Concrete Construction
Design recommendations for the use
of FRP for reinforcement and
strengthening of concrete structures
Sami Rizkalla1, Tarek Hassan2 and Nahla Hassan2
1
North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC, USA
2
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Summary
The use of fibre reinforced polymer, FRP, as
reinforcement for concrete structures has been
growing rapidly in recent years. This paper
summarizes the current state of knowledge of
these materials and highlights the various FRP
strengthening techniques that have been used for
concrete and masonry structures. Material
characteristics of FRP and fundamental design
considerations are discussed. Selection of the
appropriate materials and their corresponding
Key words: FRP; design; strengthening; reinforcement; concrete; near surface mounted
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28 (DOI: 10.1002/pse.139)
Introduction
In an aggressive environment, concrete may be
vulnerable to chemical attacks, such as carbonation
and chloride contamination which break down the
alkaline barrier in the cement matrix. Consequently,
the steel reinforcement in concrete structures becomes
susceptible to corrosion. Such phenomena lead to
delamination of the concrete at the reinforcement
level, cracking and spalling of the concrete due to the
volume increase of the steel reinforcement. In the
United States, nearly one-third of the nation’s 581 000
bridges are considered structurally deficient or
functionally obsolete[1]. A large number of these
deficient bridges are reinforced or prestressed
concrete structures, and are in urgent need of repair
and strengthening. In the United Kingdom, over
10 000 concrete bridges need structural attention. In
Europe, the cost of the repair of reinforced concrete
structures because of corrosion of reinforcing bars is
estimated to be over $600 million annually[2]. In
Canada, it is estimated that the required repair costs
for parking garages alone is in the range of $6
billion[3].
A possible solution to combat reinforcement
corrosion for new construction is the use of
Published online 24 February 2003
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
advantages and disadvantages are highlighted.
Design philosophies for concrete members
reinforced and/or strengthened with FRP are
enumerated. Fundamental flexure, shear and
bond behaviour of concrete members reinforced
and/or strengthened with FRP according to the
current ACI design guidelines are examined. The
paper also reviews the durability aspects of FRP
and describes selected field applications of these
materials.
non-corrosive materials to replace conventional steel
bars. High tensile strength, lightweight and corrosion-
resistant characteristics make FRP ideal for such
applications. FRP also provides a practical
technique for the repair and strengthening of
concrete structures and bridges by using externally
bonded sheets or prefabricated laminates. FRP
tendons can also be used to strengthen old prestressed
concrete girders[4].
Historical background
Development of FRP materials in various forms and
configurations offers an alternative design approach
for construction of new structures and rehabilitation
of the existing civil infrastructure. The first use of FRP
products was in reinforced concrete structures in the
mid-1950s[5,6]. Since their early application, many FRP
materials with different types of fibres have been
developed. FRP products can take the form of bars,
cables, two- and three-dimensional grids, sheet
materials and laminates as shown in Fig. 1. FRP
products may achieve the same or better
reinforcement objectives as commonly used metallic
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28

Fig. 1 FRP products for reinforced concrete construction: (a) grids, bars; (b) cages, grids; (c) sheets; and (d) cages
products such as steel reinforcing bars, prestressing
tendons, and bonded plates.
Application and product development efforts in
FRP composites are widespread to address many
opportunities for reinforcing concrete members. In
spite of earlier research on the use of FRP
reinforcement in concrete, commercial applications of
these materials were not recognized until the late
1970s. Research started in earnest to determine the
feasibility of using composites versus the use of epoxy
coated steel reinforcement. During the early 1980s,
several pultrusion companies recognized the potential
of the material and produced FRP reinforcing bars. In
the late 1980s, the use of FRP reinforcing bars
increased considerably for several applications with
special performance requirements. Typical
applications included construction of seawalls,
industrial roof decks, base pads for electrical and
reactor equipment, and concrete floor slabs in
aggressive chemical environments. In 1986, the
world’s first highway bridge, prestressed with
glass-fibre-reinforced polymer, GFRP, was built in
Germany. Since then, there have been bridges
constructed throughout Europe and more recently in
North America and Japan. During the 1990s, a major
concern for the deterioration of ageing bridges in
North America due to corrosion became more
apparent[7]. The US and Canadian governments are
currently investing significant funds focused on
product evaluation and further development of FRP
materials.
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FRP FOR REINFORCEMENT AND STRENGTHENING 17
FRP materials and test methods
FIBRES AND RESINS
Fibres are the basic load-bearing component of any
FRP product. Fibres are often preassembled into
various forms to facilitate the fabrication of composite
products. Discontinuous fibres are often used also to
produce low-cost composite products such as sheet
molding compounds or non-woven mats. Fibre,
filaments yarns and rovings generally represent
parallel bundles of continuous filaments. The fibre
bundles may be used directly in composite
fabrication, such as by filament winding or pultrusion
process to produce bars or structural shapes, or they
may be further converted to other reinforced forms
such as ‘prepregs’ (preimpregnated plates), fabrics
and sheets.
