 1.23 Influence of the indentation depth on crack formation, chip thickness and
shape.
27
1. CHIPPING 1.3 Elements of Rock Breaking
Some fundamental relations between drillability and machine parameters regarding

efficient chipping are shown in Figure 1.24.
C u tte r s p a c in g
T h r u s t c a p a c ity
R o c k b r ittle n e s s R o c k s u rfa c e h a rd n e s s
Figure 1.24 Fundamental relations between drillability and machine parameters for
efficient chipping.
Since the indentation ip is very important for the chipping, drillability parameters
should include the rock resistance to indentation.
Furthermore, the drillability parameters should simulate the dynamic rock breaking
and chip forming process which is believed to consist of tensile crack formation as the
main part.
The Drilling Rate Index DRI is an indirect measure for the required boring work,
where:
• The Brittleness Value S20 expresses the amount of energy required to crush the
rock. The test is believed to crush the rock mostly by induced tension.
• The Sievers' J-value SJ expresses the depth the cutter can be thrust into the rock;
in other words how efficiently the rock brittleness (i.e. the cracking tendency) can
be utilised.
28
1. CHIPPING 1.4 Conclusions
1.4 CONCLUSIONS
As a summary one may state the following:
• Chip analyses confirm that the design trend towards higher cutter loads in hard
rock conditions has been appropriate.
• Chip analyses indicates that the main rock breaking mechanism for disc cutters is
radial tensile cracks from below the cutter edge.
• There is still a potential for better rock cutting efficiency through the application
of higher cutter loads in hard rock conditions.
29
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.1 Penetration Curves
2.1 PENETRATION CURVES
The thrust level and the cutter spacing must be adapted to the rock mass properties to
achieve efficient chipping. The relation between the penetration rate and the gross
thrust per cutter is shown in Figure 2.1.
If the gross thrust is very low, the cutters will roll and wear against the rock surface
with low penetration and high cutter costs as a result. This is one of the reasons for
normalising the penetration curve to a critical thrust corresponding to a penetration
rate of 1 mm per cutterhead revolution.
P e n e tr a tio n p e r c u tte r h e a d r e v o lu tio n
M B b
io = ( )
M 1
G r o s s th r u s t p e r c u tte r d is c
Figure 2.1 Penetration curve.
The penetration curve may in most cases be well fitted to a power function (see the
Project Report 1E-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Performance Data and
Back-mapping).
b
MB
i0 = ( ) (mm/rev) [2.1]
M1
30

MB = gross average thrust per cutter (kN/cutter)
M1 = critical thrust for a penetration of 1 mm/rev (kN/cutter)
b = penetration coefficient.
M1 and b are influenced by several machine and rock mass parameters. Project Re-
port 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear
shows the influence of the most important of those parameters based on normalisation
of job site data. The estimation model is a best fit to the total database and does not
give a detailed explanation of the exact influence of each parameter.
Penetration test data show that M1 and b are interdependent parameters. This is illus-
trated in Figure 2.2. Table 2.1 lists the most significant parameter changes included in
the expressions "better boreability" and "more efficient TBM". The influence of each
parameter should be understood as the influence on the basic penetration i0 in mm/rev
when all other parameters are kept constant. This is an idealised situation. In reality,
several machine parameters are interdependent, e.g. cutter thrust MB and cutter diame-
ter dc.
Better Boreability More Efficient TBM
• Increased degree of fracturing • Less cutter spacing (more cutters on

the cutterhead
• Increased angle between the tunnel
axis and the planes of weakness • Less cutter diameter
(when angle is 0° - 60°)
• Lower cutterhead RPM
• Increased rock drillability (reduced
• Reduced cutter edge width
rock strength)
• More stiff machine
• Reduced rock abrasivity
Table 2.1 Factors influencing rock boreability and TBM efficiency.
31
( lo g s c a le ) B e tte r b o r e a b ility M o r e e ffic ie n t T B M
io
m m /re v
b
b
b
1
b
1
1 1
1
( lo g s c a le ) M 1 , k N /c u tte r
Figure 2.2 Fundamental changes in the penetration curve parameters when rock
mass or TBM parameters change.
The following sections give a brief discussion of how the influence of various ma-
chine parameters is derived based on normalisation of penetration curves.
Penetration Rate Limitations
The penetration curve may level out somewhat for high thrust levels. The main limita-
tions are:
• That the cutters "butt with their hubs" due to very high indentation.
• Insufficient muck removal capacity.
• Blocking of the cutterhead buckets in rocks with very high SJ-value or in rocks
with high content of clay or other weak minerals.
• Extremely good chipping, which produces an uneven rock face with heavy vibra-
tions in the TBM as a result.
32
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.2 Gross Thrust
2.2 GROSS THRUST
The gross average thrust per cutter (or contact point) is the gross cutterhead propel
thrust divided by number of cutters on the cutterhead.
The gross thrust includes friction of the cutterhead, loss of hydraulic pressure in hy-
draulic hoses, etc. during boring. Normally, the losses make up approximately 10 %
or less of the gross thrust. High cutterhead support pressure against the tunnel walls
may increase the friction considerably. This occurs generally when boring in sharp
curves and during the training period of new operators.
Towing of the backup equipment during boring will also reduce the thrust, and is not
included in the gross thrust.
The constantly varying surface of the rock face (fractures, mixed face, etc.) will result
in an uneven distribution of the total thrust on the different cutters. The momentary
load on a single cutter may be several times the average load due to the uneven rock
face (see Figure 2.9, for linear cutter tests, the peak load has a size of around 2 times
the average load). The load is also unevenly distributed on the centre, face and gauge
cutters (normally lowest in the gauge).
Planes of weakness in the rock mass and mixed face produce heavy impacts on the
cutterhead and vibrations in the machine. To avoid damage to the machine and the
cutters, the available machine thrust can not always be utilised.
The trend in recent years has been the use of larger cutters and increased thrust per
contact point. Maximum average thrust is limited by the life of cutter bearings, ring
steel quality and sufficient ring fastening to the hub. Gross thrust can also be limited
by the ability of the machine's main bearing to carry the total load and overturning
moments from steering and from boring in rock layers of varying hardness.
The prediction model in the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL
BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear shows that the penetration coefficient b
in [2.1] may get a value of 3 in strong and homogeneous rock mass. For specific pene-
tration tests, b has been measured as high as 6, but the prediction model is meant to be
somewhat conservative with regard to the penetration coefficient.
33
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.2 Gross Thrust
Figure 2.3 shows the predicted increase in penetration rate as a function of increased
applicable gross thrust.
140
Increased penetration rate, %
120 b = 3.0
k ekv = 0.2
100
80
60
b = 1.5
40 k ekv = 1.4
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Increased gross average thrust, %
Figure 2.3 Predicted effect of increased cutter thrust according to the Project Re-
port 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cut-
ter Wear.
34
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.3 Cutter Diameter
2.3 CUTTER DIAMETER
The cutter diameter is decisive for the contact area between the cutter ring and the
rock surface. An increased cutter diameter will increase the contact area and thereby
the thrust forces to set up the necessary rock stress to induce crack propagation. Fig-
ure 2.4 shows that a close to linear relation has been found between the cutter diame-
ter and the penetration rate, and that the relative influence of the cutter diameter de-
creases with increasing rock mass fracturing factor (or rock mass boreability).
Figure 2.4 is based on a gross average thrust force of 200 kN/cutter and an average
cutter spacing of 70 mm.
8
Penetration, mm/rev
k ekv = 1.5
7
3 k ekv = 0.5
1
350 400 450 500
Cutter diameter, mm
Figure 2.4 Normalised influence of the cutter diameter on the penetration rate, ac-
cording to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
Advance Rate and Cutter Wear.
A more theoretical approach may suggest that the relation should be to the square of
the cutter diameter as in [2.2] instead of the linear relation in Figure 2.4, since the
stress level under the cutter ring is inverse proportional to the footprint area of the
cutter ring.
35
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.3 Cutter Diameter
k d = a − b ⋅ d c2 [2.2]
a = constant
b = constant
dc = cutter diameter (mm)
36
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.4 Cutter Spacing
2.4 CUTTER SPACING
The cutter spacing decides the distance the chip forming cracks have to propagate
between the kerfs. The field data which are the basis for the prediction models in the
Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and
Cutter Wear, do not relate to individual cutter spacing, but to the average cutter
spacing of the cutterhead.
d tbm ⋅ 1000
ac = (mm) [2.3]
2 ⋅ N tbm
ac = average cutter spacing over the cutterhead (mm)

