Review

Separation of fines by flotation

techniques
K. A. Matis, G. P. Gallios, and K. A. Kydros

Laboratory of General and Inorganic Chemical Technology, Aristotelian University,

Thessaloniki, Greece

A large amount of valuable minerals is discarded today asjines and ultrafines because of inadequate
technology to process them economically. Treatment of fine particles presents a difficult problem in
the chemical industry and raw materials processing, and its solution is required both in production
and efjuent treatment. This article reviews various suitable flotation techniques-such as precipitate
flotation, flocculation-flotation, columnjlotation, dissolved-air flotation, and electrolytic flotation and
presents different laboratory experiments withfines (mostly at the subsieve size range) as examples. Also
included is the conventional froth jotation and particularly the effect of bubbles size on performance.
Although froth flotation is a commonly applied selective separation process in mineral processing, it
becomes inefficient for benejiciating fines. In the closing overview of the process, several ideas for
future research are suggested.

Keywords: separation; fines; particles; bubbles; electrolytic flotation; dissolved air

Introduction tation has the advantage of being able to operate effec-

Flotation constitutes one of the most significant bene-
ficiation methods of ores and industrial minerals, hav-
ing a history of almost a century, and its application has
been extended nowadays to new fields, for instance, to
effluent treatment. Today, almost 100 different types
of ores and around 2 million tons of them are processed
every year by froth flotation.’ Its selectivity is so great
that, for example, cassiterite ores containing 0.2-0.3%
Sn are separated by flotation.
Flotation, a gravity separation process, is a physico-
chemical method based on the different hydrophobicity
of particles to be separated; hydrophobicity of minerals
is rarely natural occurring but may be chemically in-
duced during conditioning. Hence, flotation is some-
how independent of the particles properties.
There are three basic bubbles generation methods,
namely’
1. Dispersed-air flotation
2. Dissolved-air flotation
3. Electrolytic flotation
Compared with other physical unit operations,
Address reprint requests to Dr. K. A. Matis at the Laboratory of
General and Inorganic Chemical Technology, Aristotelian University
(114), 540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece.
Received 18 February 1992; accepted 3 December 1992
tively with finely pulverized ores and, generally, is
more economic than chemical operations of beneficia-
tion (i.e., hydrometallurgy). The former advantage is
important in the case of low-grade or complex ores
where, owing to liberation of grains, size reduction to
finer particle sizes is compulsory.
The particles size to be floated should be rather small
so that they can be levitated by the bubbles produced.
Usually, particles of diameter less than around 500 pm
(at an intermediate-size range) can be used in flotation.
To facilitate the particle-bubble collision, dispersions
(or pulp) having 15-35% (w/v) in solid concentration
is mixed by intense stirring. The final result is the re-
moval of the mineralized bubbles at the froth, the so-
called concentrate, unless it is a reverse process, where
the tails are of interest. For the latter case, the froth
layer contains the gangue or unwanted particles.
Flotation may give the required product quality with
proper design of flotation cells (tanks), appropriate op-
eration of the conditioning stage (which sometimes is
simultaneous with grinding) and good selection of
chemical reagents. Those are usually classified as col-
flo-
lectors, modifiers (activators or depressants, disper-
sants, pH regulators, coagulants etc.), and frothers.
Analysis of the flotation process, on a simplified
basis, is often based in the stage concept. The basic
stages of flotation are the following: (1) dispersion, (2)
addition of flotation reagents, (3) mixing in order to

76 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 0 1993 Butterworth-Heinemann


