ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES

Lesson 1
(Week 1)

Introduction to Communication .

Definition of Communication

Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or

information from one person to another within and across channels,
contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014)

There is a wide variety of contexts and situations in which communication can

be manifested: it can be a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a group
discussion, a meeting or interview, a letter correspondence, a class recitation, and
many others.

Nature of Communication

1. Communication is a process.
Communication follows a predetermined set of steps in order to work.
For example, we can‟t start communication by understanding what has been
said, until something has been said.

2. Communication occurs between two or more people.

This refers to the participants involved in communication which are also
known as the sender and the receiver/s.

3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions

(nonverbal), or both spoken words and nonverbal actions at the same time.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES
Principles of Communication

1. Schemata-driven
Schemas or schemata provide a basis on how we relate to ideas, concepts
and events based on past experiences. In other words, in order to be able to
communicate effectively in a communicative act, we first need to have prior
knowledge of the subject.

2. Interpretative Act
Communication is an interpretative act in a sense that only the sender
knows the exact meaning of the message. The receiver, on one hand, can only
interpret, infer, or guess the meaning of the message as they appeal to his
sense of hearing.

3. Active, Forceful, and Powerful

Messages may have various interpretations because of cultural,
ideological, and environmental factors. What is rude in one culture may be
perceived as something acceptable in another.

4. Symbolic
Signs, symbols, letters, and etc. are concrete objects that stand for or
represent and idea. For example, when the traffic lights signals a red light, it is
common knowledge that it means to STOP.

5. Always results in something

Communication, as a transactional process, creates an effect on the
involved parties (the sender and the receiver). It will bring about either a verbal
or non-verbal response.

6. Irreversible
In communication, either oral or written, what has been said is said. The
moment you utter a word already creates an impact on the listeners.

7. Contextual
Communication involves setting like time, occasion, purpose, and manner
of communication.

8. Progressive
Communication is a process we learn from birth and continues to evolve
as time passes by. As an infant, you communicate through crying – when you
are hungry, scared, or feel pain. But as you grow up, you learn to communicate
through speaking and writing. Thus, communication changes with time.

9. Process
There are several stages that take place in communication when people
convey and exchange ideas with one another.

10. Ethical
A communicative event is expected to follow rules, values, and beliefs
agreed upon by members of the society.

11. Influenced by technology and media

Communication in the current age of technology is characterized by the
instant, real-time exchange of knowledge, messages, and services.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES

Features of Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and
Center (2012) list the 7 Cs of Effective Communication.

1. Completeness
Communication should include everything that the receiver needs to
hear for him/her to respond, react, or evaluate properly. A complete
message reduces the need for follow-up questions and smoothens the
communication process.

2. Conciseness
Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it
direct or straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant information
should be eliminated from the communication that will be sent to the
recipient. This helps the receiver focus on what is important.

3. Consideration
To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant
information about his/her receiver such as mood, background, race,
preference, education, status, and needs, among others. By doing so,
he/she can easily build rapport with the audience.

4. Concreteness
Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and
supported by facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this
case, the receiver is more connected to the message conveyed.

5. Courtesy
The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the
culture, values, and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous at all
times creates a positive impact on the audience.

6. Clearness
Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific
words to express ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses only on
a single objective in his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.

7. Correctness
Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and
increases the credibility and effectiveness of the message.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES

Lesson 2
(Weeks 2-3)

Kinds of Communication
1. Kinds of Communication

Verbal Non-Verbal
Oral Visual signals – appeal to the sense of
sight

Written Audio signals – appeal to the sense of

hearing

A. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the type of communication that make
use of words – either oral or written.