dtbm = TBM diameter (m)
Ntbm = actual number of cutters on the cutterhead
9
Penetration, mm/rev
k ekv = 1.5
8
4
k ekv = 0.5
3
0
50 60 70 80 90
Average cutter spacing, mm
Figure 2.5 Normalised influence of the average cutter spacing of the cutterhead on
the penetration rate, according to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD
ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear.
37
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.4 Cutter Spacing
Using the average cutter spacing of the cutterhead is a simplification since the indi-
vidual cutter spacing varies over the cutterhead. For TBMs with 483 mm cutters the
inner face cutters may have a spacing of 90 - 100 mm while the outer gauge cutters
may have an effective spacing of 10 - 20 mm. However, all cutterheads in the data-
base have a relative position of the average cutter which is approximately rmc = 0.6,
see [3.5], indicating that the cutterheads have more or less the same variation in the
cutter spacing over the cutterhead.
Figure 2.5 shows that a close to linear relation has been found between the cutter
spacing and the penetration rate, and that the relative influence of the cutter spacing
decreases with increasing rock mass fracturing factor (or rock mass boreability).
Figure 2.5 is based on a gross average thrust force of 250 kN/cutter and a cutter di-
ameter of 483 mm.
A more theoretical approach may suggest that the relation should be to the square of
the average cutter spacing as in [2.4] instead of the linear relation in Figure 2.5, since
the necessary crack propagation energy is proportional to the crack area.
k d = a − b ⋅ a c2 [2.4]
a = constant
b = constant
ac = average cutter spacing (mm)
38
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.5 Cutterhead RPM
2.5 CUTTERHEAD RPM
The prediction models in the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL
BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear, do not consider the cutterhead RPM as a
parameter of influence. The main reason for this is that the various machines in the
database have been designed for maximum cutterhead RPM with regard to the maxi-
mum recommended rolling velocity of the gauge cutter. Hence, the database does not
give the opportunity to evaluate the influence of the cutterhead RPM.
Cutter diameter, mm 356 394 432 483

Design gauge velocity, m/s 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6
Design cutterhead RPM, rev/min 32 / dtbm 38 / dtbm 44 / dtbm 50 / dtbm
Design gauge cutter rpm, rev/min 91 97 102 103
Table 2.2 General design criteria for cutterhead RPM of open hard rock TBMs.
However, there are indications that the rolling velocity of the cutters has a significant
influence on the penetration in mm/rev. Some few observations of cutterheads with
substantially lower RPM than given in Table 2.2 indicate a notable increase in pene-
tration per revolution compared to cutterheads with RPM according to Table 2.2. Ob-
servations of cutterheads with substantially higher RPM than given in Table 2.2 show
lower penetration per revolution than cutterheads with RPM according to Table 2.2.
The loading rate of the cutter ring versus a given point of the rock face is proportional
to the cutterhead RPM or the rolling velocity of the cutter.
In rock mechanics it is a general rule that the loading rate affects the deformation and
strength properties of a test sample1. A high loading rate will result in higher rock
strength than a low loading rate. The change in deformation properties is explained by
the rock content of microcracks. When the loading rate is high, the microcracks are
not allowed the necessary time to close, resulting in a high modulus of elasticity being
measured.
1
Myrvang, A.: Lecture notes in Rock Mechanics, basic course, Trondheim 1996
39
The strength increase with increased loading rate is explained correspondingly. A

high loading rate does not allow the dislocations, deformations and growth of micro-
cracks to develop to such a degree as to which a low loading rate would.
The loading rate of a cutter may be estimated roughly based on Figure 2.6 and Table
2.2. Assuming a cutter indentation of ip = 5 mm and a rectangular cutter edge foot-
print with triangular stress distribution, the load rate of the rock under the cutter ring
will be as shown in Table 2.3. The estimated loading rate is based on the assumption
that the time of contact between the cutter edge and a point on the rock surface is
equally distributed on loading and unloading.
M B = g ro s s th ru s t
r c
M
r c - ip
ro c k s u rfa c e
ip
lr c
Figure 2.6 Cutter indentation and stress distribution under a cutter ring.
40
Load Time of Load Rate of

Cutter Diameter Contact Angle 2ω Gross Thrust the Average the Average
mm ° kN/cutter Cutter Position Cutter Position
s MPa/s
356 27.2 160 0.041 8296

394 25.9 190 0.037 8865
432 24.7 220 0.034 8236
483 23.4 250 0.032 8470
Table 2.3 Load rate of the average cutter position on a cutterhead with RPM ac-
cording to Table 2.2. rmc = 0.6. The cutter edge width for the smallest to
the largest cutter diameter is assumed to be 11, 13, 17 and 19 mm re-
spectively.
Compared to the load rate recommended by ISRM for testing of the rock compressive
strength, which is 0.5 - 1.0 MPa/s, the estimated load rate in Table 2.3 indicates that
the rock strength rather should be tested by a dynamic or impact test than by compres-
sive strength.
The Earth Mechanics Institute at Colorado School of Mines in the US has performed
several laboratory tests with a 1.83 m diameter cutterhead. In general, they have
found that the cutterhead RPM has a great influence on the penetration rate in mm per
cutterhead revolution. Figure 2.7 shows test results2 from boring in a limestone with a
UCS of approximately 120 MPa. One must remark that the variation in cutterhead
RPM is very large in Figure 2.7. Usually, the applied variation is much less, i.e.
+20 % and -50 % compared to the design RPM.
The results in Figure 2.7 may be used to indicate a correction factor for varying cut-
terhead RPM. The correction should be applied directly to the basic penetration or to
the net penetration rate as in [2.5].
2
L. Ozdemir and R. J. Miller: Cutter Performance Study for Deep Based Missile Egress Excavation, EMI-
CSM 1986
41
5
RPM = 10
mm/rev
4
RPM = 18
RPM = 27
3
0
25 50 75 100 125 150
Mt, kN/cutter
Figure 2.7 Penetration curves for laboratory tests of a 1.83 m diameter cutterhead
equipped with 12" (dc = 305 mm) cutters in limestone. Design RPM
would according to Table 2.2 be approximately 13.
ir = k r ⋅ i0
[2.5]
I r = kr ⋅ I n
ir = basic penetration corrected for cutterhead RPM (mm/rev)

Ir = net penetration rate corrected for cutterhead RPM (m/h)
kr = correction factor for cutterhead RPM
42
1.6
kr
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Relative RPM
Figure 2.8 Correction factor for cutterhead RPM, based on data in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.8 must be used with caution.
43
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.6 Machine Stiffness
2.6 MACHINE STIFFNESS
The machine stiffness consists of two major parts:
• Hydraulic stiffness of the thrust cylinders.

