COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

Postgraduate Program: Construction Engineering and Management

Course: Construction Materials (CENG-6105)

Assignment 2

Submitted by

1. Zelalem Teshome

Submitted to Dr. Deekshith K J (PhD)

Jan, 2021

Bule Hora University,

Ethiopia
1) Explain the various stage of manufacturing of Concrete?

The various stages of manufacture of concrete are the as follow

1) Batching
2) Mixing
3) Transporting
4) Placing
5) Compacting
6) Curing
7) Finishing.

1. Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. There are two methods of
batching.

a. Volume batching

b. Weigh batching

a. Volume batching
• Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the
difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms of volume.
• Volume of moist sand in a loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of
dry compacted sand.
• For unimportant concrete or for any small job, concrete may be batched by volume.
b. Weigh Batching

• Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials.

• Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and simplicity.
• Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.
• On large work sites, the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment's are used.

2. Mixing
• Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete.
• The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and
consistency.
 • There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete:
(i ) Hand mixing (ii )Machine mixing

(i). Hand mixing

• Hand mixing is practised for small scale unimportant concrete works.

• As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more
cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
• Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate
layers.
• Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by shovel, turning the mixture over
and over again until uniformity of colour is achieved.
• Water is taken in a water-can fitted with a rose-head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over.
• This operation is continued till such time a good uniform, homogeneous concrete is
obtained.
(ii) Machine Mixing
• Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete
work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work.
• Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete
to be produced is large.
• They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.
• Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time interval, whereas continuous
mixers produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is
working.

• In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used. Batch mixer may be of pan
type or drum type.
• The drum type may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action
type.
• As per I.S. 1791–1985, concrete mixers are designated by a number representing its
nominal mixed batch capacity in litres. The following are the standardized sizes of three
types:
a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T
b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT, 375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT
c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R
Non tilting type mixer
• The mixing drum is cylindrical in shape and revolves two –horizontal axis.
• It has opening on both sides.
• The ingredients are charged in from one opening.
For discharging concrete chute is introduced in to other opening by operating a lever.

Ready Mixed Concrete

Ready mixed concrete is proportioned and mixed off at the project site and is delivered to the
construction area in a freshly mixed and unhardened state. It can be manufactured by any
of the following methods:
 1.Central-mixed concrete
 2.Truck-mixed concrete

Central Mixed Concrete

• Central-mixed concrete
mixed completely in a stationary mixer
delivered in
 Agitator Trucks
 A non-agitating truck

Agitator Trucks
A vehicle carrying a drum or agitator body, in which freshly mixed concrete can be
conveyed from the point of mixing to that of placing, the drum being rotated
continuously to agitate the contents.
Advantages: Operate usually from central mixing plants

Watch for: Timing of deliveries should suit job organization. Concrete crew and
equipment must be ready onsite to handle concrete.

Used for: Transporting concrete for all uses. Haul distances must allow discharge of
concrete within 1½ hours.

Non-agitating Trucks
 Used for: Transport concrete on short hauls(small distance) over smooth roadways.
 Advantages: Cost of non-agitating equipment is lower than that of truck agitators
or mixers.
 Watch for: Slump should be limited. Possibility of segregation. Height upon
discharge is needed
Truck-mixed concrete

Used for: Intermittent (periodic) production of concrete at jobsite, or small

quantities.
 Advantages: Combined materials transporter and batching and mixing system.
One-man operation.

3. Transporting
1) Mortar Pan : Concrete is carried in small Quantities
2) Wheelbarrows : Short flat hauls on all types of onsite concrete construction
3) Belt Conveyors : Conveying concrete horizontally or higher/lower level.

Used for: Conveying concrete horizontally or higher/lower level.

Advantages: Adjustable reach, traveling diverter, variable speed.

Watch for: End-discharge arrangements needed to prevent segregation and mortar on return belt.
Belt cover needed in hot and windy weathe

4) Cranes and Buckets : Used for Work above ground level , Buckets use with Cranes,
cableways, and helicopters.

5) Pumps : Conveying concrete from central discharge point to formwork.

6) Transit Mixer : used for transporting the concrete over long distance particularly in RMC plant .

2 different type are there

1. Agitated mixer
2. Transit mixer
Used for: Conveying concrete horizontally or higher/lower level.
Advantages: Conveyer arrives with concrete. Adjustable reach and variable speed.
Watch for: End-discharge arrangements needed to prevent segregation and mortar on return
belt. Belt cover needed in hot and windy weather.