Fibres used in modern composites can be broadly
classified into three main categories[8,9]:
1. Polymeric fibres, including aramid fibres
(i.e. Kevlar 29, Kevlar 49 and Kevlar 149 which is
the highest tensile modulus aramid fibre);
2. Carbon fibres, including pan-based carbon and
pitch-based carbon. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and
cellulose are the common precursors from which
pan-based carbon fibres are currently made.
Petroleum and polyvinyl chloride are the common
sources for the pitch used for carbon fibres.
Pan-based carbon fibres have diameters of 5–7 mm
while pitch-based carbon fibres have diameters of
10–12 mm.
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
18
5000
Tensile strength (MPa)
4000 Pan-based carbon Polymeric fibres
3000
Pitch-
based
2000 carbon
1000
0 This document[16] includes descriptions of short-
0 1
Fig. 2 Stress–strain relationship of FRP materials
3. Inorganic fibres including E-glass, S-glass and
boron fibres.
Other specialty fibres such as optical fibres are
currently being investigated for structural health
monitoring applications[10,11]. Fig. 2 illustrates the
strength and modulus of elasticity of various FRP
materials.
Bars, prepregs or sheets are parallel filaments held
by matrix material. The matrix could be thermoplastic
resin or partially cured thermoset resin[12,13]. The role
of the resin in composites is vital. Resin selection
controls the manufacturing process, upper use
temperature, flammability characteristics, and
corrosion resistance of the composite. Although loads
are carried by the fibre composite, mechanical
performance depends to a large extent on the resin
modulus, failure strain and the bond between the
resin and the fibre[9].
TEST METHODS FOR
The anisotropy and inhomogeneity of composite
materials make the characterizations of their
engineering properties a complex issue. The
mechanical properties of advanced composite
materials systems are determined by special test
methods. These test methods are mechanically simple
in concept, but are extremely sensitive to specimen
preparation and test execution procedures.
Mechanical property characterization is used mainly
in research, quality control and as data for design
consideration. The mechanical properties include the
elastic behaviour and strength of the material under
tensile, shear or compression loading. Other
properties such as fracture toughness, flexural
strength and stiffness are also useful in characterizing
the performance of a composite material. Finally
thermomechanical and hygromechanical properties
are of importance under changing temperature and
moisture environments.
There exist a host of test fixtures, specimen
geometry and test procedures for the generation of
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
Inorganic fibres
mechanical property data for laminates, rods, bars,
S-Glass rigid plastics, fibre glass pipes and filament wound
composites. Detailed reviews on test methods are
reported elsewhere[14]. Only test methods that have
been accepted by the engineering community are
Inorganic fibres
E-Glass
included in the ASTM standards[15]. ACI Committee
440 recently completed Recommended Test methods for
FRP Rods and Sheets[16], which is currently under
Steel review by the ACI Technical Activities Committee.
2 3 4 5 term and long-term mechanical, thermomechanical,
Strain (%)
and durability testing techniques for FRP rods and
sheets. It is anticipated that these test methods shall be
considered, modified, and adopted by the ACI, and
will be considered as the first draft for ASTM
specification. Currently, the characteristic of the
tensile response of the unidirectional lamina 08 and
908, can be determined by ASTM D3039[15].
Compression testing is performed by subjecting the
test specimen to an increasing compressive load up to
failure. To avoid buckling instability, relatively short
gauge lengths are necessary which may lead to a
decrease in the apparent compression strength.
Several compression test methods have emerged
during the past 20 years and much confusion exists as
to their relative virtues. The methods may be grouped
into distinct categories based on load introduction
and specimen design (shear-loaded specimen test
methods, ASTM D3410, and end-loaded specimen test
methods, ASTM D6951)[15].
The response of the material subjected to shear is
commonly nonlinear, and full characterization
requires the entire stress–strain curve. The tests may
be grouped as in-plane tests and inter-laminar (out-of-
plane) tests. The major difficulty in designing shear
tests for composite material lies in attaining a uniform
state of pure shear stress in the test section. Many
FRP shear test methods exist and can be summarized as
follows:
* (
458) tension test described in ASTM D3518[15];
* V-notch shear test described in ASTM D5379[15];
* rail shear test described in ASTM D4255[15].
Flexural testing on rectangular prisms utilizes
either three- or four-point loading, as described in
ASTM D790-92[15]. The flexure tests may be used to
check the previously obtained tensile and
compressive data.
