FST3113

NUTRITIONAL CHANGES IN FOODS

Semester 1 2022/2023

ENERGY
METABOLISM
DR. NURUL SHAZINI RAMLI
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE
FACULTY OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UPM
shazini@upm.edu.my

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 Outlines
• Learning outcomes
• Food metabolism
– CHO
– PRO
– FAT
• Summary

2
 Learning outcomes
• At the end of this lecture, students should be
able to

– Explain the metabolism of nutrients after

digestion and absorption

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Nutrition in your life
• Have you ever wondered how your
body extracts nutrients from food
and how the food you eat powers
the activities of your life?

• A healthy digestive system can

adjust to almost any diet and can
handle any combination of food
with ease.

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Your Body’s Metabolism

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Metabolism

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Metabolism

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Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions

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 Metabolism
• Sum of all chemical reactions in the body’s
cells
– Generation of energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats
– Production of biological compounds
• Nonessential amino acids
• Intermediate substances needed for metabolism

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 Metabolism

• Never stops
• Adapts to individual needs and the
environment
• Has several metabolic pathways
– Glycolysis
– TCA cycle
– Electron transport chain

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Overview of Energy Metabolism

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 Metabolism in the Cell

• Chemical reactions involved in energy

production
• Different cells perform different functions
• Each cell’s structure is similar

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Metabolism Takes Place within Cells

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The site of reactions- cells

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 Cell Structure
• Cell construction is similar for all cells
• Outside of cell
– Plasma membrane
• Holds in the cell contents
• Inside of cell
– Includes several special internal structures:
organelles

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 Internal Cell Structure
• Organelles
– Mitochondrion
• “Powerhouse of the cell”
• Aerobic metabolism
– Ribosomes
• Help manufacture proteins
– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Produces lipids
• Cytosol
– Fluid portion of cell
– Anaerobic metabolism

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 Liver
• Is the most metabolically active organ in the body
• First organ to metabolize, store, and distribute nutrients
after absorption
• Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are absorbed as:
– Amino acids
– Monosaccharides
– Glycerol and fatty acids

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 Liver
• Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are in the liver
converted to
– Usable forms of energy
– Storage forms
• Glycogen
• Triglycerides

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The Metabolic
Fate of Food

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 Metabolic Pathways
• A sequence of reactions that convert compounds
from one form to another in the production of energy

• Different nutrients follow different pathways

• All pathways eventually converge into a pathway

called the TCA cycle

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 The helpers in reactions

• Enzymes- protein catalyst ---facilitate the chemical rx.

without being changed in the process.

• Coenzymes (enzymes helper)- complex organic

molecules that work with enzymes to facilitate the
enzyme’s activity

• Cofactors- include both organic coenzymes (such as

vitamins) and inorganic substances (such as
minerals).

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 The helpers in reactions
• Hormones regulate anabolic and catabolic
reactions

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 Quick review
• Metabolism is the sum of all metabolic processes that
occur in the cells
• Mitochondria is the site of most of the metabolic
reactions
• Metabolic processes follows specific pathways
– Anabolic which use energy to build new substances
– Catabolic which produce energy by breaking down
molecules

• Enzymes and coenzymes catalyze reactions

• Hormones regulate reactions

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The transfer of energy by ATP

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 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• A high-energy molecule composed of adenine,
ribose, and three phosphate molecules

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• Only source of energy used directly by the cell

• Energy is stored in the bonds that connect the

phosphate groups

• The body must continually produce ATP to

provide a constant supply of energy

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ATP to ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)

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 Anaerobic and Aerobic
Metabolism
• Anaerobic metabolism
– Produces more ATP per minute
– Involved in high-intensity, short-duration activities,
e.g., sprinting, heavy weight lifting

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 Anaerobic and Aerobic
Metabolism
• Aerobic metabolism
– Produces less ATP per minute
– Involved in low-intensity, long-duration activities

When demand for ATP is greater than the rate

of metabolism the activity slows down

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 Quick Review
• ATP – energy the body uses to fuel all
metabolic reactions
• ATP is not stored
– Formed from ADP and inorganic phosphate
• Creatine phosphate can donate inorganic
phosphate
– Produced during anaerobic metabolism
– Produced during aerobic metabolism

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The Metabolic Fate of Food

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 Carbohydrates to Energy
• Carbohydrate metabolism is the
backbone of energy production
• Glucose
– Important energy source for the brain and
red blood cells
– Generates energy anaerobically and
aerobically

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 Carbohydrates to Energy
• Glucose transforms to energy via four
metabolic pathways
• Glycolysis
• Intermediate reaction pyruvate to acetyl CoA
• Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
• Electron transport chain

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 Glycolysis
• “Glucose splitting”
• glyco = glucose
• lysis = breakdown

• 6-carbon glucose split in half, forming

two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules
while producing small amount of E.