4. Placing Concrete
Placing concrete within earth mould.
(Example: Foundation concrete for a wall or column).
b) Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber plank formwork.
(Example: Road slab and Airfield slab).
c) Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters.
(Example. Mass concrete in dam construction or construction of concrete abutment or
pier).
d) Placing concrete within usual from work.
(Example: Columns, beams and floors).
e) Placing concrete under water.

5.Compaction of concrete

• Compaction of concrete is process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the
concrete
• In the process of mixing , transporting and placing of concrete air is likely to get
entrapped in the concrete .
•  It has been found from the experimental studies that 1% air in the concrete
approximately reduces the strength by 6%.
• If we don’t expel this air, it will result into honeycombing and reduced strength

90
80
70
Percentage 60
Loss in strength
50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30
Percentage Air Voids

Different Methods Of Concrete Compaction

) Hand Compaction.
I. Rodding
II. Ramming
III. Tamping
b) Compaction by Vibration.
I. Internal vibrator or needle vibrator
II. Formwork Vibrator
III. Table Vibrator
IV. Platform vibrator
V. Surface vibrator
c) Compaction by Pressure and jolting.
d) Compacted by spinning.

Hand Compaction
• Hand compaction is used for ordinary and unimportant structures. Workability should be
decided in such a way that the chances of honeycombing should be minimum. The
various methods of hand compaction are as given below:
 Rodding
It is a method of poking with 2m long, 16 mm dia. rod at sharp corners and edges. The thickness
of layers for rodding should be 15 to 20 cm.

 Ramming
• It is generally used for compaction on ground in plain concrete. It is not used either in
RCC or on upper floors.
 Tamping
• It is a method in which the top surface is beaten by wooden cross beam of cross section
10 cm x 10 cm. both compaction and leveling are achieved simultaneously. It is mainly
used for roof slabs and road pavements.

Compaction by Vibration
Vibration is imparted to the concrete by mechanical means. It causes temporary liquefaction so
that air bubbles come on to the top and expelled ultimately. Mechanical vibration can be of
various types as given under.

Internal Vibration
It is most commonly used technique of concrete vibration. Vibration is achieved due to eccentric
weights attached to the shaft. The needle diameter varies from 20 mm to 75 mm and its length
varies from 25 cm to 90 cm. the frequency range adopted is normally 3500 to 5000 rpm. The
correct and incorrect methods of vibration using internal vibration needles are shown below

Form or External Vibration

This is adopted where internal vibration can’t be used due to either thin sections or heavy
reinforcement. External vibration is less effective and it consumes more power as compared to the
internal vibration. The formwork also has to be made extra strong when external vibration is used

Table VibrationIt is mainly used for laboratories where concrete is put on the table
 Platform Vibration
this is similar to table vibrators but these are generally used on a very large scale

Surface Vibration
These are also called screed board vibrators. The action is similar to that of tamping. The
vibrator is placed on screed board and vibration is given on the surface. It is mainly used for roof
slabs, road pavements etc., but it is not effective beyond 15 cm depth

Execution of vibration
 Penetrate vertically to sufficiently embed in concrete, held stationary and removed
slowly (7.5 cm/sec)
 At a regular spacing to ensure compaction of all portions of required with adequate
overlap.
 A minimum of 10 sec is necessary for compaction.
 For form vibrator fastening with the form is important, vibration time is 2 minute to 30
minutes depending upon concrete and vibrator.

6. Curing
Curing Needs
• Hydration reaction of cement with water take place
• loss of water by evaporation shall be prevented and replenished.
• Internal loss of water due to chemical reaction.
• Maintain the internal temperature of concrete through replenishment of water or supply
of water.
• Needed for Capillary segmentation.

Methods of Curing
• Moist (Water)Curing
– Ponding
– Spraying
– Covering with wet sand, absorbent covering .
• Wet covering.
• Membrane curing ( spray/ hand applied resins and waxes)
• Steam curing
• Miscellaneous method
 Effect of Moist or water Curing

• Code book recommendation:

• 7 days for OPC cement
• 10 days for blended cement (concrete with mineral admixture)
• For dry and hot condition these periods are 10 &14 days

7. Concrete Finishing
• Bullfloating or Darbying
To eliminate high and low spots and to embed large aggregate particles, a bullfloat or darby
should be used immediately after strikeoff.

Brooming Finish

Brooming should be performed before the concrete has thoroughly hardened, but it
should be sufficiently hard to retain the scoring impression to produce a slip-resistant surface
 • Highway pavements are textured by "tining" the surface with stiff wires; this improves
traction and provides vehicles with a surface that significantly reduces the chance of
hydroplaning.
2) Explain the Manufacturing process of Cement?