produce hydrophobic particles, (4) gas (usually air) dis-
persion to produce bubbles, (5) collision of bubbles-
particles and adhesion of the hydrophobic ones, (6)
formation of stable bubble-particle aggregates and their
transport to surface and (7) maintenance of froth until
the particles are collected. Many parameters may affect
flotation; around 50 have been reported. ’ Taking into
consideration their interactions one can understand the
complexity of the process. Perhaps this is the reason
why flotation originally started as an “art,” and only
in recent years has study on a more fundamental basis
been attempted.3
Fine particles often constitute a problem in chemical
industry and raw materials processing, often as by-
products. It seems that there is some confusion on the
size classification with reference to the term fines. It
was proposed by Sivamohan4 that fines are particles
with diameters less than 100 pm size, very fines those
less than 20 pm, and ultrafines the ones less than 5
pm. For particles lengthy 1 pm in size, they belong to
the colloidal size range.
The capability of flotation in the processing of fines
was shown in the removal of synthetic zeolites (having
a size range of -5.5 + 1.9 pm) from dilute disper-
sions.5 Today, considerable interest is growing in de-
veloping new methods and in improving old ones for
the recovery of fine particles. Going to finer size ranges,
however, flotation faces different problems, and their
examination is the scope of this article.
Some insistence on mineral processing is only due
to the fact that most of the available literature on flota-
tion is from this area, where the process was originated
and being widely practiced. Certain solutions to the
problem of fines are proposed in the present-without
saying that they are the only techniques available-and
the examples given are coming from our laboratory
work, some original.
Selective separation by flotation
Another major advantage of flotation is that it can oper-
ate selectively (or differentially), and perhaps the best
example is the processing of mixed sulfide ores, being
the traditional application of the process6; so, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and other useful minerals are
separated from gangues. The first report of selective
flotation goes back to 1910.’ Apparently, selectivity is
not often applied in effluent treatment, unless some by-
products recycle is sought (i.e., valuable metals).
Flotation, as a three-phase unit operation, is influ-
enced by many variables, which are quite difficult to
control. The presence of only one additional constit-
uent in the solid or liquid phase, even in very small
quantities, can completely change the system behavior
during flotation.
Let us consider three different materials A, B, and C,
which alone can float qualitatively by varying the collec-
tor concentration, C-if the latter is selected as the cru-
cial parameter-with the order C, < C, < C,, assuming
collector concentration to be the crucial parameter (Fig-
ure 2). In theory, the particles of each material are ex-
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
Ca cc Cb
Collector cont.
Figure 1 Effect of collector concentration (C) on flotation of
three materials, expressed as recoveries 1%); a hypothetical case
of selective separation. From reference 84.
petted to be selectively separated from a mixture of
them by flotation controlling only the collector concen-
tration. 84 So, with a collector concentration of C, the
material A would alone float, hence separating from B
and C. Increasing the concentration to C,, material C
would also float leaving B in the pulp and so on.*
Nevertheless, in practice, as the particles of the three
materials are mixed, their interaction starts leading
to the modification of their surface properties. For
example, if any of the materials is soluble-even
slightly-then ions may be present in the solution phase,
which can be adsorbed on particle surfaces and change
the particles’ flotation behavior. Also, the collector ions
(i.e., oleate) may react with different other ions in solu-
tion (as Ca*+) giving insoluble salts and resulting in low-
ering of the available collector. This is the reason why,
except of collector concentration, other parameters
usually should be controlled (i.e., pH, modifiers addi-
tion) so that the desired separation is possible.
Sometimes, however, as in the case of salt-type min-
erals, flotation separation is still difficult.’ In this cate-
gory belongs magnesite MgCO, and dolomite (Mg,
Ca)(CO,),, also known as magnesium carbonates,
which will be used as two of the main examples in the
following discussion; pyrite is the third one.
The effect of particle size on flotation recovery is sig-
nificant. It was shown that there exists a certain size
range in which optimum results may be obtained in min-
eral processing. This range varies with the mineral prop-
erties such as density, liberation, and so on but is on the
orderof lo-1OOpm. loIn mineral processing, for obvious
economic reasons, it is the coarse size of particles that
is of interest (high costs are involved in size reduction).
For example, the size range selected for floatability stud-
ies of magnesite was - 180 + 125 pm.6
Principles of conventional flotation
Froth flotation traditionally uses cells (of as much as
85 m3) of mechanical type (i.e., dispersed air). A cell
of this type consists of a rectangular vessel with the
Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 77
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
agitator system located near the bottom. A stator often
shrouds the rotor. Air is introduced, usually through
the agitator shaft, either by the agitation-induced air
suction or by an external blower. Once out of the stator
region, the bubbles are progressively loaded with par-
ticles.”
Cells are usually installed in banks; the tailings of