• Structural stiffness, especially of the cutterhead.
The hydraulic stiffness per cutter Shc of the thrust system of a machine is calculated as
follows:
ntc ⋅ Atc ⋅ K h
S hc = (kN/mm) [2.6]
ltc ⋅ N tbm
ntc = number of thrust cylinders on the machine

Atc = cross sectional area of the thrust cylinders (mm2)
Kh = bulk modulus of the hydraulic oil, typically 1.7 kN/mm2
ltc = distance from the cylinder head to the piston face (mm)
Ntbm = number of cutters on the cutterhead
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
N o rm a l fo rc e , k N
2 0 S tiffn e s s = 2 1 .5 k N /m m
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0 S tiffn e s s = 1 4 7 .6 k N /m m
0 1 2
T im e , s
Figure 2.9 Normal force recorded during linear cutting tests3. Except from the hy-
draulic stiffness, cutting parameters are identical.
3
R.A. Snowdon, M.D. Ryley, J. Temporal and G.I. Crabb: The Effect of Hydraulic Stiffness on Tunnel
Boring Machine Performance, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 1983, Vol. 20, No. 5.
44
The effect of the hydraulic stiffness may be illustrated by registrations of the normal
force from linear cutting tests in the laboratory. Figure 2.9 shows that the test rig stiff-
ness has an obvious influence on the average normal force on the cutter axle, while
the peak force seems to be independent of the test rig stiffness. The peak force is
believed to occur when a chip is formed. The more smooth variations in normal force
for a less stiff machine are believed to result from the machine's ability to hold the
cutter ring in contact with the rock face after a chip has been formed.
Figure 2.10 shows the mean normal force on the cutter for linear cutting tests in Greg-
ory Sandstone3. Each cut has a cutting depth of 6 mm. The necessary increase in mean
normal force from the high to the low hydraulic stiffness is significant for all tested
kerf spacing distances. When the test results are transferred to a TBM boring in hard
rock, the interpretation must be that a machine with high hydraulic stiffness will reach
a higher net penetration rate than a machine with low hydraulic stiffness operating at
equal cutter loads.
140
kN/cutter
147.6 kN/mm
120
21.5 kN/mm
100
80
60
40
20
0
30 60 90 120
Kerf spacing, mm
Figure 2.10 Mean normal force for linear cutting tests. Except from the hydraulic
stiffness cutting parameters are identical.
45
One must note that the Figures 2.9 and 2.10 are based on single pass tests, while a
cutter on a cutterhead usually needs multiple passes to form a chip. The more constant
(and higher average) thrust situation of a cutterhead with low stiffness may result in
more initiation and growth of cracks than for a more stiff cutterhead. Thus, the higher
average thrust situation most probably will result in more chipping, and the effect of
hydraulic stiffness may be less significant than indicated in Figure 2.10.
Some observations from boring with the use of high cutterhead support pressure indi-
cate a reduced penetration per revolution compared to using less cutterhead support
pressure, allowing a more dynamic force situation at the cutterhead.
The available field and laboratory data are far from sufficient to establish specific
relations between machine stiffness and penetration rate. However, a general under-
standing is that a less stiff machine will have lower penetration rate than a more stiff
machine.
From the above discussion and from [2.6], it is likely that the penetration rate will
decrease over the stroke length. Hence, penetration tests should be taken within one
stroke, and preferably not at the start of the stroke. According to Snowdon et al.3,
most of the reduction in hydraulic stiffness has occurred at a thrust cylinder extension
of 300 - 400 mm and it is therefore recommended that penetration tests are performed
at a cylinder extension of 400 mm or more.
46
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.7 Machine Design
2.7 MACHINE DESIGN
In the design of a hard rock TBM, the above discussed machine parameters are not
treated individually, but form a synthesis based on the cutter diameter and the appli-
cable thrust. For the smaller TBM diameters it is for example more a question of how
many cutters the cutterhead gives space for than it is a question of optimising the cut-
ter spacing.
Table 2.4 shows typical machine parameters for hard rock TBMs of three consecutive
design generations.
TBM Generation 1 2 3
Cutter Diameter 394 mm 432 mm 483 mm
No. of Cutters 27 26 25
Average Cutter 64.8 mm 67.3 mm 70.0 mm
Spacing
Applicable Gross 200 kN/cutter 225 kN/cutter 260 kN/cutter
Thrust
Cutterhead RPM 10.9 12.6 14.3
Cutterhead Power 600 kW 900 kW 1350 kW
Table 2.4 Machine parameters of 3.5 m diameter hard rock TBMs.
Figure 2.11 shows the penetration rate for each of the three machines estimated ac-
cording to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance
Rate and Cutter Wear. Figure 2.12 shows the necessary thrust force to achieve
equal penetration rate, based on the same estimation models. The figures clearly show
that the development trend towards using larger diameter cutters has been successful.
For the time being, the most immediate design challenge for hard rock TBMs is the
cutter ring steel quality. An improvement is needed to be able to utilise the thrust and
torque capacity of the machines and make TBM tunnelling in hard rock conditions
even more competitive.
47
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.7 Machine Design
8
m/h
7
5 k ekv = 1.5
2 k ekv = 0.5
0
350 400 450 500
dc, mm
Figure 2.11 Estimated penetration rate for three TBM design generations according
to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Ad-
vance Rate and Cutter Wear.
270
kN/cutter
260
250
k ekv = 1.5
240
230
k ekv = 0.5
220
350 400 450 500
dc, mm
Figure 2.12 Necessary thrust force to achieve equal penetration rate for three TBM
design generations according to the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK
48
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.8 Cutter Ring Shape
2.8 CUTTER RING SHAPE
Figure 2.13 shows two basic cutter ring designs.
Figure 2.13 Wedge Shape and Constant Cross Section design of cutter rings.
The shape of the cutter edge affects boring performance:
• Wedge Shape rings give high penetration rate as long as the edge is sharp. The
penetration rate drops rapidly with edge bluntness since the edge bluntness re-
duces the stress under the cutter ring and the cutter indentation due to the in-
creased edge width.
• Constant Cross Section rings give a more even penetration rate over the ring life,
since the cutter edge width varies less over the cutter ring life, and is the most fa-
vourable ring design for hard rock conditions.
The estimation model of penetration rate in the Project Report 1B-98 HARD
ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear is based on Constant
Cross Section cutter rings with an average bluntness (approximately 50 % worn
rings).
In abrasive rock with low SJ, cutters must be replaced very frequently. The cutter
edge will be worn down to a flat shape and not to the normal rounded shape. This
may result in a lower penetration rate than expected due to an inevitable lag in the
cutter replacement.
49
2. MACHINE FACTORS 2.8 Cutter Ring Shape
Penetration tests with new and sharp cutters show a very high penetration coefficient
b (measured as high as 6 in homogeneous rock mass) and a relatively low critical
thrust M1. Penetration tests with very worn cutters in the same rock conditions and the
same machine parameters show a lower b and a higher M1. It is however questionable
whether it is economically correct to try to avoid the lag in cutter replacement to the
benefit of increased penetration rate in rock mass with very low boreability.
Cutter rings with carbide inserts may be used under such conditions. Cutter replace-
ment will then be reduced. The breaking edge of the cutter, i.e. the carbide inserts,
will preserve their shape and give better penetration rate over the cutter ring life. The
use of cutter rings with carbide inserts has yet to prove economic feasible outside es-
pecially abrasive and hard rock conditions.
50
3. TORQUE 3.1 Cutter Coefficient
3.1 CUTTER COEFFICIENT
The required torque to rotate the cutterhead depends on:
• The cutterhead diameter.

