PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006

The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition

Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

ROCK FRACTURE DENSITY CHARACTERIZING TO DEFINE DIFFICULTIES OF

MINING IN SOROWAKO AREA, SOUTH SULAWESI
1
Fatrial Bahesti. , 1Gde Handojo Tutuko.
1
Exploration and Mine Development, PT INCO,Tbk

ABSTRACT

The abundance of shear fractures is described through the evaluation of fracture density. Fracture density
can be measured in a number of ways; average spacing of fractures; number of fractures in given area;
total cumulative length of fractures; and surface area of all fractures within a given volume of rock. Local
geology structure and geomechanics approach is used to deal with outlining rock type boundary for
estimating geologic framework; fracture density (FD) and rock quality designation (RQD) which related
to weathered rock boulder in lateritic mass.
Knowledge of rock fracture properties allows us to define difficulties of mine and laterite development.
Highly rock fractured will increase weathering degree because of larger surface of rock. Thus, fracture is
related to boulder forming that enriched by economic mineral as well as laterite development. The result
of these studies addressed rock fractured classification which controlled by area with low (type 1),
medium (type 2) and highly (type 3) fractured in specified Sorowako mining area. These would reveal us
to have an even more define of mining difficulties to reach maximum ore recovery.

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents the advances of structural
geology analysis in laterite mining that have led to
higher productivity and deeper methods of open
pit mine. These advance are attributable to
improve design, including more powerful and
robust mining and conveyance system and
improved guidance difficulties of lateritic boulder
mining. It is important to separate rock type
because each one has different extension factor.
The ore mining of up to 2 m in thickness have
been consistently achieved with rock fractured
selectively. Rock fractured analysis is required by
mine planning to give more attention of ore
recovery.
The distribution of fracture and rock quality of a
drilled core can be calculated and mapped in
Sorowako mining area. It results geological model
and map exhibiting relationship between the
abundace of local features structural geology
(fault, fracture and lineament) and the difficulties
of mining designed by engineering. Difficulties of
mine in this paper means how much recovery that
could be obtain by mining equipment within given
lateritic mine area. Therefore, it need to study
about structure complexity and rock designed
based on geological drilling.
Several problems are inherent in any structural
study of drilled core. In most cases, only part of
the drilled interval in any hole is recovered, and
thus, the results are not fully representative. In
addition, there may be preferential loss of core
because faulted rocks are commonly weaker than
the adjacent bedrock and, therefore, may be lost
during the drilling.
It is rarely possible to determine the original
orientation of the observed structures. The
structures initially can only be oriented relative to
local reference coordinates based on the
orientation in the core tray. The drilling process
undoubtedly caused fracturing and rotation of the
individual pieces of the core, so this reference
orientation may be consistent over only a few tens
of centimeters if correlations cannot be made
between structures in the separate pieces of the
core.
For the purposes of presentation, the overall mine
area has divided into two areas—western and
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006
eastern. We only describes for western area that
provide a specified structural perspective of
geological mining condition.
LOCAL TECTONIC SETTING
The Miocene to post-Miocene mélange occupies
the central and North-Estern arms of Sulawesi.
The southern portion of this mélange, comprising
the Sorowako-Bahodopi ultramafic mass, has
experienced relatively less uplift and interspersed
with fault blocks of Cretaceous Abyssal limestone
and minor bedded cherts. (Hall, R, Wilson, M.E.J,
2000)
The Matano Fault, extend from the Palu-Koro
Fault, evidence as a strong topographic lineament,
is an active Left-lateral strike-slip fault that
shifted the Matano limestone with other rock up to
18 Km westward on its north side. Lake Matano,
Which is more than 300 m deep is probably a
graben developed as transtensional zone of
Matano Fault. (Figure 1)
Based on J. Babineau lineament map from aerial
photograph, Sorowako and sorounding area have
3 major structural orientations, i.e. NE-SW, NW-
SE and N-S (Figure 2). The dominant trend
relatively NE-SW, possibility second order from
left lateral Matano Fault in the North from
Sorowako Area. Fault zone of variable thickness
but locally of more 20 m thick are associated to
the joint sets. The fault zone are two types: the
first type consist of green, fine grained and
schistose serpentine, the second type is a breccia
with poorly sorted, angular clast of fine grained
serpentinite which are dominantly black
(Babineau, 2002).
Matano fault - as well as numerous other smaller
faults developed on both sides of it - has severely
tectonised the ultramafics in the Sorowako area.
This, in part, is responsible for the extensive
laterite deposits developed in Sorowako mining
area.
LINEAMENT AND FRACTURE
DISTRIBUTION
First stage of rock fracture classification in given
mine area is to define lineament pattern based on
aerial photo or contour analysis. It purposes to
compare fracture density, boulder size and
serpentinization degree with drilled core.
The morphology of hill in western sorowako
mining areas has many various direction of
lineament. This area can be divided into four
segments limited by three major lineaments
(Figure 3). First segment has dominantly NE-SW,
the second segment with NW-SE, the third has
almost N-S, and the fourth has NNW-SSE
lineament patterns. Those segment shows
different density of lineament and morphology
outlined by specified fracture characteristic.
Characterization fracture density from drilled core
is fundamental importance for understanding
relationship between lineament pattern and
fracture distribution. The one dimensional of
fracture density (FD) (or linear fracture
frequency) is defined by the average number of
fracture intersections per unit length (e.g., Priest
and Hudson, 1975).
FD = n X 100%
LT
where: n = number of fracture intersection,
LT = total length of drill run,
The process of weathering started along joint and
fracture surface and has resulted in the formation
of “boulders” within the saprolite zone. Original
texture is still recognisable and the weathered
profile has not collapsed yet.
ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION
The weathering process would therefore turn hard
rock formation into so called soft rock formation.
Laterite and monmorilonite clay is the typical
materials resulted from weathering process. And,
monmorilonite clay is the most interesting one,
because once it gets wet it will expand very
quickly and consequently influence the
deformation behaviour (failure).
One of the basic goals of rock mechanics analysis
has been to provide useful methods for predicting
failure strength and associated parameters such as
strain to failure and the effects of porosity and
elastic module. The large number of competing
effects that influence the fracture process has
precluded the development of a universal law
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