Basic Features

o Phonology
- Phonology is the study of the system of sounds including how sounds are
organized and structured to convey meaning.
- Phoneme refers to the smallest unit of sound in speech. For example, the
word „cat‟ has 3 phonemes: /k/, /æ/, and /t/.
(Note: When symbols are enclosed inside virgules [ / ], we are talking about
the sound the symbol represents. Thus, /k/, /æ/, and /t/, when combined, is
read as /k æ t/ or „cat‟)

o Morphology
- Morphology studies the formation of words.
- Morpheme refer to the smallest meaning-bearing unit in a language. They
are commonly classified as either free morphemes (root words), which can
occur as separate words, and bound morphemes (affixes), which can‟t
stand alone as words. Aside from affixes as bound morphemes, we also have
our pluralizer –s or –es.
Example:
The word „dogs‟ have 2 morphemes:
 „dog‟ which is a free morpheme; and
 the pluralizer „-s‟ which is a bound morpheme
Two Classifications of Words

a. Content words
These are words that have meaning of their own. They are words
we look up in a dictionary such as „glass‟, „computer‟, and „stroll‟. In
the parts of speech, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are
content parts of speech.

b. Function words
These are words that exist to explain or create grammatical or
structural relationships into which the content words may fit. Words
like „of‟, „the‟, „to‟, and „but‟ have little meaning of their own. If
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are content parts of speech,
pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners are
function parts of speech.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES

o Semantics
- Semantics deals with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a
language.

Two Classifications of Meaning

a. Connotation – this refers to the associated meaning attached to a word.
b. Denotation – this refers to the dictionary meaning of a word.
Example:
HEART
Connotation: love
Denotation: a shape or the organ of the body that pumps blood

o Syntax
- Syntax is the study of how words are put together to form grammatically
correct sentences in a language. Simply, syntax focuses on the grammar of
a specific language.

o Pragmatics
- Pragmatics touches on how language is used. It is concerned with how
words can be interpreted in various scenarios. Generally, pragmatics look
into the context of communication.

B. Non-Verbal Communication
This type of communication make use of signals, audio and visual
signals, instead of words.

 Visual Signals

Kinesics - the language of the body and facial expressions.

Example: The simple „nodding‟ of our head would mean we are
„agreeing‟ or „saying yes‟ without actually uttering a word.

Proxemics – the language of distance and space. The relationship of

people can be determined by observing the distance they maintain from
each other. The illustration below gives a general description of space
people take-up depending upon their relationship with others.

(from bodylanguageproject.com)

Take note that one must also consider other factors when
deciphering the relationship between people from other cultures.

Haptics – the language of touch. This nonverbal communication reveals

feelings and culture.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES
Example: When a friend is feeling down, we sometimes „pat their
shoulders‟ as a sign of comfort.

Chronemics – the language of time. An example can be what we call

Filipino time. This practice sometimes irritates foreigners, which goes to
show that different cultures may have different understanding of what
„on time‟ really means.

Appearance – the language of looks. The way a person looks or appears

reflects his/her status or position, mood, culture, taste, and grooming.

 Audio signals

Audio signals can be categorized as part of paralanguage, which refers to

various non-verbal cues that we can hear in our voice.
Elements of Paralanguage

Vocal Quality - refers to how pleasant or unpleasant a

person‟s voice sound
- timbre or tone color
Pitch - lowness or highness of tone

Tempo - how fast or slow someone speaks

- also known as rate or speed in speaking
Volume - the force of the voice
- loudness and softness of voice
Junctures - breaks or pauses applied at the end of
utterances or between thoughts

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES

Lesson 3
(Weeks 4-5)

Process and Elements of

Communication
Process of Communication
As discussed in the previous chapters, communication is naturally a process
that follows definite steps. The process is as follows:

The sender generates an idea.

The sender encodes an idea or converts the idea into words or actions.

The sender transmits or sends out a message.

The receiver receives the message.

The receiver decodes or interprets the message on the context.

The receiver sends or provides feedback.

Example:

(Generates) Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.

(Encodes) She thinks of how to tell him using their native language.

(Transmits) She tells him, “Rico, mahal kita bilang kaibigan.”