one cell are fed into the next one, while the concentrate
is removed from the bank side as overflow. A flotation
cell comprises two distinct regions: a region of intense
turbulence, where vigorous mixing is required to bring
all the particles into close contact with each other; in
the second region, quiescence must prevail to minimize
the probability of particle detachment, allowing the
mineralized bubbles to ascend and disengage undis-
turbed.
The formation of the froth and its subsequent re-
moval are the final two steps in flotation. Phenomena
that occur in the froth phase are known to affect sig-
nificantly the results of the whole process.‘* The im-
portant factors include the air-flow rate, frother dosage,
air-bubble size distribution, and size and concentration
of mineral in the pulp.
The concentration of gangue in the uppermost pulp
layers is also of interest, being affected by such parame-
ters as the impeller speed, air rate, and particle size.13
It was shown that for laboratory machines-their op-
erating conditions required for flotation coincide with
a hydrodynamic region, which is responsible for fine
gangue transfer from the pulp into the froth column by
elutriation and entrainment process acting in the pulp.
Thus, the selective action of the flotation process itself
was compromised.
A flotation unit is basically a reaction vessel and
therefore may be modeled accordingly.* Experimental
results from residence-time distribution measurements
may be used to its calibration. As far as mixing is
concerned, it is known that turbulence plays an im-
portant part in the operation of a flotation cell. Rota-
tional speed and thus intensity of turbulence has a
strong influence on the concentrate. I4
The beneficiation of fine particles depends heavily
on the flotation separation process. I5 Conventional
froth flotation for many ore systems, while being effec-
tive for particles comparatively coarse, appears com-
monly as a drop off in the efficiency, as the particle
size decreases (less than around 20 pm). As solution
column flotation was proposed, among others.
Column flotation
Perhaps no flotation machine development has created
as much excitement as the flotation column,‘6 which
has been around for more than 20 years. A column
(either of square or circular cross section), having di-
mensions of 300 mm-3 m (side length or diameter) and
height-to-diameter ratio of 10-100, may be operated in
countercurrent mode.” It can be considered actually
as the scale-up of the perspex column, available in
most laboratories, used in continuous flow flotation
experiments; the countercurrent mode of operation is
78 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April
more effective.* Column flotation was applied to calcite
fines, 80% in the range -75 + 45 prn.r8
Nevertheless, its characteristic innovation is the
maintenance of a net downward flow of water through
the froth in order to prevent hydraulic entrainment.19
So, in a column one can have rougher, scavenger, and
cleaner actions in series. In mechanical flotation cells,
the entrainment of fine particles into the froth decreases
the concentrate grade. The mixing process of a liquid
phase in a (gas-liquid) flotation column and the effect
of the flow rates on it were already published.*O Among
the recent modifications of column flotation is the
Jameson cell.*
One of the applications of column flotation is fine
coal processing. This includes the retrofit of existing
preparation plant circuits and the recovery of addi-
tional coal fines from refuse streams.*,*’ Flotation of
pyrite-which has long been employed in mixed sul-
fides beneficiation-attracts attention also in coal de-
sulfurization, for coal-fired power plants to prevent
environmental pollution. In this area, another interest-
ing investigation, which needs further development, is
the application of bioflotation.
Although coal flotation has tremendous potential, it
has not been widely practiced.** The explanation is not
necessarily due to the cost of the flotation process but
to other factors such as the complexity and heterogene-
ity of coals, difficulty of flotation application to certain
types of coals (i.e., lignites), failure to clean fines con-
taining high percentage of clay, tendency for oversize
to be lost in tailings, high cost of dewatering and mar-
keting problems of fines.
Knowledge on the gas holdup profiles (radial and
axial) is a step toward understanding the gas and slurry
flow patterns existing in the column and their depen-
dence on design and operation parameters, and ulti-
mately their effect on metallurgy. There has been con-
siderable debate over the appropriate model for RTD.23
Measuring the profiles does offer a possible diagnostic
to detect maldistribution of gas and to compare sparg-
ing systems. Uniform wash-water distribution is im-
portant in increasing recovery; wash-water distribution
can be readily checked by temperature profiling.
Sparger life and ease of maintenance largely deter-
mine the choice of device rather than such considera-
tions as control over bubble size or processing benefits,
which are not always readily evident. The use of exter-
nal aerators offers the possibility of reliable on-line
maintenance and for this reason are of increasing in-
terest.
According to Finch and coworkers, what will occur
is increasing use of columns including use with other
flotation machines. Any variations in response between
different flotation devices (e.g., to such factors as parti-
cle size and degree of oxidation) could then be profit-
ably exploited.24 Also, future machines are envisaged
to be distinguished in two parts: (1) the reactor, to
give intense particle collection, followed by a quiescent
water-washed section; and (2) the separator, in which
bubble slurry separation occurs. Independent optimi-
zation of the two parts may be possible. However,