• The number and position of cutters on the cutterhead.
• The gross thrust per cutter.
• The cutter coefficient.
The cutter coefficient kc is the ratio between the drag force SB and the thrust force MB
on the cutter (see Figure 3.1). The cutter coefficient depends on:
• The penetration rate in mm/rev.

• The type of cutter rings (diameter and shape).
• The average wear state of the cutter rings.
• The cutter spacing.
• The cutterhead shape.
• The degree of skidding instead of rolling, especially of the centre cutters.
• The indentation depth.
• The rock mass degree of fracturing.
• The orientation of the planes of weakness.
• Etc.
The cutter coefficient is, in principle, the rolling resistance of the cutter. The rolling
resistance is obtained by moment equilibrium about the cutter axle.
One may assume that the angle φ of the gross resultant force RB to the gross thrust MB
is approximately ω/2. The cutter coefficient may then be expressed as:
ω sin ω rc2 − (rc − i p ) 2 rc 2 ⋅ rc ⋅ i p − i p2

k c = tan = = = [3.1]
2 1 − cos ω rc − i p rc − i p
1+ rc ⋅ (1 + )
rc rc
ip = cutter indentation (mm)

rc = cutter radius (mm)
51
c u tte r S B
e d g e
w
r c r c - ip
j
ro c k s u rfa c e
ip
c o n ta c t
p re s s u re
R B = g r o s s r e s u lta n t fo r c e
Figure 3.1 Cutter coefficient kc = tanφ.
Since the cutter radius rc is large compared to the cutter indentation ip, [3.1] may be
simplified to:
2 ⋅ rc ⋅ i p 2 ⋅ rc
kc ≈ = ⋅ i p = c c' ⋅ i p [3.2]
2 ⋅ rc 2 ⋅ rc
The indentation depth ip cannot be measured. When normalising field data, one must
assume that there is a relation between ip and i0. Hence, the basic penetration i0 are
used to estimate the cutter constant cc according to [3.3].
k c = c c ⋅ i0 [3.3]
52
The cutter constant has been estimated based on field data from TBM penetration
tests, shown in Figure 3.2. Of course, the field data show more variation than the
smooth curve indicates.
Equation [3.2] gives cc′ a value of approximately 0.046 for a cutter diameter of 483
mm, while Figure 3.2 shows a cutter constant cc of 0.035 for the same cutter diameter.
Since the indentation ip is assumed to be larger than the basic penetration i0, the angle
φ must be less than ω/2. Hence, the field data indicate that the contact stress distribu-
tion under the cutter ring is more concentrated towards the deepest indentation as
shown in Figure 3.3, making the angle φ of the resultant force RB less than ω/2.
There are several other assumptions that may contribute to explain the deviation be-
tween the observed and theoretically estimated cutter constant.
• [3.1] assumes a rectangular footprint of the cutter, while the real footprint is
more similar to a half ellipse.
• The stress distribution under the cutter has a tail behind the deepest indentation.
• When the chipping or rock breaking is efficient, ip may be less than i0.
0 .0 6
c c
0 .0 5
0 .0 4
0 .0 3
3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0
C u tte r d ia m e te r , m m
Figure 3.2 Cutter constant. From the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK
53
c u tte r S B
e d g e
w
r c r c - ip
j
ro c k s u rfa c e
ip
c o n ta c t
p re s s u re
R B = g r o s s r e s u lta n t fo r c e
Figure 3.3 Possible stress distribution under a cutter ring.
54
3. TORQUE 3.2 Torque Demand
3.2 TORQUE DEMAND
The torque demand is estimated as follows:
Tn = rmc ⋅ d tbm ⋅ N tbm ⋅ M B ⋅ k c / 2 (kNm) [3.4]
rmc = relative radius to the position of the average cutter on the cutterhead.
When the cutterhead design is known, the factor may be calculated, see
[3.5]. Normally, rmc is approximately 0.59.
dtbm = cutterhead diameter
Ntbm = number of cutters on the cutterhead
MB = gross average cutter thrust
kc = cutter coefficient (rolling resistance), see [3.3].
N tbm
∑r
i =1
i
N tbm
rmc = [3.5]
0.5 ⋅ d tbm
ri = radius to position of cutter no. i
The required power delivered by the cutterhead drive motors is found by:
Tn ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ RPM
Pn = (kW) [3.6]
60
RPM = cutterhead revolutions per minute (rev/min).
Most machines are designed for a cutter coefficient of kc = 0.10 ± 0.02 at maximum
thrust capacity.
55
4. BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 4.0 Introduction
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The net penetration rate increases when boring in fractured rock mass. The additional
penetration due to fracturing is not only dependent on rock conditions, but on the
TBM as well.
The chipping mechanisms of boring in fractured rock mass vary with the type of dis-
continuities, i.e. whether they are Marked Single Joints or systematically occurring
planes of weakness. The prediction model for boring in fractured rock mass is based
on extensive records from tunnel projects, mainly in Norway, but also in other coun-
tries.
56
4. BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 4.1 Marked Single Joints
4.1 MARKED SINGLE JOINTS
A typical progress of boring through a Marked Single Joint is shown in Figure 4.1.
le s p B
A A -A B -B
= e s p
d tb m
A B
V o id a r e a
C h a in a g e 1 4 2 0 1 4 3 0 1 4 4 0
k N /c u tte r d
= e s p = a ta n tb m
le s p
Ie s p
m /h
Figure 4.1 Penetration rate progress for boring through a Marked Single Joint. (In
the figure one should not confuse lesp giving the influence length of the
MSJ and Iesp giving the average net penetration rate over the influence
length of the MSJ.)
The net penetration rate increases until section A-A, where the void area is largest,
and then decreases towards the end (outgoing) of the joint. The penetration rate in-
crease is caused by a combination of two factors:
• The rock is already partly broken by the joint.

• The fall-out causes increased cutter load.
For Marked Single Joints, the effect of the already broken rock is believed to be the
minor factor explaining the penetration rate increase.
The fall-out along the joint plane leaves a void area in the face (see the Figures 4.1
and 4.2). The void area is largest at section A-A where the extent of the joint equals
the tunnel diameter. The void area implies that a few cutters lose contact with the
face, and therefore cannot take any load. This load is transferred to cutters still in
57
contact with the face, thus increasing the effective thrust for these. As stated in Chap-
ter 2, penetration tests show that the penetration rate increases with increasing thrust.
The addition in penetration rate due to jointing is approximately proportional to the