(Receives) Rico hears what Daphne says.

(Decodes) He tries to analyze what she means based on the content and their
relationship, and he is heartbroken.

(Responds) He frowns and does not say something because he is in pain.

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 ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES
Elements of Communication

Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its

mechanics or process. These elements are the following:

Speaker the source of information or message

Message the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in
words or in actions

Encoding the process of converting the message into words, actions, or

other forms that the speaker understands

Channel the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal,

verbal or nonverbal, in which the encoded message is conveyed

Decoding the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker

by the receiver

Receiver the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the

message

Feedback the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver

Context the environment where communication takes place
Barrier the factors that affect the flow of communication

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LECTURE NOTES

Barriers to Communication
There are instances when miscommunication and misunderstanding occur
because of certain barriers. To become an effective communicator, you should
recognize these barriers that hinder the communication process. This will enable you
to control the situation, reset conditions, and start anew. The table below presents
some barriers to effective communication with corresponding solutions.

Barrier Example Solution

You are having a bad Recognize these kinds of
day or you feel emotions, and politely ask the
frustrated. other person to give you a moment
so you can relax or calm yourself.
Emotional Barriers

You sit in a meeting or Recognize this kind of attitude,

class where you think reset, and reflect on how you can
the speaker is boring. be interested in what the speaker
is pointing out.

You are a scientist Jargon refers to the set of

discussing a certain specialized vocabulary in a certain
weather phenomenon field. To avoid communication
Use of Jargon with your neighbor breakdown due to lack of clarity,
who does not know adjust your language; use
much about the topic. layman‟s terms or simple words

You are asked to share Develop self-confidence by joining

something about your organizations where you can share
day or weekend, but and develop your interests. Look
Lack of confidence you are hesitant for opportunities in your school or
because you are shy. community that will help you find
your strengths and improve your
abilities.

You are having a Recognize that noise is a common

conversation with some barrier. Make some adjustments
friends when a song by asking someone to minimize
Noisy Environment was played loudly. the volume or by looking for a
quiet area where you can resume
the conversation.

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ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES
2 Speech Contexts:
Types of Speech Context
The speech contexts are characterized by the number of participants present in
a communicative act.

1. Intrapersonal
This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker
acts both as the sender and the receiver of message.

Examples:
 You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other
class talked to you on the way home and you decided it probably meant
nothing.
 You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you
for submitting your project before the due date and you reflected on why
this was so.

2. Interpersonal
This refers to communication between and among people and establishes
personal relationship between and among them.

Types of Interpersonal Context

a. Dyadic Communication (Dyads)

This is the type of communication

that occurs between two people.
Dyad means something that
consists of two (2) parts, thus in the
case of communication: 2
participants (a sender and a
receiver).

Examples:

ou offered feedback on the

speech performance of your
classmate.
 You provided comfort to a
friend who was feeling down.

b. Small Groups

This refers to communication that

involves at least three but not more
than twelve people engaging in a face-
to-face interaction to achieve a desired
goal. In this type of communication, all
participants can freely share ideas in a
loose and open discussion.

Examples:

 You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to

address the concerns of your fellow students.
 You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish
the assigned tasks.

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LECTURE NOTES
c. Public

This type refers to communication that

requires you to deliver or send the
message before or in front of a group.
The message can be driven by
informational or persuasive purposes.

Examples:
 You deliver a
graduation speech to your batch.
 You
participate in a declamation, oratorical,
or debate contest watched by a number
of people.

d. Mass Communication

This refers to
communication that takes place
through television, radio,
newspapers, magazines, books,
billboards, internet, and other
types of media.

Examples:
 You are a student journalist
articulating your stand on
current issues through the
school‟s newspaper.

Lesson 4
(Week 6)

Communication Models
Linear Communication Model

The linear model was the first kind of model that experts have made to
understand the process of communication.