80
iz
y 60
i is a phenomenon of central importance in applications
: ranging from ore flotation to water treatment. Flotation
0
40
fii
a:
0’ * . * . ’ m . ’ ’
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
PH
Figure 2 Classical floatability tests: effect of pH of solution on
pure pyrite recovery by a commercial collector (Aero 407 Pro-
moter); -75 + 45-pm particles. From reference 85.
inevitably research to understand the fundamental phe-
nomena will also intensify.
Parameters affecting flotation
Many small-scale tests (around 2 g of solids sample) are
available in flotation testwork, for example, Hallimond
tube (with a G4 porous frit) testing,25 which is widely
used recently. It provides a fast, convenient, and low-
cost method, based on small samples, usually of pure
minerals and often artificial mixtures of determining
the general conditions, under which minerals may be
rendered floatable.
Earlier (see Figure Z), a hypothetic case of selective
flotation was presented where the collector’s concen-
tration was the important parameter. Another im-
portant parameter influencing flotation is the pH, which
should be carefully controlled. Typical flotability ex-
periments on pyrite (1% pulp density) by a modified26
Hallimond tube microcell are presented in Figure 2. A
commercial collector (by Cyanamid) was applied in
these experiments, being an aqueous mixture of mer-
capto-benzothiazole and dialkyl-dithiophosphate com-
pound. For the pH control of solution, sulfuric acid
was used and either lime or caustic soda, in the alkaline
region. The depressing effect of hydroxides in sulfides
flotation is known,27 particularly above the pH of 11.
Certain limitations of the Hallimond testwork should
be taken into consideration.16 For instance, the micro-
cell results give no information concerning certain
physical aspects of the process (i.e., bubbles size, froth
behavior, mixing, etc.). Also, the “pure” mineral spec-
imens used may have been obtained from deposits
other than those for which flotation is being tested and
which might be variable in their properties. Therefore,
it is very important to characterize those specimens
from the mineralogic viewpoinL2*
The following factors and controls should be exam-
ined before embarking on batch testwork, if meaningful
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
results are to be obtained: sampling, age and alteration
of the sample, froth removal procedure, grinding of
sample, water quality, pH, pulp density, aeration rate,
agitation, and temperature. Other small-scale tests,
parallel with the floatability, investigate the adsorption
of surfactants.29 Adsorption from an aqueous solution
of sparingly soluble salt-type minerals (and sulfides)
appears to be controlled by chemical interactions be-
tween anionic collectors (such as the fatty acids) and
mineral cations. Furthermore collector interaction is
controlled by solubility criteria. Under these condi-
tions, the model to be used must follow the thermody-
namics of infinite three-dimensional phases,29 with the
surfactant being allowed to precipitate on the particles
surface or in the bulk solution.
Figure 3 presents some adsorption results of a fatty
acid on two salt-type minerals, of -45 + 15 pmfraction
size.30 The observed difference (two y axes) are due
to different specific surface areas of mineral particles,
dolomite being crystalline while magnesite was crypto-
crystalline. The effect of variable collector (fatty acid)
concentration is shown, at an almost natural pH.
In these experiments, carboxymethyl cellulose (as
the sodium salt) was also applied as modifier of flota-
tion. It was found3’ that this organic modifying reagent
depressed (i.e., inhibited the flotation of) dolomite
(which has calcium sites) in the pH rage 7.0-12.0, but
it did not affect magnesite. Its adsorption was assumed
to be chemical in nature because of the existence of
calcium ions on dolomite surface. If carboxymethyl
cellulose adsorption was due only to electrostatic
forces, it should have been adsorbed on both minerals.
A reduction of dolomite flotation recovery was re-
ported, in presence of this modifier in the alkaline re-
gion, but it did not influence flotation in the acidic one;
500 , 1 3000
F -
E ,t i
,“d - 2500 \
0,
I
V
13
I
- 500 ::
73 u
Q a
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Collector cont. (ppm)
Figure 3 Adsorption studies on magnesite and dolomite of a
commercial collector (Acintol FA-1). in presence of 100 ppm
carboxymethyl cellulose at pH 9.5; adsorption density versus
collector concentration. Adapted from reference 30.
Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 79
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.