DETERMINATION OF STIFFNESS AND STRENGTH
PROPERTIES
Recent application of FRP includes FRP tubes filled
with concrete. The FRP tube provides the flexural
shear strength and confinement of the inner concrete
core, leading to significant increase of the concrete
strength in compression. The system also exhibits
significant ductility before failure. Owing to the
heterogeneity of FRP, the properties in a composite
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
 FRP FOR REINFORCEMENT AND STRENGTHENING 19

material obviously vary from point to point. On the

other hand, when the effective property of the
composite is measured it is somehow averaged over
the sample dimensions. Prediction models based on
micromechanical analysis can be very useful in design
if the models have been verified by comparing the
predicted values with the experimental results. The
four independent effective elastic constants of
unidirectional continuous fibre-reinforced orthotropic
lamina (longitudinal, transverse and shear moduli as
well as the Poisson’s ratio) are usually estimated by
using a combination of mechanics of material models
and semiempirical models[17,18]. The five effective
strengths of an orthotropic lamina include the
longitudinal tensile and compressive strength, Fig. 3 Flexural failure modes in concrete structures reinforced
transverse tensile and compressive strength as well as with FRP
the shear strength, and may be estimated using
micromechanics, but the accuracy of the estimates is
typically not as good as the estimates of the elastic
constants, because fracture, rather than elastic behaviour of the concrete and the FRP. The stress in
behaviour, is more sensitive to flaws and defects in the FRP reinforcement continues to increase with
the material[19]. increasing strain until the FRP reinforcement
ruptures.
Research studies[22,23] have shown that properly
designed reinforced concrete members with FRP or
Design philosophy strengthened steel reinforced members may fail in
The use of FRP materials as reinforcement for concrete bending according to one of the following failure
structures requires the development of design mode sequences: steel yielding followed by FRP
procedures that ensure adequate safety from rupture, or steel yielding followed by concrete
catastrophic failure. Design recommendations for crushing. For cases where the total area of steel and
concrete members reinforced or strengthened with FRP reinforcement were relatively high, a third failure
FRP are based on limit states design principles. mode was observed to occur, in which the concrete
Design of concrete members reinforced with FRP is crushed in a catastrophic manner. Different flexural
based primarily on the required strength and then failure modes are shown in Fig. 3. The nominal
checked for serviceability criteria, fatigue endurance, moment capacity Mn corresponding to these failures
and creep rupture endurance. In many instances, can be expressed by:
serviceability criteria, fatigue and creep rupture steel yielding}FRP rupture
endurance limits may control the design.    
Mn fy ȳ Ef efu h ȳ
With steel reinforcement, a confident level of safety ¼ r 1  þ r  (1)
bd2 fc0 fc0 s d fc0 f d d
is always provided by yielding of the steel
reinforcement of section subjected to flexural loads. steel yielding}concrete crushing
Owing to the linear elastic behavior of FRP materials,
   
flexural, shear and bond failures are unavoidably Mn c h b1 c fy h
¼ 0:85b1   0 rs 1 (2)
sudden and brittle. Current building codes and bd2 fc0 d d 2d fc d
design specifications for FRP recognize the
advantages and disadvantages of these materials and concrete crushing}steel in the elastic range, as in eq. (2)
define analytical procedures which engineers can use with fy replaced by:
 c
for design[16]. The current design guidelines of 0:003 1 
ACI[20,21] are introduced with conservative strength d E
c s
reduction factors to be compatible with the specific
d
performance limitations of FRP materials.
The ultimate strength limit states for FRP (flexure, where c is the depth of the neutral axis from the
shear rupture, or debonding) are described below. extreme compression fibre; b is the width of the cross-
section; d is the depth from the extreme compression
fibre to the centroid of the steel reinforcement; h is the
FLEXURAL FAILURES depth from the extreme compression fibre to the
Flexural design of reinforced/strengthened concrete externally bonded FRP reinforcement; ȳ is the
members with FRP materials proceeds from basic distance from the centroid of the concrete stress block
equilibrium on the cross-section and constitutive to the FRP; b1 is an empirical constant which depends

Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
20
on the concrete compressive strength; rs and rf are the
reinforcement ratios of steel and FRP reinforcement,
respectively, defined as As-steel =bd and AFRP =bh; Es and
Ef are the elastic moduli of the steel and FRP
reinforcement, respectively; efu is the tensile failure
strain of the FRP; fy is the yield strength of the steel
reinforcement and fc0 is the nominal compressive
strength of the concrete at 28 days.
Research studies[22–24] on concrete members
reinforced or strengthened with FRP materials
indicated a sudden and brittle failure mode when the
FRP reinforcement ruptured in tension. A more
progressive and less catastrophic failure with a higher
deformability factor was observed when the failure
was governed by crushing of the concrete after
yielding of the internal steel reinforcement. The use of
high-strength concrete allows for better use of the
high-strength properties of the FRP materials and
increases the stiffness of the cracked section, but the
brittleness of high-strength concrete compared with
normal-strength concrete can reduce the overall
deformability of the flexural member.