• Net yield: one glucose molecules- 2

pyruvate molecules Glycolysis takes place in
cytosol. The remaining
reactions take place in
mitochondria

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 Glycolysis
• The other monosaccharides can also be
used to produce ATP
– Fructose enters glycolysis after going through
seven metabolic steps
– Galactose enters after going through four
metabolic steps

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 Glycolysis Summary
• Ten-step process that produces
– Two molecules of ATP
– Two molecules of pyruvate
– Two energized coenzyme molecules
– Two hydrogen ions that are transported to
the electron transport chain
– Two water molecules

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 Pyruvate’s option

• Anaerobic pathway
– Pyruvate is converted to lactic acid
– Condition: When the body needs energy quickly
– e.g. short, intense exercise

• Aerobic pathway
– Pyruvate breaks down to acetyl CoA
– Energy expenditure at a slower pace

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 Pyruvate lactic acid
• Anaerobic pathway

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 Pyruvate  Acetyl-CoA
• Aerobic pathway

• When the cells need E

and O2 available, pyruvate
molecules enter the
mitochondria of the cell
and converted to acetyl-
CoA.

• Irreversible step

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 Pyruvate  Acetyl-CoA
• Acetyl CoA has two main options:
– Synthesize fats
-when energy is abundant
– Generate ATP
-when cells need energy

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 Quick Review
• Glycolysis
– Process by which carbohydrates provide energy
to the cell
– Backbone of metabolism
– One glucose molecule yields
• Two pyruvate
• Two ATP
• Two energized coenzymes
• Two hydrogen ions
• Two water molecules

• Pyruvate
– Reduce to lactate during anaerobic metabolism
– Converted to acetyl CoA during aerobic
metabolism
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The Metabolic Fate of Food

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 Fats to Energy
• Dietary fat (triglycerides) yields six times
more energy

• Triglycerides
– Glycerol backbone
– Three fatty acids
– Stored in adipose tissue

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 Triglycerides
• Hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol
during lipolysis
– Reaction catalyzed by an enzyme in the
adipose tissue
• Glucagon during times of fasting or starvation
• Epinephrine or cortisol when under stress
• Once in the blood stream, they travel to
the tissues and enter the metabolic
pathway

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 Fatty Acids and Glycerol
• Glycerol
– Glucogenic – can be transformed to glucose
– represent only 5% of triglyceride

• Fatty acids
– Ketogenic – can be transformed to ketone
bodies
– Ketones are the backup fuel for brain and
nerve function when glucose is limited
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 Glycerol
• In the liver
– Converted to glucose through
gluconeogenesis
– Enters glycolysis to produce ATP and pyruvate
– Path entered depends on body’s need for
glucose

• When the diet is low in carbohydrates, glucose

must come from other sources

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 Quick Review
• Both the glycerol and fatty acid portions of
triglycerides provide energy

• Fatty acids are the more concentrated sources

of energy and are ketogenic, non-glucose
forming

• Glycerol is glucogenic forming glucose through

gluconeogenesis

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The Metabolic Fate of Food

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How Does Protein Provide Energy?
• Amino acids
– Primary use/most important function is
building protein
– Excess can be used for energy production,
converted to glucose, or stored as fat
– Used, in a limited extent, for energy in diets
low in kilocalories and/or carbohydrate

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 Amino Acids
• Ketogenic amino acids
– Leucine
– Lysine
• Both ketogenic and glucogenic amino acids
– Isoleucine
– Tryptophan
– Phenylalanine
– Tyrosine
• Glucogenic amino acids
– The fourteen other amino acids
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 Amino Acids
• Amino acids must be deaminated first before
metabolized for energy or used to make fat.

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 Deamination

• Deamination produces: keto acid and ammonia

(NH3)

• Given a source of NH3 the body can make

nonessential amino acids from keto acid through
transamination reactions.