Magnesite dolomite potentials were interpreted (by Hollick) as

10 I I
consistent with steady adsorption of negatively
charged oleate anions to otherwise relatively stable
-10 - surfaces.26
9 The magnesite potentials, conversely, were actually
J&-30.
slightly lower in the presence of collector than without
z -50 - it. This was regarded as the result of probably a balance
z between the rates of magnesite dissolution and collec-
; -70.
tor adsorption, which may reflect the extent to which
% the formation of magnesium oleate surface complexes
n -90.
0 No soll*slor stabilized the magnesite against continuing dissolution.
2 -110 . l SHMP 100 pprn Of course, the flotation procedure conducted in Hal-
lz limond tubes is a frothless process. In practice, a
0 WC 100 ppm
-130.
frother is applied, unless if the collector-surfactant has
I frothing properties, too. A frother functions to reduce
-150'
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 surface tension, reduce bubble sizes, minimize bubble
coalescence, and stabilize the froth at the flotation cell
PH surface. Frothers are also used in column flotation and
Figure 4 Zeta-potential measurements on magnesite (pH val- thus higher gas holdups are obtained.35
ues after conditioning), with and without modifiers; presence of Coming to the economic aspects of the process,36 it
carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium hexametaphosphate. was reported that flotation processes alone required
Adapted from references 26 and 31. about 0.07% of the total energy expended in the U.S.
industry. Much of the information available regarding
energy and running costs are mainly based on conven-
in the latter carboxymethyl cellulose is not charged, tional froth flotation applied in mineral processing.37
and its adsorption is quite small.
Magnesite is one of the important products of Precipitate flotation
Greece, being also considered as a strategic mineral.32
An interesting application of flotation in recent years
Figure 4 shows some surface potential measurements,
is its use in wastewater treatment.3 For instance, it is
carried out by the method of electrophoretic mass
known that (dissolved-air) flotation is an effective and
transfer ( -45pm particles fraction). Adsorption at the
quite dominant process for activated sludge plants,
mineral-water interfaces are in most cases controlled
both for clarification and thickening,38 and in treating
by the well-known electrical double layer.3*33
oil refinery wastes. 36What is perhaps less known is its
Hexametaphosphate (an inorganic modifier), having
application to metal ions recovery in which a precipi-
a high negative charge, was also found to affect mainly
tate is formed either in solution or at the foam layer,
dolomite, being a strong depressing agent, in the alka-
depending usually on the ion concentration. For ion
line pH region. 31 The nonaction in the acidic region
flotation, in contrast to precipitate flotation (at least),
was attributed to the change in solution composition
with pH and the hydrolysis of phosphates, which is
favored by the presence of metallic cations. It seemed
that the mechanism of action of phosphate ions could Dolomite
be explained by the fact that they are adsorbed on I”

mineral surfaces and increase dolomite’s negative

charge. Its preference to dolomite may be also attrib- -10 -

uted to the adsorption of this modifier in calcium sites 9

E -30 *
on dolomite surface. V
Nevertheless, it is also possible that hexametaphos- 0 -50 -
._
phate action is related to the solution rather than the
solid particles, because it is known that phosphate and E@ -70 - I
1
polyphosphate ions can bond calcium from solutions I
I
1
giving complexes or insoluble salts.34 They can even ,
1
redissolve insoluble salts of calcium. I
0 No collector \
I
The surface potentials of minerals were also exam- I
ined with and without the presence of anionic collector :

as shown in Figure 5. At pH greater than around 11S, -150' 1

the surface charge on both minerals increased very 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
rapidly to strongly negative values. At somewhat lower
alkalinity, a more interesting pattern emerged: The in- PH
troduction of oleate increased the negative surface po- Figure 5 Zeta-potential measurements on dolomite, with and
tential of the dolomite to levels slightly lower than the without the presence of sodium oleate (40 ppm). Adapted from
corresponding magnesite potentials. These increased reference 26.