Conservative strength reduction factors should be
adopted to provide a higher reserve strength in
concrete members reinforced or strengthened with
FRP. The Japanese recommendations for design of
flexural members using FRP suggest a strength
reduction factor for FRP materials equal to 1/1.3[25].
Other researchers in Canada[26] suggest a value of
0.75, determined on the basis of probabilistic
concepts. The American Concrete Institute[20] suggests
a strength reduction factor of 0.5 for rupture-
controlled failures and a value of 0.7 for concrete
crushing failures. It should be mentioned that direct
comparisons of these numbers should not be
made because these strength reduction factors
correspond to different load factors in the respective
countries.
SHEAR FAILURES
Shear failures are typically brittle and should be
avoided as a failure mode for concrete members
reinforced or strengthened with FRP[5]. Shear failure
modes of members with FRP as shear reinforcement
can be classified into two types: shear–tension failure
mode (controlled by the rupture of FRP shear
reinforcement) and shear–compression failure mode
(controlled by the crushing of the concrete web). The
first mode of failure is more brittle, and the latter
results in larger deflections. Experimental results have
shown that the modes of failure depend on the shear
reinforcement index rfv Ef, where rfv is the ratio of
FRP shear reinforcement to the effective cross-
sectional area and Ef is the modulus of elasticity of the
FRP stirrups. As the value of rfvEf increases, the shear
capacity in shear–tension increases and the mode of
failure changes from shear-tension to shear-
compression. The current design assumption that
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 4 Various shear strengthening configurations with FRP: (a)
bonded surface configuration; (b) FRP reinforcement distribution;
and (c) fibre orientation
concrete and reinforcement capacities can be added to
estimate the shear capacity of the member is accurate
when shear cracks are adequately controlled.
Therefore, the tensile strain in the FRP shear
reinforcement should be limited to ensure that the
design approach is applicable. The Canadian
Highway Bridge Design Code[27] limits the tensile
strain in FRP shear reinforcement to 0.2%.
A pan-European collaborative research programme
EUROCRETE conducted a series of research and
demonstration projects, which limit the value of the
shear strain in FRP reinforcement to 0.25%[28].
Members with FRP longitudinal reinforcement and
steel stirrups did not experience unusual shear
behaviour[29]. Special attention should be devoted to
the reduced dowel contribution of the FRP
reinforcement out of plane in the presence of shear
cracks[30]. External shear reinforcement in the form of
bonded FRP overwrap has been applied to beams
with insufficient shear strength. This procedure can
provide sufficient shear resistance, depending on the
amount and the configuration of the externally
bonded FRP reinforcement, and allow full
development of the flexural capacity of the beam[21].
For concrete members strengthened in shear using
externally bonded FRP sheets, loss of aggregate
interlock of the concrete has been observed to occur at
fibre strains less than the ultimate fibre strain. To
preclude this mode of failure, the maximum
strain recommended for design by ACI Committee
440 is limited to 0.2%[21]. The same approach was
applied in the Canadian and the European
Standards.
Recently, many shear-strengthening configurations
have been proposed to increase the shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beams through FRP retrofit.
Multiple options exist for shear strengthening, as
shown in Fig. 4, including laminate bonding to the
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28

sides of the beam, U-jacketing around the bottom, and
total wrapping of the beam.
The shear-resisting system can be in the form of
continuous sheet or laminates with spacing. Fibres
can be oriented either perpendicular to the axis of the
beam or perpendicular to the potential shear cracks,
or a combination of both orientations. The
contribution of shear strength provided to a member
by the FRP system is based on the fibre orientation
and an assumed crack pattern and can be expressed
as:
Afv ffe ðsinaÞ þ cosaÞdf
Vf ¼ (3)
sf
where Afv is the area of the FRP shear reinforcement;
ffe is the effective stress in the FRP, taken as the
smaller of the design tensile strength ffu or the stress
corresponding to 0.002 Ef; Ef is the modulus of
elasticity of FRP; df is the depth of the FRP shear
reinforcement; sf is the spacing of the FRP shear
reinforcement and a is the angle of inclination of the
FRP shear reinforcement[21]. The nominal shear
capacity of concrete members reinforced or
strengthened with FRP in shear can be determined by
adding the full contribution of the FRP reinforcement
to the contributions from the reinforcing steel and the
concrete.