void area in the face. The void area can be estimated and used when normalising
penetration rate data.
Figure 4.2 Void area in the tunnel face along a joint in amphibolitic schist.
If more than one single joint occurs at the same time, the total effect must be esti-
mated and overruled by judgement, see Figure 4.3. The TBM will in such zones often
be torque limited. Thrust is kept more or less constant when the joint is met until the
machine vibrates excessively or is torque limited. Thrust is then reduced, and in-
creased again when the effect of the joint is disappearing.
58
F ro m th e = 1
b a c k - m a p p in g = 2
m /h
( m e a s u r e d in
th e tu n n e l)
Figure 4.3 Penetration rate progress for boring through more than one Marked
Single Joint.
The theoretical penetration addition will increase with increasing angle between the
tunnel axis and the plane of the Marked Single Joint, as shown in Figure 4.4. Due to
heavy machine vibrations and risk of excessive cutter wear or damage, it is not possi-
ble to fully utilise the penetration addition when the theoretical addition is more than
approximately 40 %. In such cases, it is necessary to reduce the cutterhead thrust.
, % e s p
T h e o r e tic a l
P e n e tr a tio n a d d itio n k
P r a c tic a l
0 ° 3 0 ° 6 0 ° 9 0 °
A n g le b e tw e e n tu n n e l a x is a n d s in g le jo in t, = e s p
Figure 4.4 Theoretical and practical penetration rate addition when boring through
Marked Single Joints.
59
In rock mass with low boreability (e.g. DRI = 30 and a low degree of fracturing) the
practical limit of penetration addition will be reached at an angle as low as 20° - 30°.
When the angle between the tunnel axis and the plane of the Marked Single Joint is
80° - 90°, the influence of the joint will most likely be negative due to heavy vibra-
tions and damage of the cutter rings. In any case, a Marked Single Joint at an angle of
80° - 90° will have influence over a very short distance and should therefore not be
included in the penetration rate estimations.
The Figure 4.5 shows the normalised penetration addition. The addition is applicable
for boring in rock mass with little or no systematic fracturing (≈ St 0). When the de-
gree of fracturing increases, the penetration addition decreases. Hence, the penetration
addition should rather be a function of kekv (see the Project Report 1B-98 HARD
ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear) than αesp. However,
the field data are not sufficient to establish such a model.
DRI=30 DRI=40
1.4
kesp DRI=50
1.3
DRI=60
1.2
1.1
10 20 30 40 50 60
a esp , degrees
Figure 4.5 Correction factor for Marked Single Joints. From the Project Report 1B-
98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear.
60
The length of a single joint along the tunnel increases linearly with TBM diameter.
Thus, larger machines utilise the penetration rate addition over a longer distance.
61
4. BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 4.2 Systematic Fractures
4.2 SYSTEMATIC FRACTURES
"Trains" of joints or fissures are treated as systematically occurring discontinuities in

the rock mass. Description and classification of these are given in the Project Report
1D-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Geology and Site Investigations.
The penetration rate addition is a combination of two factors:
• The effect of thrust concentration due to void area as described for Marked Single
Joints. The void area for systematically fractured rock mass is considerably
smaller than for Marked Single Joints. This is due to higher strength along the
planes of weakness, resulting in less fall-out from the face.
• Chipping along the planes of weakness will occur frequently since the rock is al-
ready partly broken by the joints or fissures.
Figure 4.6 Void area in fractured andesite.

62
When boring perpendicular to the weakness planes with a small distance between the
planes, the cutters will break the rock directly against the planes of weakness as
shown in Detail A of Figure 4.7.
When boring "on end" in heavily fractured rock mass or in rocks with low strength
along the foliation planes, the chips are broken in two ways as shown in the Details B
and C in Figure 4.7. Chips in Detail C are broken as slivers along jointing or foliation
planes.
= = 9 0 °
C = = 0 °
Figure 4.7 Various chipping patterns for boring in systematically fractured rock.
63
Figure 4.8 shows the rock mass fracturing factor ks. The curves show that when the
spacing between the joints or fissures is large, there will be an optimum angle be-
tween the tunnel axis and the planes of weakness. This is explained by the presence
(or absence) of joints or fissures at the rock face as illustrated in Figure 4.9. For α =
90°, it is obvious that the planes of weakness will only be present at the face and in-
fluence the penetration rate for short distances along the tunnel.
IV
4 .0
F is s u r e C la s s J o in t C la s s
k s
3 .0
III-IV
2 .0
III II
II-III I-II
1 .0
II I
I 0 -I
0 0
1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0
= , d e g re e s
Figure 4.8 Fracturing factor. From the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK
64
T u n n e l
a x is
= = 0 ° = = 6 0 ° = = 9 0 °
Figure 4.9 Influence of systematically occurring fissures or joints at various angles

to the tunnel axis.
When the spacing between the planes of weakness is very low (e.g. 50 mm, St IV),
the radial cracks from under the cutter will "always" reach a weakness plane (see Fig-
ure 4.7 Detail A), and the fracturing factor ks will increase until an angle of α = 90°.
65
4. BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 4.3 Mixed Face
4.3 MIXED FACE
Mixed face conditions exist when the tunnel face contains sections with substantially
different properties. The change from rock mass interpreted as containing a layered
rock type or Marked Single Joints to rock mass interpreted as mixed face conditions is
not well defined. Mixed face may occur in sedimentary rocks, basalts, intrusions, etc.
soft rock
Possible t
ingle Join
Marked S
Possible t
ingle Join
hard rock Marked S
soft rock
Figure 4.10 Typical mixed face conditions.
It is very difficult to establish a model to estimate penetration rate and cutter wear in
mixed face conditions. However, it is a general impression that the hardest layers or
parts are dominating concerning cutter forces. The reason for this is that the hardest
parts of the face will need higher thrust per cutter than the softer parts to achieve
equal penetration in mm/rev.
If one is able to establish separate geological parameters for the hard and soft layers,
one may back-estimate a rough force distribution between the same layers based on
achieved basic penetration rate, average cutter load for the complete face and the per-
centage of hard and soft layers. The back-estimation is an iterative process using the
prediction model in Project Report 1A-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Ad-
vance rate and Cutter Wear. In a face of e.g. 40 % hard and 60 % soft rock, 40 %
of the cutters are assumed to be in the hard layer and 60 % of the cutters are assumed
to be in the soft layer. As a starting point, the thrust of the cutters in the hard part of
the face may be estimated as 25 % higher than the thrust of the cutters in the soft part.
66
4. BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 4.3 Mixed Face
100
M hard = ⋅MB
p soft
p hard +
1.25 (kN/cutter) [4.1]
100
M soft = ⋅MB
p hard
+ p soft
1.25
Mhard = cutter thrust in the hard part of the mixed face (kN/cutter)
Msoft = cutter thrust in the soft part of the mixed face (kN/cutter)
MB = average applied gross cutter thrust of the TBM (kN/cutter)
phard = percentage of hard layers or parts in the mixed face (%)
psoft = percentage of soft layers or parts in the mixed face (%)
When estimating the penetration rate in mixed face conditions at the planning phase
of a tunnel, the basic problem is to estimate the gross cutter thrust in the hard part of
the face. Due to vibrations in the cutterhead and very high cutter forces occurring
when a cutter rolls from the soft part to the hard part, it is unlikely that one is able to
utilise a thrust level of more than 90 - 100 % of the gross cutter thrust used when
mixed face conditions are not present.
67
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.1 Cutter Types
5.1 CUTTER TYPES
A typical single disc cutter consists of:
• A removable cutter ring with split ring.