Cement manufactured by Three (3) process

1) Wet process
2) Dry process
3) Semi-dry process

Wet Process
Calcareous Material(Lime stone) Argillaceous material
3) Dry Process
 3) Semi Dry Processes
In the semi dry process raw materials are crushed and fed to a grinding mill to convert it into
fine powder.the dry powder called raw mix is pumped in a blending silo where the correct
proportionare adjusted and intimately mixed by compressed air.this blended meal is now
sieved and fed into a rotating dish called granulator and about 10-14 percent water is added at
the same time.in this way the meal is converted into pallets of about 15 mm diameter.the
pallets are baked by means of hot gases available from the kiln.these paked pallets are fed into
the kiln.the subsequent operation are same as in wet process

Process of Manufacturing

Following are three distinct operation involved in the manufacture of cement

1) Mixing of raw material

2) Burning
3) Grinding

In the wet process raw material are mixed wet in required proportion and slurry is
formed.while in the dry process raw materials are mixed in required proportions in dry
 form and dry raw mix is formed.the remaining two operations namly burning and
grinding are the same for both the process.
The correct slurry is fed into rotary kiln from upper end.as the slurry gradually
descends.there is rise in temperature and small lumps known as nodules are formed.
These nodules reach to the burning zone where the temperature is about 1500 oC to 1700
o
C. in the burning zone calcinated product is formed and nodules are converted into
small hard balls known as clinkers.it obtained from rotary kiln are finely ground in ball
mills and tube mills.a small quantity about 2 to 3 % of gypsum is added to prevent flash-
setting of the cement.the final ground cement is stored in silos.it is then weighted and
packed in bags by automatics machine.each bags of cement contains 50 kg of about
0.0035 meter cubes.

3 write the oxide composition of cement?

Oxides Content%
Lime, Cao 60-67%
Silica, SiO2 17-25%
Alumina , Al2O3 3-8%
Iron Oxide ,Fe2O3 0.5-6%
Magnesia MgO 0.5-4%
Alkalies K2O , Na2O 0.3-1.2%
Sulphates, SO3 1-3%

In term of oxide composition a high lime content generally increases the setting time and
results in higher strength a decrease in lime content reduces the strength of concrete.

A high silica content prolong the setting time and gives more strength

The presence of excess unburnt lime is harmful since it results in delayed hydration causing
expantion and deterioration of concrete.

Iron oxide is not a very active constituents of cement and generally acts as a catalyst and helps
the burning process.owing to the prescence of iron oxide the cement derives the characteristics
grey colour.

Magnesia if presents in large quantities more than 5% causes unsoundness

Alkali oxide if presents in quantity more than 1% leads to alkali aggregate reaction efflorescence
and staining.

4) Explain Bogue’s Compounds briefly?

The Oxides present in cement the raw materials interact with one another in kiln at high
temperature to form more complex compounds.the identification of the major compound
is largely based on the work of R.H.Bogue referred as Bogue’s Compounds

Bogue’s compound % by mass in cement

C3S 30-50
C2S 20-45
C3A 8—12
C4AF 6-10

In addition to four major compound there exists minor compounds such as

MgO,TiO2,Mn2O3,K2O,Na2O
K2O and Na2O known as Alkalies the product of this reaction causing disintegration of
concrete and affect strength of cement

Properties of Bogue’s Compounds

C3S
Responsible for early strength
First 7 days strength is due to C3S
It produces more heat of hydration
A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather concreting

C2S
The hydration is starts after 7 days.hence it gives strength after 7 days
Hydrates and hardens slowly and provides much of the ultimate strength
It is responsible for the later strength of concrete
It produces less heat of hydration

C3A
When it react with water is very fast and may lead to an immediate sfiffening of paste
and this process is termed as flash set.
To prevent this flash set 2-3% gypsum is added at the time of grinding the cement
clinker.
The hydrate C3A do not contribute to the strength of concrete

C4AF
Hydrates rapidly
 It does not contributes to the strength of concrete
The hydrates of C4AF show a comparatively higher resistance to sulphate attack than the
hydrates of C3A

5) Explain Physical Test on cement?

 Open the bag and take a good look at the cement there should be no
visible lumps
 The colour of the cement should be greenish grey
 When hand is inserted in cement bag it should feel cool
 Take a pinch of cement and feel between fingers it should give a smooth
feeling and not a gritty feeling
 Take handful of cement and throw it on a bucketful of water the particles
should float on water for some time before it sink.
 Take about 100 gms of cement add some water edges put it on a glass
plate and slowly take it under water in a bucket the shape of the cake
should not be disturbed.while taking it down to the bottom of the
bucket.after 24 hrs the cake should remain its original shape and at the
same time it should also set and gain some strength.