DEBONDING FAILURES
Debonding failures are very common in concrete
members retrofitted with externally bonded FRP
systems. These types of failures are often brittle, occur
with little or no visible warning, and take place at
load levels significantly lower than the flexural or
shear strength of the retrofitted system. For FRP
sheets/strips in bending, this mode of failure initiates
with a horizontal crack at one of the edges of the
bonded FRP sheets/strips below the internal steel
reinforcement level and propagates toward mid-span,
leading eventually to a complete separation of the
FRP with the adjacent concrete cover layer.
Delamination from existing shear cracks is
characterized by differential vertical displacements at
crack tips in retrofitted concrete beams. Such a
phenomenon causes a stress intensity in the bond
region, which initiates fracture and results in
delamination propagation under increased loading.
Debonding failures are characterized by propagation
of the failure process parallel to the plane of the
laminate, while other failures such as flexural or shear
failures propagate perpendicular to this plane.
Debonding includes failure of the concrete layer
between the FRP and the flexural steel followed by
delamination or peeling of the FRP from the concrete.
Three identified debonding failure mechanisms
categorized by many researchers are illustrated in
Fig. 5.
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FRP FOR REINFORCEMENT AND STRENGTHENING 21
Flexural delamination
Shear delamination Flexural - shear delamination
Fig. 5 Delamination failure modes
Theoretical work on the bond strength and
delamination models can be simplified into three
main categories:
* empirical models, based directly on regression of
test data[31,32]. Various relationships were proposed
relating the bond length of the FRP sheets/strips to
the average bond strength. These models
underestimated the bond strength and led to large
scatter[31,32];
* Mechanics of materials approach in which the
elastic stress field at the termination point of the
FRP materials was analysed[33,34]. The interfacial
shear stresses between the FRP sheets/strips and
the adhesive were calculated by considering
the equilibrium of an infinitesimal portion of
the FRP. These types of solution assume linear
elastic behaviour of both concrete and
adhesive. Consequently, such type of analysis is
limited to regions of low damage, such as inflection
points where the normal stresses are generally
low[33,34];
* Fracture mechanics approach[35–37]. Quantitative
studies of FRP delamination through fracture
mechanics concepts offer great potential in
understanding the role of relative materials and
design properties on the overall failure process
through delamination. Interfacial fracture
mechanics can be used to characterize crack tip
stresses, crack propagation, and crack path
evaluation. However, the use of interfacial fracture
mechanics with laminated concrete structures has
been limited.
Many experimental programs, reporting debonding
failures in the literature do not have provisions for
detecting the exact origin, propagation, and
secondary mechanisms involved with the debonding
process. Thus, an improved experimental technique
for monitoring debonding failure is needed. ACI
Committee 440 design guidelines recommend a
maximum elongation limit for the design of FRP
sheets/strips to avoid peeling of the FRP
reinforcement based on experimental results
conducted by other researchers. The document also
includes some detailed provisions dealing with
delamination failures.
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
22
FRP strengthening techniques
EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS
The most imperative characteristic of externally
bonded FRP systems in repair/strengthening
applications is the speed and ease of installation. FRP
may be bonded to the tension side of concrete beams,
girders and slabs to provide additional flexural
strength, and/or on the sides of beams and girders to
provide additional shear strength. For seismic zones,
FRP may also be used to wrap columns to enhance the
ductility due to the induced confinement of the
concrete. FRP material selection should be based on
strength, stiffness and durability required for a
specific application. Resins are selected on the basis of
the environment to which the FRP will be exposed, as
well as the method by which the FRP is
manufactured. FRP plate bonding technology was
first investigated at the Swiss Federal Laboratory for
Materials Testing and Research (EMPA)[38]. FRP
composites have been used in other areas such as the
aerospace industry for many years and their superior
properties compared with other conventional
structural materials are well known[39].
Externally bonded FRP systems come in a variety of
forms, including wet lay-up systems and precured
systems. Wet lay-up FRP systems consist of dry
unidirectional or multidirectional fibre sheets or
fabrics impregnated with a saturating resin on-site.
Precured FRP systems consist of a wide variety of
composite shapes manufactured off-site. Typically,
adhesive along with the primer and putty are
normally used to bond the precured shapes to the
concrete surface. The primer is used to penetrate the
surface of the concrete, providing an improved
adhesive bond for the saturating resin or adhesive.
The putty is used to fill small surface voids in the
substrate and to provide a smooth surface to which
the FRP can bond. Precured FRP systems include
unidirectional laminates, multi-directional grid and
precured shells.
Since 1982, externally bonded FRP sheets/strips
have been successfully applied to reinforced concrete
Stage I
FRP strip
Stage II
Delaminated FRP strip
Delaminated FRP
strip
Fig. 6 Delamination of externally bonded FRP reinforcement
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
beams[40]. Researchers worldwide suggest that FRP
sheets/strips could replace externally bonded steel
plates with overall cost savings emanating from the
simplicity of the strengthening method. Externally
bonded FRP sheets and strips are currently the most
commonly used techniques for strengthening bridges
and concrete structures. In spite of the significant
research being reported on their structural
mechanism and performance, there are still
heightened concerns regarding possible premature
failure due to debonding, especially in zones of
combined high flexural and shear stresses.