80 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April

 Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.

a stoichiometric amount of surfactant is needed, in 100

----.c.-_-.
relation with the metal ion to be removed. In this way,

$?;;I
valuable metals such as silver and germanium can be
A___----
recovered.3v39 The field was extensively reviewed re- ____.-------- 0

cently.40 Reference is also given to adsorbing colloid

flotation, a technique where a metal ion is removed
by adsorption on or coprecipitation
(i.e., ferric hydroxocomplexes),
floated.
with a colloid
which is then

The precipitate flotation of copper and zinc, as sul-

fides, by cationic surfactants (mainly laurylamine) was
0

z
60 .
Fz 0 Coop*r 300 S
A Coopw 600 f
n Zinc300 *
studied at a pH of around 2, as a selective separation . Zinc600 I
method for the two dissolved metals from dilute aque-
ous solutions.4’ The dissolved-air flotation technique
was used to produce fine bubbles, and copper sulfide 100 200 300 400

was found in the foam layer. As second stage, zinc

sulfide precipitate flotation was also foreseen at a
higher pH (of around 5). In the laboratory, to check
the size of copper sulfide precipitates produced, it was
shown that they were retained on a microfilter of 0.05
pm, hence, colloidal size.
Further, in the article by Stalidis et al.,41 in which
the tests were scheduled by a full factorial experiment,
as one of the variables the stirring speed was se-
lected-based on previous experience. This was
changed between 50 and 350 rpm, as the low and high
level, respectively. The solution of the response equa-
tions gave 248.5 t-pm. In other words, a flocculation of
precipitates was also required in advance for a satisfac-
tory separation by laurylamine (as the flotation collec-
tor). In this case, the satisfactory results were checked
by flotation.
These experiments were carried out in a 1-L cylin-
dric jar (9.3-cm diameter); the solution was mixed at
a preset speed with a flat blade impeller (6-cm length;
2-cm width), stirred at a height of around 2 cm from
the bottom. Similar conclusions were obtained in cop-
per and zinc ion flotation. 42 The experimental results
are presented as Figure 6, giving optimum mixing speed
over 250 rpm for 600 s.
In another work by Stalidis et al.,42 the selective
precipitation and flotation of copper, zinc, and arsenic
ions from dilute aqueous solutions (50-ppm metal) were
investigated. Phase separation was accomplished effec-
tively also by the dissolved-air technique. A short-
chain xanthate (potassium 0-ethyl-dithiocarbonate)
was applied as the collector for copper ions, diethyl-
dithiocarbamate for zinc, and ferric sulfate for the pen-
tavalent arsenic. It is noted that dithiocarbamates have
been applied in analytic chemistry for precipitation of
metals as highly insoluble complexes. The procedures
followed were ion flotation for copper and zinc, and
adsorbing colloid flotation for arsenic (without a surfac-
tant). It was also found that with an excess (10%) of
collector the flotation recoveries were appreciably im-
proved (~95%).
Recently, Zouboulis et al.43 reported a similar tech-
nique for metals ion removal, termed adsorbingjlota-
tion. The basic idea is to use fine mineral particles
(as pyrite), or solid wastes and industrial by-products
(such as fly ash, red mud, etc.) as the substrate-carrier
Mixing speed (rpm)
Figure 6 Effect of flocculation on metals ion flotation, at 300
and 600 s. (a) Copper, pH 3.0, (b) Zinc, pH 5.0. Adapted from
reference 42.
of the metal ion. The method was proposed in the
meantime as a candidate for the use of fine particles.
Various dissolved metals have been separated from
dilute aqueous solutions in this way (i.e., Cu, Pb, Ni,
Cr, and As).
A laboratory continuous tlow precipitate flotation
unit has been also constructed and tested satisfacto-
rily. 44 As application, the precipitate flotation of the
known system CuS/ZnS was chosen, in dilute solutions
(50-250-ppm metal ion concentration). In this case, the
dispersed-air flotation technique (by a gas diffuser) was
followed. The flotation apparatus consisted of a condi-
tioning and feed tank, a peristaltic pump, liquid rotame-
ters for inlet and exit, the flotation column (volume of
about 2.1 L) having a weir at the top connected to a
foam collection tank, and an effluent tank. The bubbles
generation arrangement consisted of an air compressor
connected to the porous plate (Schott no. 4 diaphragm)
at the bottom of the flotation column through a needle
valve, a washing trap, an air rotameter, and a mercury
U-tube manometer.
Flocculation-flotation
Flocculation is an important stage in many solid-liquid
separation processes and is widely used in water and
wastewater treatment. Common unit operations such
as filtration, flotation, and sedimentation become more
effective as the size of the particles is increased. If
the particles to be removed are too small for effective
separation, their size can be increased substantially by
causing them to form aggregates.
The important parameters affecting flocculation are
the ionic strength, Hamaker constant, and surface po-
tential of the particles. The interparticle forces or col-
loid interactions include the van der Waals attraction
and electrical repulsion forces (examined by {-potential
measurements), which form the basis of the (DLVO)
theory of colloid stability as well as the non-DLVO

Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 81

Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
forces such as those due to the hydration effects, hy-
drophobic, and steric interactions.45 In shear-floccula-
tion the energy barrier resulting in repulsion of similarly
charged hydrophobic particles is overcome by intense
stirring. Often the term coagulation is used for aggrega-
tion succeeded by chemicals, but confusion seems to
exist in the literature on these terms.
Selective flocculation is constrained by the entrap-
ment and entrainment of unwanted particles in the
floes, and possible methods for their minimization were
proposed.46 Several successful investigations of selec-
tive flocculation in laboratory or pilot plant scale exists,
but very few known commercial applications have been
reported.47
Entrainment usually occurs according to the follow-
ing mechanisms: (1) fluid entrainment and (2) mechani-
cal entrapment. The main mechanisms for entrainment
of dispersed-phase species into the floe layer are (1)
fluid entrainment, (2) gravitational entrainment, (3) me-
chanical entrainment during the motion of the floe
layer, and (4) weak attachment between the dispersed-
phase particles and floes.
Generally, entrapment occurs during floe formation
and floe growth, whereas entrainment occurs mainly
during floe separation. According to Shaning and At-
tia 47 factors contributing to entrapment and entrain-
ment include high solids contents, poor mixing, and
the presence of a coarse and heavy unwanted concen-
tration of dispersed-phase particles.
A good example of applying selective flocculation
(developed by the Bureau of Mines) may be found at
the Tilden concentrator48 on oxidized taconites, as iron
resources. An essential element in this use was the
preconditioning of the ore by selective flocculation with
starch and desliming before flotation of the silicates
gangue; either anionic flotation of calcium-activated
gangue or cationic flotation of unactivated gangue, the
latter being simpler. Dispersion of iron-bearing pulps
was made by applying sodium hydroxide (pH 11) and
a dispersant, such as sodium silicate or sodium tripoly-
phosphate. It was shown that the desliming without
previous selective flocculation (and before flotation)
could be used to remove the slimes but resulted in high
iron losses.
In another article49 on the flotation of colloidal kaolin
and montmorillonite by a quaternary ammonium salt,
the effect of aggregation of clays on flotation was inves-
tigated and found to be directly opposite (to flotation).
This also was one of the first studies, to our knowledge,
that examined the influence of bubble size in the flota-
tion process; the latter will be analyzed in the following
discussion.
In either theory or practice of flotation, little atten-
tion has been given to the fundamental aspects of dis-
persion. It was stated that the flotation of ultrafine
minerals demands, for an effective separation, that the
system be observed in the optimum dispersion state.‘O
The controlled dispersion uses a non-uniform distribu-
tion of dispersant species among different mineral sur-
faces, thereby forcing the collector species to adsorb
onto particular minerals.
82 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April
Carrier flotation (ultraflotation or “piggy-back” flo-
tation) constitutes another candidate process. The
well-known example of commercial application is that
of anatase impurity being removed from kaolin clay by
flotation using coarse calcite particles as an auxiliary
mineral (the carrier) to improve the flotability of fines.5’
Recently, shear flocculation and carrier flotation for
fine particles processing were reviewed.52
Several other modified flotation techniques have
also been studied such as the high temperature flota-
tion, oil (or emulsion) flotation, spheric agglomeration,
liquid-liquid extraction, agglomerate flotation-floto-
flocculation, etc.53,54The general idea is to enhance the
effective particle size by uniting the particles so that
the aggregates formed may have better flotabilities.
Role of bubble size