which can be used in any practical way to predict
fracture strength for an arbitrary rock. As a result,
a variety of classification systems have been
developed to be used as predictive tools in
estimating the load bearing capacity of various
rock types. A number of these classification
systems, using rock quality parameters such as
rock quality designation (RQD).
the southern area. The second, “medium fractured
rock type 2” is dominantly distributed snap to
50.3% of area. For the material that is “highly
fractured rock type 3” has 31.9% of area (Figure
5). It generally scattered in high intensity of
lineament. It is expected that less fractured of rock
will more resistant from weathering and not so
good for laterite development.

RQD is by its original definition (Deere, 1966) DIFFICULTIES OF MINING

the length in percent of measured length of the
unweathered drill core bits longer than 10 cm.
The RQD is easy and quick to measure, and it is
therefore frequently applied in core logging.
Often it is the only method used for measuring
the jointing density along the core drill hole. As
is known by most people involved in core
logging and rock engineering the RQD has
several limits. For example, RQD = 0 where the
distance (intercept) between the joints is 9 cm
or less, while RQD = 100 where the distance is
11 cm or more, see Figure 4 as follow :
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0m
RQD = 0
RQD = 0
RQD = 100
RQD = 100
Assumptions made regarding possible mining
methods, minimum mining dimensions and
internal (or, if applicable, external) mining
dilution. Where no assumptions have been made,
this should be stated. The mining dilution factors,
mining recovery factors, and minimum mining
widths used and the infrastructure requirements of
the selected mining methods. Once the fracture
density of rock in an area of mining can be
estimated, the mining methods will follow the
orientation to reach maximum recovery (Figure 6)
In sorowako mining area, the one of the
difficulties of mine can be defined rely on
rock/boulder type upper bedrock zone. The
maximum ore recovery in the bottom of saprolite
is important to enhance ore grade and avoid
dilution by no ore zone.

RQD is an indirect measure of fracture
spacings observed in a drill-core run using
following equation (e.g., Priest and Hudson,
1975) :
N results blocky rocks due to the phenomenon of
∑ Li
i =1
RQD = X 100%
LT
where: Li = length of i-th drill-core piece longer than
twice the core diameter,
LT = total length of drill run,
N = number of core pieces longer than twice
the core diameter (used 10 cm length)
The different of each rock fractured types is the
size of the boulders (fracture density). Low
fracture density (high RQD) as well as rock type 1
may be difficult to mine whereas low fracture
less boulders or pinnacles. Rock fractued types 1
and 2 will generate less recovery as the ore can be
trapped between rocks where existing mining
equipment cannot retrieve the material. Type 3
has smaller boulders and maximum ore recovery
(Table 1).
Rock Physical Properties Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Fracture Density Low (<10) Medium (10-15) Medium -High (>15)

Boulder Size Large Medium Medium -small

Classification of rock quality has been made since
Very Strong -
RQD is calculated and plotted in given mining Rock Material Strength
Extreamly strong
Strong - very strong Strong
Rock Quality Designation
area. The criterion used to differentiate among (RQD)
50-75 25-50 0-25

three rock type existed in western sorowako Area Covered 17.80% 50.30% 31.90%

(Figure 4). First, “low fractured rock type 1”, to Difficulties of mining High Medium Medium

distinguish low abundance of rock fractured that

Tabel 1. Rock fractured type classification based on
is difficult to mine. It covers 17.8% of area in the
photo core and mining face
first and second segment and a few abundance in
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