Characteristics of the Linear Model:

a. Unidirectional
The prefix “uni” means one. Thus the linear model illustrates that
communication is one-way. In this model, sanders can only send and
receivers can only receive, thus, lack of feedback is seen in this model.

b. Simple
This model presents a simple
communication act. It doesn‟t look
like a process. There is only the
beginning and the end and there is
no interchanging of roles between
sender and receiver.

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c. Persuasion not mutual understanding

Since there is lack of feedback in this model, this only promotes advice
rather than understanding from both the sender and receiver.
d. Psychological effects over social
This model focuses more on the psychological effects (understanding the
messages) rather than the social effects (building relationship amongst
communicators). There is no assurance that the message was effective
because the sender is only concerned with the delivery of the message
and will not know the effect on the receiver/s because of the lack of
feedback.

Linear Models
A. Shannon-Weaver Model
The Shannon-Weaver model, also known as the Information Theory
model, was primarily developed to illustrate transmission of electronic
information back in 1948. It is also known as the “mother of all models”
because of its wide popularity.
The model was first introduced in 1948 in the article “A Mathematical
Theory of Communication” in the Bell System Technical Journal. Its
proponents were Claude Shannon, who was a mathematician, and Warren
Weaver, who was an electrical engineer.
Elements
1. Sender
(Information Source)
They are the
person (or object, or
thing – any information
source) who has the
information to begin
with.

2. Encoder
(Transmitter)
The encoder is the
machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent
from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed
originally to explain communication through means such as telephone
and computers which encode our words using codes like binary digits or
radio waves.

3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets
information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder and
receiver. We sometimes also call this the „medium‟.

4. Noise
Noise interrupts a message while it‟s on the way from the sender
to the receiver. It‟s named after the idea that „noise‟ could interrupt our
understanding of a message. There are two types of noise: internal and
external.
 Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding
a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message.
 External noise happens when something external (not in the
control of sender or receiver) impedes the message.

5. Decoder
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver
made this model in reference to communication that happens through

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LECTURE NOTES
devices like telephones. So, in this model, there usually needs to be a
device that decodes a message from binary digits or waves back into a
format that can be understood by the receiver.

6. Receiver (Destination)
The receiver is the end-point of the original Shannon and Weaver
model of the technical communication process.

7. Feedback
The „feedback‟ was not originally proposed by Shannon and
Weaver in 1948. Norbert Weiner came up with the feedback step in
response to criticism of the linear nature of the approach.
Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the
sender in order to close the communication loop. They might respond to
let the sender know they got the message or to show the sender:

 Whether they got the message clearly without noise

 How well they understand the message
Example:
A telephone conversation

Sender: The sender is the person who has made the call, and wants to tell the
person at the other end of the phone call something important.
Encoder: The telephone turns the person‟s voice into a series of binary data
packages that can be sent down the telephone lines.

Channel: The channel is the telephone wires itself.

Noise: Noise may occur if the speaker mumbles, the telephone wires are
interrupted in a storm, or the telephone encoders/decoders are malfunctioning.

Decoder: The telephone that the receiver is holding will turn the binary data
packages it receives back into sounds that replicate the voice of the sender.

Receiver: The receiver will hear the sounds made by the decoder and interpret
the message.
Feedback: The receiver may speak in response, to let the sender know what
they heard or understood.

B. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

David Berlo conceptualized the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver
(SMCR) model during the 60‟s. This model includes a number of factors under
each element.