Delamination failure of externally bonded FRP sheets
is illustrated in Fig. 6. In addition, externally
bonded FRP reinforcement is relatively unprotected
against wear and impact loads. The structural
performance of the externally bonded FRP could also
be greatly affected by harsh environmental
conditions.
NEAR-SURFACE-MOUNTED FRP SYSTEMS
Use of near-surface-mounted (NSM) FRP rods and
strips can preclude delamination-type failures,
frequently observed by using externally bonded
reinforcement[41–43]. FRP bars or strips can be inserted
in specially constructed grooves within the concrete
cover layer, and adhered to the concrete with epoxy
adhesives as shown in Fig. 7. The NSM technique
becomes particularly attractive for flexural
strengthening in the negative moment regions of slabs
and decks, where external reinforcement would be
subjected to mechanical and environmental damage
and would require protective cover, which could
interfere with the presence of floor finishes. NSM steel
bars have been used in Europe since 1947[44]. Tests on
concrete beams reinforced with steel bars and others
reinforced with steel bars grouted into diamond-sawn
grooves showed identical behaviour for both sets of
specimens[44]. Flexural or shear strengthening with
NSM FRP strips showed a greater anchoring capacity
compared with externally bonded FRP strips[41–43,45].
The feasibility of NSM FRP bars and strips have
been investigated experimentally by many
researchers[41–43,45–47]. Test results showed that the
efficiency of NSM FRP strips, defined as the ratio of
the percentage increase in capacity to construction
cost, was three times that of the externally bonded
strips[42].
A general methodology to evaluate the
development length of NSM FRP bars of different
configurations was investigated by the authors. The
model is based on equilibrium and displacement
compatibility procedures using finite element
analysis, and accounts for distinct characteristics of
concrete, epoxy and FRP materials. Fig. 8 shows a
schematic representation of the principal tensile
stresses around a NSM FRP bar. The development
length is highly dependent on the dimensions of the
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28

Fig. 7 Strengthening procedures with NSM FRP bars
Fig. 8 Typical tensile stress distribution around a NSM FRP bar
strips, concrete properties, adhesive properties,
internal steel reinforcement ratio, reinforcement
configuration, type of loading, and groove
width[42].
Two different types of debonding failures can occur
for NSM FRP bars. The first mode of failure is due to
splitting of the epoxy cover as a result of high tensile
stresses at the FRP–epoxy interface, and is termed
‘epoxy split failure’. Increasing the thickness of the
epoxy cover reduces the induced tensile stresses
significantly. Furthermore, using adhesives of high
tensile strength delays epoxy split failure. Epoxy split
failure usually forms with longitudinal cracking
through the epoxy cover. The second mode of failure
is due to cracking of the concrete surrounding the
epoxy adhesive and is termed ‘concrete split failure’.
This mode of failure takes place when the tensile
stresses at the concrete–epoxy interface reach the
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FRP FOR REINFORCEMENT AND STRENGTHENING 23
tensile strength of the concrete. Widening the
groove minimizes the induced tensile stresses at the
concrete–epoxy interface and increases the debonding
loads of NSM bars[43].
Analytical modelling for NSM FRP strips is based
on the combined shear–bending model for externally
bonded FRP plates. The model is modified to account
for the doubly bonded area of NSM strips. The model
accounts also for the continuous reduction in flexural
stiffness due to cracking of the concrete. Debonding of
NSM FRP strips occurs as a result of the high shear
stress concentration at the cut-off point. For simply
supported beams subjected to a concentrated load P,
at mid-span, the shear stress at the strip cut-off point t
can be expressed in terms of the effective moment of
inertia, Ieff , and the thickness of the FRP strip, tf, as
follows:
 
tf nPl0 y nPy
t¼ oþ (4)
2 2Ieff 2Ieff
where:
2Ga
o2 ¼ (5)
t a t f Ef
Ef
n¼ (6)
Ec
Ef is the elastic modulus of the FRP strip, Ec is elastic
modulus of concrete, Ga is the shear modulus of the
adhesive, ta is the thickness of the adhesive, l0 is the
unbonded length of the strip and y is the distance
from the strip to the neutral axis of the transformed
section.
Premature debonding of NSM FRP strips is
governed by the shear strength of the concrete. Other
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
24
components of the system such as the epoxy adhesive
and the FRP strips have superior strength and
adhesion properties compared with concrete.