• Hub.
• Two conical bearings.
• Sealings.
• Shaft with retainers.
Several cutter types are available. The different cutter types can be divided into
groups:
• Single disc cutters with Constant Cross Section or Wedge Shape rings.
• Multi disc cutters with Constant Cross Section or Wedge Shape rings.
• Single or multi disc cutters with carbide inserts.
• Steel cutters with carbide insert rows.
• Single disc cutters with divided rings.
The estimation model applies to the most commonly used single disc cutters with
Constant Cross Section steel rings. Multi disc cutters are more or less out of use due
to thrust limitations caused by the bearing capacity.
Use of cutters with carbide inserts usually results in higher cutter costs. However,
they should be preferred for shaft operations where it is important to keep the cutter
replacement at a minimum.
Single disc cutters with carbide inserts are undergoing constant development - but are
at present not economically favourable. The problem is partly that the steel around the
carbide inserts is worn too quickly or that the inserts are crushed. However, this cutter
type may be used for boring in especially hard and abrasive rocks.
68
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.1 Cutter Types
S te e l r in g H u b
S e a lin g
B e a r in g
S h a ft
Figure 5.1 Single disc cutter with steel ring.
69
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.2 Cutter Wear Caused by Rock
5.2 CUTTER WEAR CAUSED BY ROCK
5.21 Rock Abrasion
The cutter ring consumption per tunnel metre is primarily determined by the rock ab-
rasiveness and the rock mass discontinuities. The rock abrasiveness on the cutter ring
is caused by two factors:
• The time-dependent abrasion on the ring steel or the carbide inserts.

• The rock surface hardness (resistance to indentation).
The cutter ring is abraded by the crushed rock powder left in the kerf after each pass
and by the broken and crushed rock flowing from the face. The abrasiveness of the
crushed rock powder and the chips on the ring steel is expressed by the abrasion test
AVS (see the Project Report 13A-98 DRILLABILITY Test Methods).
The rock surface hardness determines the amount of crushed rock powder produced
per pass and the size of the contact area between the cutter edge and the crushed pow-
der. The rock hardness is expressed by the Sievers' J-value SJ (see the Project Re-
port 13A-98 DRILLABILITY Test Methods).
5.22 Cutter Life Index CLI
The Cutter Life Index CLI is an empirical index based on correlation of the rock tests
AVS and SJ against recorded cutter ring life. However, it is still necessary to consider
the rock mineral content when estimating cutter ring life. The estimation model for
cutter life in the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Ad-
vance Rate and Cutter Wear uses the quartz content as a correction factor to the
CLI value. In this context, other hard minerals such as epidote and garnet should be
included in the quartz content.
The mineral content of the rock determines the effective time related abrasiveness of a
rock type, and the strong influence of quartz and other hard minerals is explained as
follows. The softer minerals are crushed to such an extent that they do not function as
mineral grains any longer. The hard minerals become overexposed, which again
70
results in a higher ring abrasion. The enhanced abrasion seems to increase for increas-
ing content of weak minerals such as mica, calcite and amphibole.
The AVS is measured in the laboratory using crushed rock powder less than 1 mm. It
is a possible explanation that the crushing process in the laboratory differs from the
crushing under a cutter ring, necessitating the correction factor for quartz content to
improve the correlation between field and laboratory data.
5.23 Vickers Hardness Number of Rock
The Vickers hardness number VHNR for a rock type is found by weighting the Vick-
ers hardness of each mineral to a compound Vickers hardness for the rock type (see
the Project Report 13A-98 DRILLABILITY Test Methods).
Quartz has a Vickers hardness of 1060 and most rock types will have a VHNR consid-
erably less than 1060. A granite will typically have a VHNR of 750 - 900.
Figure 5.2 shows envelope curves for recorded and normalised cutter ring life based
on field data. The figure indicates that the rock type, in addition to the mineral con-
tent, has an influence on the cutter life.
71
L im e s to n e
7 0 0
V e s ic u la r b a s a lt
6 0 0
(h r) o
5 0 0
c u tte rs , H
P h y llite s
4 0 0
C u tte r r in g life fo r 3 9 4 m m
G r e e n s to n e /g r e e n s c h is t
3 0 0
2 0 0
A r k o s ite
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
M ic a g n e is s
7 0
6 0
G r a n ite /
g n e is s
5 0
M ic a s c h is t/
m ic a g n e is s
4 0
Q u a r tz ite
3 0
M A = % m ic a + % a m p h ib o le
2 0 M A < 1 5 %
1 5 % < M A < 3 5 %
3 5 % < M A < 4 5 %
M A > 4 5 %
1 0
1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 0 0
T o ta l V ic k e r s H a r d n e s s , V H N R
Figure 5.2 Recorded cutter ring life as a function of Vickers hardness number for
rock VHNR. RPM = 38/dtbm and dc = 394 mm.
72
5.24 Abrasion Pattern
The steel ring abrasion is an interaction between the rock powder abrasiveness, the
powder (and small chips) quantity and the ring area in contact with the powder.
The ring abrasion is temperature dependent. Water flushing not only reduces the dust
in front of the cutterhead, but also reduces the ring temperature. The ring abrasion has
been observed to increase when "dry boring" occurs.
A B C D
Figure 5.3 Cross sections of replaced rings from boring in various rock types.
• The flat edge of ring A occurs when boring in rock with high resistance to inden-
tation and high abrasiveness, e.g. granitic gneiss. The small indentation and the
relatively small quantity of crushed rock powder in the kerf result in large abra-
sion at the cutter ring edge and low abrasion at the cutter ring sides. It is believed
that intact rock wears more than crushed rock powder.
• The double curved edge of ring B occurs when boring in rock with average resis-
tance to indentation and high abrasiveness, e.g. mica schist with high quartz con-
tent. The combination results in large abrasion of the cutter ring edge. Due to the
fact that the cutter ring has been indented somewhat into the rock surface, one can
imagine that some rock powder has been flowing to the sides, creating the distinc-
tive wear pattern.
• The heavily abraded ring C occurs for a combination of low resistance to indenta-
tion and low abrasiveness. A great loss of weight for the whole ring is characteris-
tic for this abrasion form. As for ring B, one may imagine that rock powder (and
small chips) has been flowing to the sides of the cutter ring.
73
• The sharp edge of ring D occurs when boring in rock with particularly low resis-
tance to indention and low abrasiveness, e.g. shale. A large amount of crushed
powder flows past the sides of the ring. This produces great side abrasion and low
abrasion at the cutter ring edge. The effect is called self-sharpening. The large in-
dentation gives increased ring temperature, which amplifies the effect.
• One should note that the life of the rings (in hours) is increasing from ring A to
ring D. Ring A represents rock with CLI < 8, while ring D represents rock with
CLI >> 50.
5.25 Cutter Wear Caused by Fractures
The cutter edge will be exposed to large momentary loads in fractured rock mass or
when extremely good chipping occurs. The ring then has a tendency to chip along the
edge. This is not a problem if the ring chipping is small. Extensive ring chipping may
result in bevel edge wear, disc loosening and frozen bearings. Chipping along the
edge increases with increasing thrust or increasing steel hardness (e.g. as measured by
the Rockwell C hardness).
Marked Single Joints may have an especially strong influence on chipping (or de-
structive wear) of the cutter rings. The occurrence of chipping of the cutter ring is
related to the penetration rate addition that may be utilised, see Section 4.1. The ex-
tent of the chipping is a function of joint aperture, joint angle to the tunnel axis and
rock strength as the main rock mass factors. Figure 4.5 may be used as an indication
of when the chipping will become excessive and the cutterhead thrust should be re-
duced to avoid destruction of the cutter rings.
For tough boring in fractured rock mass with unfavourable orientation, frozen bear-
ings may be a problem. This applies especially to boring through Marked Single
Joints and mixed face conditions because of large momentary loads on the cutters.
Observations indicate that the bearing life in rock mass with many Marked Single
Joints is about 15 % below the average bearing life. Sealing problems also increase
under such conditions. The bearing life has been observed to increase by about 15 %
when boring with reduced thrust in heavily fractured rock mass. Fall-outs from the
74
face may in extreme situations cause the cutter housings to be damaged. For such rock
mass conditions, the cutterhead RPM should be reduced or the cutter housings pro-
tected by a front shield.
75
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.3 Machine Factors Affecting Cutter Wear
5.3 MACHINE FACTORS AFFECTING CUTTER WEAR
Some of the machine factors affecting the cutter wear are described briefly below.
The description is based on field observations and data.
• Tough boring with high thrust level, especially right after a cutter change will re-
duce the cutter ring life. The new steel rings are particularly brittle and prone to
chipping along the edge. Generally, boring results in some ductile hardening of
the ring steel.
• At the start of the tunnel when all the cutter rings are new, the ring life will be
higher than the estimate for the given geology due to an even ring wear before re-
placement of the cutters start. This extra life is most evident for smaller machine
diameters.
• After a cutter change, the new cutters will have larger diameter than the others. If
the difference in diameter between adjacent cutters is too large, additional loads
and high abrasion on the protruding cutters is the result.
Based on the above observations, it is strongly recommended that one should aim at
changing cutters in series rather than changing single cutters.
• Heavy vibration of the cutterhead results in high side forces on the cutters and
additional abrasion. This is most evident for the centre and gauge cutters.
• The centre cutters are more prone to skidding than the others due to the small
track radius. The skidding results in uneven abrasion and reduced ring life. The
problem increases with increasing cutter diameter. Absence of free rolling com-
bined with high side forces will also reduce the cutter bearing life.
• Prolonged ring life for the centre cutters may be obtained by sacrificing the two or
three cutter positions next to the centre cutters. This means that those cutter posi-
tions should always have less worn rings than the centre cutters.
• The hubs are worn approximately proportional to the rings. Worn down hubs will,
due to reduced stiffness, reduce the bearing life considerably by frequent block-
ages (frozen bearings). Ring slip (loose rings) will increase as well.
76
• For shaft boring with TBMs on steep incline, the cutter life has been observed to
increase by 10 - 15 %. The increase is explained by a better muck removal from
the face.
• When boring on decline, a larger amount of muck will gather between the tunnel
invert and the face. Due to the extra crushing of loose rock, the gauge cutter life is
reduced. A 30 - 50 % reduction of the ring life has been recorded. Excessive wear
of the scrapers of the muck scopes will have the same effect on the life of the
gauge cutters.
• The gauge cutters may be difficult to change if they are worn too much, due to a
reduced tunnel diameter. An acceptable ring life may still be obtained by reducing
the spacing for the gauge cutters and increasing the amount of material in the ring
(increased edge width).
• Cutter life (in rolled distance) is quite even over the cutterhead, apart from the
centre and gauge cutters. This fact, combined with the effect that all the cutters
rolls with individual speed, produces a replacement curve as shown in Figure 5.4.
The wear patterns described above presuppose that the wear to a large extent is abra-
sive, and not destructive.
When the hardening of the ring steel is not adapted to the rock conditions, destructive
wear will be more pronounced. Figure 5.5 shows examples of wear pattern for cutter
rings of too soft and too hard steel. Measurements of hardness and observations of
wear patterns indicate that cutter rings for hard rock conditions should have a Rock-
well C hardness of HRC < 60.
77
H
ti/ tm
R e la tiv e life i b o r in g h o u r s , H
6 .0
5 .0
4 .0
6 .5 m
3 .0
2 .0 4 .5 m
3 .5 m
d tb m = 3 .5 m
1 .0 4 .5 m
6 .5 m
C e n tre G a u g e
0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
R e la tiv e c u tte r p o s itio n , i/N tb m
Figure 5.4 Recorded and normalised replacement curve on flat cutterheads for vari-
ous TBM diameters. Domed cutterheads have a more evened out transi-
tion between the face and the gauge cutters. The relative ring life is the
basis for the TBM diameter correction factor kD of the cutter life.
78
Figure 5.5 Wear pattern of cutter rings with partly destructive wear.
79
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.4 Cutter Technology
5.4 CUTTER TECHNOLOGY
Currently, hard rock tunnel boring is limited by other factors than the available thrust
and torque. The most important factor is the material quality of the cutter rings. The
quality of the cutter ring steel is limiting the thrust level of 483 - 500 mm cutters to an
average of 260 - 280 kN/cutter, resulting in a situation of not being able to utilise the
HP (High Power) TBMs as intended.
The development in the cutter technology for hard rock TBMs has concentrated on
increasing the cutter diameter to be able to sustain the cutter loads required to break
the rock. In this process there are two main topics:
• Ring steel
• Bearings.
For the largest cutters (483 - 500 mm diameter), experience shows that the ring steel
is not able to utilise the thrust capacity of the machine. To get an acceptable cutter
life, the average thrust level has been reduced to 80 - 85 % of the design thrust of the
machine. In homogeneous rock mass, where the exponent of the penetration curve
shown in Figure 2.1 is e.g. 4, the penetration rate will be reduced by approximately
50 % if the thrust level is reduced by 15 %. This indicates a large potential for re-
duced excavation costs by only small improvements in the ring steel quality.
On the other hand, the cutters in the range of 394 - 432 mm diameter, and even
smaller cutters of e.g. 200 mm diameter, have shown improvement in thrust capacity
and wear resistance. Using the model in the Project Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK
TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and Cutter Wear, the estimated penetration
rate of a 3.5 m diameter TBM is as shown in Table 5.1.
The table may indicate that a machine with 432 mm diameter cutters and as many
cutters as possible on the cutterhead, should be considered even for hard rock projects
as long as the average cutter load is limited to approximately 270 kN/cutter for 500
mm diameter cutters.
The table also shows that the material technology should be focused to be able to
make cutter rings with increased thrust capacity. There is no need to concentrate on
the machine power before the «cutter problem» is solved.
80
5. CUTTER WEAR 5.4 Cutter Technology
Cutter diameter (mm) 432 500 500
Number of cutters on the cutterhead 27 25 25