SUMMARY
The reliability charaterization of drilled core and
local structural geology, like lineaments and
morphology, has assist us to outline boundary of
rock fractured type. Drilled core has been
analysed to define rock quality and fracture
density in sorowako laterite mining.
It is important to separate the three different rock
type because each one has a different recovery of
ore. This simulation results 17.8% type 1, 50.3%
type 2 and 31.9% type 3 of rock fractured. Highly
fractured of bed rock will cause high weathering
degree and so it is easier to mine.
The successful implementation of rock fractured
characterization has been the result of careful
preproduction and ore recovery planning, as well
as close coordination between mine engineer and
geologist.
Hall, R, Wilson, M.E.J, 2000, Neogen Suture In
Estern Indonesia, Journal of Asian Earth
Science. P 781-808.
Hudson, J.A., Priest, S.D., 1983, Discontinuity
frequency in rock masses, Int. J. Rock Mec.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol 20, No 2,
pp. 73-89.
Piteau, D.R., 1973, Characterizing and
extrapolating rock joint properties in
engineering practice, Rock Mechanics, Suppl.
2, pp. 5-31.
Priest, S. D., 1993, Discontinuity Analysis for
Rock Engineering, Chapman and Hall.
Palmström, Arild, 2001, Measurement and
Characterization of Rock Mass Jointing, Övre
Smestad vei 35e, N-0378 Oslo, Norway

REFERENCES Simanjuntak, TO., 1992, An Outline of Tectonic in

Ahmad, W., 1975, Geology Along Matano Fault
Zone, East Sulawesi, Indonesia, PT Inco Tbk.
Anderson, M., 2002, West Block Ore Type
Definition, Mineral Resources Inventory – PT
Inco Tbk.
Babineau, J., 2001, Report on Bedrock Petrography
and Mapping at Soroako, Indonesia. Unpublish
Brown, .S. R., Scholz, C.H., 1986, Closure of
Rock Joints, J. Geophys. Res., 91-4939-4948
Indonesia Region. IAGI publication.
Simandjuntak, T. O., Rusmana, E., Surono and
Supanjdono, J. B., Geology of the Malili
Quadrangle, Sulawesi. Deprtement Mne and
energy Directorate general of geology and
mineral resources, Geology research and
develovment centre.
Soeria Atmaja, Golightly, J.P., Wahyu, B.N.,
Mafic and Ultramafc Rock Associations In
The East Arc of Sulawesi, Proceedings ITB
Vol 8, No. 2, 1974.

Deere D.U., 1963, Technical description of rock

cores for engineering purposes. Felsmechanik
un Ingenieurgeologie, Vol. 1, No 1, pp. 16-22.

Deere D. and Miller R.D., 1966, Engineering

classification and index properties for intact
rock, Univ. of Illinois, Tech. Rept. No.
AFWL-TR-65-116, 1966.

Lockner, D. A., 1995, Rock Failure, American

Geophysical Union (AGU), USA.

Laubscher, D. H., 1977, Geomechanics

classification of jointed rock masses -- mining
applications, Transac.. of the Inst. of Mining
and Met., London, v. 86
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006
Figure 1.2

GEOLOGY &
TECTONICS
OF SOUTH-EAST
Matano Fault

Undifferentiated
Mesozoic sediments

Ultramafic and much

subordinate mafic

Lawanopo Fault

Glaucophane
schist and
other

Neogene sediments
and carbonates

Alluvium

Neogene
Mesozoic sediments
Ultramafics / mafics

Glaucophane schist
& Metamorphics
Quaternary alluvium
and raised coral reefs

Figure 1. Tectonic of Sulawesi (after

W. Hamilton)

Figure 2. Lineament of Sorowako by Babineau

 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

Segment I

Segment II

Segment III
Segment IV
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Figure 4. Rock fractured type classification based

on photo core and mining face
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

Laterite Profile

DEPTH (m):
0 Iron cap

Limonite
15

30 Saprolite
45

60
Bedrock

Figure 5. Laterite profile of an mining area related to rock fractured type boundary from post-mining face.
Highly fracture area represented by type 3, medium fractured by type 2 and low fractured by type 1 with
lithological contact each of type.
 PROCEEDINGS PIT IAGI RIAU 2006
The 35th IAGI Annual Convention and Exhibition
Pekanbaru, Riau 21-22 November 2006

Range of RQD & Fracture Density Related Difficulties of Mine

45 New RQD-FD

40
RQD and FD

35 Highly fractured
F ra c t D e n s ity /m

Area (Type 3)
RQD 0 - 25,
Dif
30 Fract Dens >15
Med Fract Area f ic ult
(Type 2) to m
RQD 25 - 50 ine
25 Fract dens 10 - 15

Type 1
20 RQD 50-75,
Fract dens <10

15 Unfractured Area
(Type 1)
RQD>75, Fract
10 dens <5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

RQD / m
Figure 6. RQD vs Fracture Density cross plot
indicate the difficulties of mine