Knowing the compressive and tensile strength of
concrete, the Mohr–Coulomb line, which is tangential
to both Mohr’s circles for pure tension and pure
compression, can be represented, and the maximum
critical shear stress for the pure shear circle can be
expressed as:
fc0 fct
tmax ¼ (7)
fc0 þ fct
where fc is the compressive strength of concrete after
28 days and fct is the tensile strength of concrete.
Debonding loads for NSM FRP strips can be
determined for simply supported beams loaded with
a concentrated load at mid-span by equating the shear
strength proposed in eq. (7) to the shear stress given
in eq. (4), Other loading cases (e.g. simply supported
beams subjected to a uniform load, simply supported
beams subjected to two concentrated loads) are
reported in[42].
In general, strengthening limits for concrete
members retrofitted with FRP should be specified,
such that a loss of FRP reinforcement should leave the
concrete member with sufficient capacity to resist at
least unfactored dead and live loads.
Field applications
UNITED STATES
The United States has had a long and continuous
interest in fibre-based reinforcement for concrete
structures since the 1930s. However, actual
development and research activities into the use of
these materials for retrofitting concrete structures
started in the late 1980s. FRP materials have quickly
moved from the state-of-the-art to mainstream
technology.
EUROPE
Research on the use of FRP in concrete structures
began in Europe in the 1960s[5,6]. In the field of
strengthening with FRP, pioneering work took place
Fig. 9 Taylor Bridge, Headingley, Manitoba, Canada
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
in the 1980s in Switzerland and resulted in successful
practical applications[40]. One of the first field
applications of FRP strengthening in Europe was
performed in 1991 on the Ibach Bridge, a concrete box
girder in Lucerne, Switzerland. GFRP was used to
retrofit the Kattenbusch Roadway Bridge in Germany
to reduce the steel stresses in the tendon couplers[48].
A pan-European collaborative research programme
EUROCRETE was established in 1993 and ended in
1997. The program was aimed at developing FRP
reinforcement for concrete, and included partners
from the United Kingdom, Switzerland, France,
Norway and The Netherlands. NSM carbon FRP
strips were used to rehabilitate the Tobel Bridge in
Southern Germany in 1999. The bridge consisted of
prestressed, precast T-girders with a cast-in-place
concrete deck. One of the girders was damaged by a
truck, which crushed the web of that girder. CFRP
strips of 20  1.2 mm were inserted inside 23-mm
grooves[45].
JAPAN
Together with Europe, Japan developed the first FRP
application for construction in the early 1980s. A
sudden increase in the use of FRP was attained after
the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu earthquake. As of 1997, the
Japanese led in FRP reinforcement usage with 1000
demonstration/commercial projects and FRP design
provisions in their standard specifications of the Japan
Society of Civil Engineers[25]
CANADA
The use of FRP for repair and strengthening of
concrete structures began in earnest in the late 1980s.
A significant international research breakthrough was
achieved in 1998 by the opening of the Taylor Bridge
in Headingley, Manitoba. The two-lane, 165.1-m-long
structure has 4 of it’s 40 precast girders reinforced
with CFRP stirrups, as shown in Fig. 9. These girders
were prestressed with CFRP cables and bars. GFRP
bars were used to reinforce portions of the barrier
walls. The deck slab was reinforced by CFRP bars,
similar to the reinforcement used for prestressing the
girders. The bridge boasts a complex embedded fibre
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28

Fig. 10 Shear strengthening of AASHTO girders with externally bonded FRP sheets
optic structural sensing system that will allow
engineers to compare the long-term behaviour of the
materials. The sensors are not only immune to
electromagnetic interference, they also have long-term
stability in advanced materials. In 1999 a trial
application of CFRP sheets as a first step in upgrading
the shear capacity of the Maryland Street bridge in
Winnipeg, Manitoba, was conducted as shown in
Fig. 10.
Durability of FRP
Although FRP composites perform extremely well in
practice, there are heightened concerns related to their
durability in the field as related to civil infrastructure
applications. In these cases, FRP composites are
exposed to harsh environmental conditions, ranging
from wide temperature fluctuations and humidity
levels to rain and snow.
There are limited theoretical and experimental
studies on the durability of the bond between FRP
and concrete. Investigations by different researchers
are focusing on the durability of externally bonded
FRP reinforcement. No literature is currently available
on the durability of NSM FRP reinforcement. The
authors expect that the performance of NSM FRP
reinforcement will be superior under severe
environmental conditions as the reinforcement is
protected inside the concrete. However, the durability
of bonding adhesives needs to be investigated.
Further studies are still needed to establish accurate
reduction factors to be used in bond strength models
for design purposes.