Average cutter spacing (mm) 65 70 70
Average thrust (kN/cutter) 230 270 320
DRI 40
Degree of fracturing st I
Angle (°) 20
Penetration rate (m/h) 3.00 2.87 4.20
Table 5.1 Estimated penetration rate for three TBM designs. Based on the Project
Report 1B-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Advance Rate and
Cutter Wear.
Cutterhead Design
The cutterhead design may aggravate the cutter thrust problem. Most cutterheads for
hard rock conditions are made as flat cutterheads with a relative small transition area
towards the gauge. When boring in hard rock, the transition area has the highest por-
tion of blocked cutters or cutters with oil leakage. This indicates that those cutter po-
sitions are exposed to the highest loads of the cutterhead. Therefore, as many cutters
as possible should be placed at that part of the cutterhead, at the same time as the cut-
ter spacing of the inner face is increased. In other words, the transition area is relieved
while the inner face would be suffering higher individual cutter loads.
On smaller machines (e.g. 3.5 m diameter), it is very difficult to place each cutter in
an optimum position, due to the size of the cutter housings, cutterhead balance, re-
quired space for buckets and manhole, etc. Hence, when designing a machine for 483
- 500 mm cutters, it might be advantageous to re-think the basic layout of the cutter-
head, concerning placement of buckets, manhole and other features.
81
APPENDIX A. Previous Editions
A. PREVIOUS EDITIONS
Previous editions of the Hard Rock Tunnel Boring Report including project group
members:
1-76 Norwegian edition