1. Source (Sender)
This is situated where the
message originates.

a. Communication Skills

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ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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LECTURE NOTES
The communication skill of both the sender and the receiver plays a
significant role in the communication process. Communication skills
include writing, speaking, listening, reading, and etc. If the sender is not
good in communication, the message might be lost in the process. The
same can be said with the receiver. The receiver must have the adequate
amount of skill to be able to understand the message being sent by the
sender.

b. Attitudes
The attitude of the sender and the receiver also plays a part in the
communication process. This includes one‟s attitude towards the
audience, subject, and towards oneself.

c. Knowledge
Knowledge of the sender and the receiver on the subject matter
makes the communication effective. If the sender is familiar with the
subject or topic at hand, it adds value and impact on the message. And,
the same can be said with the receiver. The receiver must also be
knowledgeable of the topic to be able to have an effective communication.

d. Social System
The social system includes the various aspects of society like values,
beliefs, culture, religion and a general understanding of society of the
sender and the receiver.

e. Culture
Cultural differences can make it difficult to communicate. Some culture
may accept something while other may find it offensive. Culture may also
be under social systems.

2. Message
a. Content
This refers to the entirety of the message – it covers the beginning
until the end.

b. Elements
These refer to what compromises the message – gestures, body
language, language, and etc.

c. Treatment
Treatment refers to how the message is conveyed.

d. Structure
This refers to the arrangement of elements in the content of the
message. Arrangement of elements affects the effectiveness and impact of
the message.

e. Code
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It could be in the
form of videos, spoken language, text, etc.

3. Channel
This refers to the use of the five senses in communication.

a. Hearing – the use of the ears to get the message.

b. Seeing – this is used in receiving visual signals like when you are
watching television or reading.
c. Touching – Touch can be used a medium for communication. For
example hugging.
d. Smelling – Example: The smell of something burning can communicate
the danger of fire nearby.

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LECTURE NOTES
e. Taste
4. Receiver
The receiver share the same elements with the sender. You may refer to
the descriptions mentioned above.

Transactional Communication Model

The transactional models of communication are models that illustrate how the
sender and the receiver take turns in conveying and receiving messages. In this model
the sender and the receiver are called „communicators‟. They each take turn in their
roles in the course of the communication process.

A. Dance’s Helical Model

The Helical model was conceptualized in 1967 by
Frank Dance. A helix is an object having three-
dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly
around a cylinder or cone or a coil that grows bigger as
it moves up.

The model illustrates how the development and

growth of communication or communicative actions will
be based on previous experiences or behaviors.

This also shows how the knowledge base of a

person deepens and expands throughout life.

Example:

A child crying at birth signifies the

communication of the child to its parents
that h/she is alive. After some years, the
child cries whenever the child needs anything
like food or attention. H/she then learns
words and starts communicating with words.
The child also learns specific languages
and communicates with the people who know
the language. Here, communication become
more complex as the child grows into an
adult. The adult uses the same
pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that h/she learned when h/she
was a child. Communication is now directly dependent on his/her past behavior as a
child but can also be modified as the person grows.

Interactive Communication Model

This model is also known as convergence model. The model emphasizes on the
encoding and decoding process. It mainly deals with the exchange of ideas and
messages taking place both ways from the sender to the receiver and vice-versa.

In this model, the message formation of both sources is affected by their „field of
experience‟. This field of experience refers to patterns which affect the communication
process. This can be from the society, culture, situations, psychological or social
events of the sender and the receiver.

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A. Osgood-Schramm’s Model

In 1954, Charles Osgood presented the theory of meaning, while Wilbur

Schramm changed this theory of meaning into a model. This model now
became the „Circular Model‟ of communication.

The model is about the

two-way process of
communication between the
sender and the receiver
(„interpreter‟ as it is called in this
model).

Four Key Principles:

1) Communication is circular not
linear.
The image above shows how the model works. In involves a circular
communication between two people. Each participant can be a sender and a
receiver. Thus, they are able to communicate with one another rather than
only in one direction.

2) Communication is usually equal and reciprocal.

Because both members of the communication have the capacity to
encode, decode, and interpret, this model views the two members of the
conversation as equal participants.

3) Communication involves interpretation.

Schramm was insistent that communication is not simply the passing of
a packet of information from a sender to a receiver. Instead, he saw that
messages must be interpreted in order for them to be understood.

4) There are three steps to communicating: encoding, decoding, and

interpreting.

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