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 Transamination
• Transamination: the transfer of an amino group
from one amino acid to a keto acid, producing a new
nonessential amino acid and a new keto acid.

• The remaining ammonia combine with carbon

dioxide to make urea- a less toxic compound

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Transamination

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Urea excretion via the
kidneys

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 Quick Review
• Amino acids can
– Be used to produce energy
– Be used to produce glucose
– Convert to fatty acids and can be stored as
triglycerides

• Must be deaminated to be used for energy

• Once deaminated can be transformed into:
– Pyruvate
– Acetyle CoA
– TCA cycle compounds

• Glucogenic amino acids can be converted to glucose

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 Where Do the Macronutrients Come
Together?

• Acetyl CoA
– “Gateway” molecule for aerobic metabolism
– Carbohydrates, proteins, and fat all eventual
converted to acetyl CoA
– Alcohol also converted to acetyl CoA

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 The final steps
• TCA cycle • Electron transport chain

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 The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle /
Krebs Cycle
• Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle

• Oxaloacetate is needed in the first step and

synthesized in the last step.

• A diet that provides carbohydrate ensures an

adequate supply of oxaloacetate.

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/ch
apter25/animation__how_the_krebs_cycle_works__quiz_1_.html

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 The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle /
Krebs Cycle

• The breakdown of acetyl CoA releases hydrogens and

their electrons
• Coenzymes (niacin and riboflavin) receives hydrogens
and their electrons, transfer them to the electron
transport chain.

• Though vitamins and minerals do not provide

energy, they are essential for energy production

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 Electron transport chain
• The electron transport chain consist of a series of proteins
that serve as electron “carriers’.

• Electrons are passed from carrier to carrier until they reach

oxygen at the end, and combine to form water.

• As electron are passed from carrier to carrier, hydrogens ions

are pumped to the outer compartment of mitochondria.

• The rush back of hydrogen ions into inner compartments

synthesize ATP.

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Electron transport chain

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Overview of Energy Metabolism

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Overview of Energy Metabolism

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What Happens if You Eat Too Much or
Too Little

• Metabolism adjusts
– Anabolic reactions store excess kilocalories as
glycogen and adipose tissue
– Catabolic reactions use glycogen, adipose tissue,
and proteins for energy

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What Happens if You Eat Too Much

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What Happens if You Eat Too Little

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 Feasting

• Excess protein

• Excess carbohydrate

• Excess fat

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Metabolic Pathways of Excess Energy

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Metabolic Pathways of Excess Energy

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 Energy Storage: Glycogenesis

• Anabolic process of converting extra

glucose into glycogen

• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles

for quick energy to be used at a later time

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 Energy Storage: Lipogenesis

• When glycogen reserves are full, additional excess energy

from carbohydrates, fat, or protein is stored as fat in adipose
tissue

• Lipogenesis: The building up of triglycerides for storage in

adipose tissue

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 Energy Storage: Gluconeogenesis
• Conversion of amino acids to glucose

• Excess protein is not stored as muscle but is further

broken down
– Nitrogen unit is removed
– Remaining carbon chain can be converted to
glucose (if needed) or to fat for storage

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Fasting

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 Fasting
• Glucose needed for the brain

• Protein meets glucose needs

• Shift to ketosis

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 Quick Review
• Ingestion of excess kilocalories
– Anabolic metabolism
– Excess energy from carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, and alcohol are converted to fat and stored
• Fasting or starvation
– Catabolic metabolism
– Fat is broken down to fatty acids
– Glycerol and amino acids maintain blood glucose
– Lack of glucose leads to formation of ketone
bodies for energy
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 Summary: Take home message
Nutrient Yields Yields glucose? Yields amino Yields fat
energy? acids and body stores?
proteins
Carbohydrate    
(glucose) When nitrogen is
available, can yield
nonessential amino
acids
Lipids    
(fatty acids)
Lipids    
(glycerol) -When
carbohydrates is
unavailable
Proteins (amino    
acids) -When
carbohydrates is
unavailable
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How Does the Body Metabolize
Alcohol?
• Alcohol
– Contains 7 kilocalories per gram
– Absorbed directly through the stomach
mucosa and intestinal lining
– Metabolized by the liver, about half an ounce
(15 mL) per 1.5 hours
– Excess stored as fat in the adipose tissue and
liver

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Metabolism of Alcohol

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Terima Kasih | Thank You

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