Bengt Drageset
Roy-Egil Hovde
Erik Dahl Johansen
Roar Sandnes
O. Torgeir Blindheim
Odd Johannessen
1-79 Norwegian edition

Knut Gakkestad
Jan Helgebostad
Svein Paulsen
Oddbjørn Aasen
Erik Dahl Johansen
O. Torgeir Blindheim
Odd Johannessen
1-83 Norwegian and English edition

Arne Lislerud
Steinar Johannessen
Amund Bruland
Tore Movinkel
Odd Johannessen

Arne Lislerud
Amund Bruland
Bjørn-Erik Johannessen
Tore Movinkel
Karsten Myrvold
Odd Johannessen

Bård Sandberg
Amund Bruland
Jan Lima
Odd Johannessen
82
APPENDIX B. Research Partners
B. RESEARCH PARTNERS
The following external research partners have supported the project:
• Statkraft anlegg as
• Norwegian Public Roads Administration
• Statsbygg
• Scandinavian Rock Group AS
• NCC Eeg-Henriksen Anlegg AS
• Veidekke ASA
• Andersen Mek. Verksted AS
• DYNO Nobel
• Atlas Copco Rock Drills AB
• Tamrock OY
• The Research Council of Norway
83
APPENDIX C. List of Parameters
C. List of Parameters
The parameters used in the report are listed in the following. The list is according to
when the parameter first is explained or treated.
Parameter Description Unit Page
ac Average cutter spacing over the cutterhead mm 37

(see also PR 1B-98)
Atc Cross section area of thrust cylinders mm2 44
AVS Abrasion Value Steel 70
(see also PR 13A-98)
b Penetration coefficient 20
(see also PR 1B-98)
cc Cutter constant - cuterhead torque 52
cc' Cutter constant - cuterhead torque 52
CLI Cutter Life Index 70
d Grain size (of TBM muck) mm 23
dc Cutter diameter mm 25
(see also PR 1B-98)
dtbm TBM or cutterhead diameter m 37
(see also PR 1B-98)
DRI Drilling Rate Index 27
fch Chipping frequency 18
fkd Kerf depth factor 17
hch Chip thickness mm 12
HRC Rockwell C hardness 77
i0 Basic penetration mm/rev 6
(see also PR 1B-98)
Iesp Net penetration rate over a Marked Single Joint m/h 57
ik Kerf depth mm 17
ip Cutter indentation mm 6
ir Basic penetration corrected for cutterhead RPM mm/rev 42
Ir Net penetration rate corrected for cutterhead RPM m/h 42
kc Cutter coefficient - cutterhead torque 51
84
kekv Equivalent fracturing factor 25

(see also PR 1B-98)
kesp Penetration addition for Marked Single Joints 60
(see also PR 1B-98)
Kh Bulk modulus of hydraulic oil N/mm2 44
kr Correction factor cutterhead RPM - penetration rate 42
ks Fracturing factor 64
(see also PR 1B-98)
lch Largest chip length mm 12
lesp Influence length of a Marked Single Joint m 57
ltc Distance between thrust cylinder face
and cylinder head mm 44
M1 Critical thrust to achieve 1 mm/rev kN/cutter 20
(see also PR 1B-98)
MB Gross average thrust per cutter kN/cutter 6
(see also PR 1B-98)
Mt Gross average thrust per cutter - penetration test kN/cutter 11
Ntbm Number of cutters on the cutterhead 25
(see also PR 1B-98)
ntc Number of thrust cylinders 44
Pn Required cutterhead power kW 55
(see also PR 1B-98)
rc Cutter radius mm 40
ri Radius to the position of cutter no. i m 55
rmc Relative radius to the position of the average
cutter on the cutterhead 41
RB Gross resultant force on cutters kN/cutter 52
RPM Cutterhead revolutions per minute rev/min 25
(see also PR 1B-98)
S20 Brittleness Value after 20 impacts % 8
SB Gross drag force on cutters kN/cutter 6
Shc Hydraulic stiffness kN/mm 44
SJ Sievers' J-value by miniature drill mm/10 8
Tn Cutterhead torque demand kNm 55
85
UCS Uniaxial compressive strength MPa 41

Vch Cubic chip size mm3 12
VHNR Vickers Hardness Number Rock 71
wch Largest chip width mm 12
α Angle between the tunnel axis and
the planes of weakness degrees(°) 65
(see also PR 1B-98)
αesp Angle between the tunnel axis and
Marked Single Joints degrees(°) 57
(see also PR 1B-98)
φ Angle of gross resultant cutter force degrees(°) 52
ω Contact angle cutter - rock degrees(°) 40
86
ISBN 82-471-0281-1
ISSN 0802-3271
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Hard Rock Tunnel Boring Vol. 7 - The Boring Process: October 2000

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Hard Rock Tunnel Boring Vol. 7 - The Boring Process

Thesis · October 2000

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The Boring Process

0.1 Project Reports about Hard Rock Tunnel Boring 3

1.1 Chip Analysis 10

1.2 Specific Energy 24

1.3 Elements of Rock Breaking 27

2.1 Penetration Curves 30

2.2 Gross Thrust 33

2.3 Cutter Diameter 35

2.4 Cutter Spacing 37

2.5 Cutterhead RPM 39

2.6 Machine Stiffness 44

2.7 Machine Design 47

2.8 Cutter Ring Shape 49

3.1 Cutter Coefficient 51

3.2 Torque Demand 55

4 BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 56

4.1 Marked Single Joints 57

4.2 Systematic Fractures 62

4.3 Mixed Face 66

5.1 Cutter Types 68

5.2 Cutter Wear Caused by Rock 70

5.3 Machine Factors Affecting Cutter Wear 76

5.4 Cutter Technology 80

HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING The Boring Process

• 1A-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Design and Construction

In addition, HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Background and Discussion gives

For reference, registration and similar, we ask for the following:

NTNU-Anleggsdrift (1998): Project Report 1F-98 HARD ROCK TUNNEL

When copying from the report, the source should be stated.

Trondheim, September 2000

Contact address: Amund Bruland

Telephone +47 73 59 47 37 Fax +47 73 59 70 21

0.1 PROJECT REPORTS ABOUT HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING

The report treats the following items:

Appendix A shows a list of previous editions of the HARD ROCK TUNNEL

Use of the Estimation Models

• Preliminary and feasibility studies

• Estimating net penetration rate and cutter wear

The penetration i0 is measured in mm per revolution as an average for several revolu-

Figure 1.1 Penetration and indentation of a disc cutter.

Figure 1.2 The principle of chipping under a disc cutter.

1.1 CHIP ANALYSES

The studies are based on the following methodology:

1.11 Chip Size

Vch = l ch ⋅ wch ⋅ hch (mm3) [1.1]

lch = average length of the largest chips (mm)

Figure 1.7 Cubic chip size based on data in Figure 1.6.

1.12 Chip Shape

0.6 FLAT AND ELONGATED

1.13 Crack Formation

Figure 1.9 Typical cross section of a chip.

Figure 1.12 Cross sections of chips collected during a penetration test.

fkd = kerf depth factor

Thrust Kerf depth Chip thickness Kerf depth factor

1.14 Chipping Frequency

i0 = TBM penetration per revolution (mm/rev)

Thrust, Penetration, Penetration, Chip thickness, Chipping frequency