WET–DRY EXPOSURE
Wet–dry cyclic exposure has a significant effect on the
bond length, shear stress distribution and differential
strain between FRP and concrete. Several research
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FRP FOR REINFORCEMENT AND STRENGTHENING 25
programs[49] have focused on the behaviour of
concrete beams strengthened with GFRP and CFRP
sheets and subjected to wet-dry cycles.
Chajes et al.[49] subjected concrete beams, externally
strengthened with GFRP and CFRP sheets, to a series
of wet–dry cycles. A wet–dry cycle was completed by
immersing the beams into a 3.5–4% salt solution for
18 h, followed by 8 h drying at room temperature. Test
results showed that GFRP strengthened beams lost
36% of the unexposed strength, while CFRP
strengthened beams lost 19% after 100 wet–dry
cycles[49].
The shear modulus of the adhesive at the
FRP–concrete interface was found to be a critical
parameter for obtaining durable FRP retrofitted
concrete members. On exposure to a 208C dry
environment, an 80% decrease in the shear modulus
of the adhesive was observed compared with test
specimens subjected to normal exposure conditions at
room temperature[50].
Adhesives are generally sensitive to water.
Deterioration of bonded joints is characterized by
absorption of water by the adhesive and by moisture
diffusion to the adhered interface. Voids can be
created in the adhesive layer and at the interface.
Presence of voids implies less area of contact. Water
can also replace the adhesive by capillary
transmission, and this weakens the bond between the
externally bonded FRP reinforcement and concrete[51].
FREEZE–THAW EXPOSURE
The influence of freeze–thaw cycles on the structural
performance of concrete beams strengthened with
FRP sheets and strips was studied by several
researchers[52–55]. No detrimental effect on the overall
structural performance of the beams after 300 cycles
from 25 to +258C was observed. Test results showed
that freeze–thaw action did not degrade the bond of
FRP-strengthened beams.
Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28
26
Fig. 11 Failure modes of the repaired masonry wall
THERMAL EXPOSURE
High temperatures showed a detrimental effect on the
bond characteristics of FRP rebars[56]. Test results
showed a reduction of 80–90% in the bond strength of
FRP rebars with different surface treatment at
temperatures ranging from 20 to 2508C[57]. In
comparison, steel rebars showed a reduction of 38%.
Repair of Masonry Walls
A large number of existing masonry walls are not
designed with sufficient seismic resistance. Previous
research has shown that using FRP for retrofit is a
feasible solution to increase seismic strength and
ductility of masonry walls[58]. Most of the reported
research has focused on strengthening undamaged
masonry walls in the out-of-plane direction. The
performance of severely damaged and repaired clay
brick masonry walls using FRP sheets was recently
investigated[58,59]. Test results indicated that the
strength of the repaired walls was restored and
exceeded the original wall strength by 11 and 38
percent in the push and pull directions
respectively[59]. The displacement capacity of the
repaired walls was more than twice that of the
original walls. Failure was due to vertical splitting of
the masonry as well as delamination and outward
local buckling of the FRP sheets, as shown in Fig. 11. It
should also be noted that the capacity of the repaired
walls was always limited by the capacity of the
concrete footing. Further research is needed to
improve the repair technique at the joint between the
wall and footing.
Conclusions
FRP reinforcing bars, strips and sheets are relatively
new products, and require extensive testing before
Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
they can be recommended for widespread application
in concrete construction or repair of existing
structures. The promise of FRP materials lies in their
high-strength, lightweight, non-corrosive, non-
conducting, and non-magnetic properties. In addition,
FRP manufacturing offers a unique opportunity for
the development of shapes and forms that would be
difficult or impossible with conventional steel
materials. Although the fibres and resins used in FRP
systems are relatively expensive compared with
traditional strengthening materials, labour and
equipment costs to install FRP systems are often
lower. FRP systems can also be used in areas with
limited access where traditional techniques would be
impractical. However, it is crucial to ensure that FRP
strengthening systems are durable and capable of
providing the design strength over the life of the
structure. Certain environmental conditions, such as
temperature, humidity, wet–dry cycles, freeze–thaw
cycles, and ultraviolet exposure could have an
adverse effect on the FRP strengthening systems, and
should be investigated extensively. For the research
results to be universally acceptable, it is imperative to
standardize the test methods for evaluating basic
mechanical properties of the FRP materials.
Standardization plays a key role in streamlining and
effectively categorizing FRP reinforcements for
inclusion in design specifications and standard codes.
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Sami Rizkilla
Distinguished Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
North Carolena State University,
Raleigh NC, 27695-7533, USA
E-mail: sami rizkalla@ncsu.edu

Tarek Hassan
Assistant Professor, Structural Engineering Department,
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Nahla Hassan
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Department,
Ain Shans University, Cairo, Egypt

Copyright & 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Prog. Struct. Engng Mater. 2003; 5:16–28