Of the various subprocess that contribute to the overall
performance of flotation, the elementary step of parti-
cle capture by a rising bubble may be considered the
most important. It is this step that eventually deter-
mines how the operating parameters affect flotation
performance. From a fundamental viewpoint,55 the pro-
cess of particle capture was described by the overall
probability of particle capture, being the product of
two probabilities: that of collision between a bubble
and particle, and that of adhesion after a particle has
collided with a bubble. Noting that for particles smaller
than approximately 100 pm, particle detachment is neg-
ligible (this probability is zero) and need not be con-
sidered.
Many investigators 56*57 have shown that a decrease
in the probability of collision with decreasing particle
size is largely responsible for the difficulty in floating
fine particles. This relationship is often quantified by
considering the case of an isolated bubble rising
through a suspension of particles. As the bubble rises,
a flow pattern develops around the bubble that can be
represented by fluid streamlines. The critical stream-
line represents the trajectory of a finite-sized particle
that just grazes the surface of the bubble. Thus, only
those particles that are inside the critical streamline
will collide with the bubble, while those that are outside
will miss the bubble. The probability of collision is
determined from the ratio of the area inside the critical
streamline at an infinite distance away from the bubble
to the cross-sectional area of the bubble.“58
Once the collision occurs, it may or may not result
in the formation of a stable bubble-particle aggregate,
depending on the hydrophobicity of the particle. For
a perfectly hydrophobic particle, the value of the prob-
ability of adhesion is unity. For particles of lesser hy-
drophobicity the probability may be determined from
the induction time measurement.59
Based on this concept, a mathematic model was
developedSS for the probability of collision as a function
of bubble size and particle size (under certain limita-
tions). At very small Reynolds numbers, the probabil-
ity of collision was shown to be directly proportional
to the square of the particle size and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the bubble diameter.
 Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
<Thus, for the flotation of fine particles, there must dissolved-air flotation will be discussed in the following
be a corresponding decrease in bubble size to maintain sections.
an adequate probability of collision.60 Yoon and co-
workers applied the aforementioned analysis in column Electrolytic flotation
flotation, in the so-called microbubble flotation pro-
cess. Following similar paths of reasoning (although This is the flotation process where gas (hydrogen and
there is some simplification), two novel (by that time) oxygen) bubbles are generated by electrolysis. The
techniques producing fine bubbles were proposed3’j as subject was extensively reviewed previously36 and ap-
effective for fine particles processing (e.g., dissolved- plied to magnesium carbonate fines.“~*’ Electrolytic
air and electrolytic flotation). Additionally, it was dem- flotation (or electroflotation) was also the subject of
onstrated6’ that the selectivity of flotation depended on the lecture given by Matis (the ASI director), during
both the average bubble size and the width of the bub- an Advanced Study Institute on flotation 12-25 May
ble-size distribution. 1991 in Chalkidiki, Greece.3
Chemical engineers among others in the past have Figure 7 gives the laboratory experimental results
developed various methods for determining bubble size on the recovery of dolomite by electrolytic flotation.”
in flotation columns. One of the available methods was This electrolytic flotation cell, constructed in the labo-
the dynamic bubble/disengagement technique,62 which ratory, was essentially a modified Hallimond type with
provided estimations of bubble distributions. The ana- electrodes, in place of the porous diffuser (of the origi-
lytic-theoretic treatments followed in these estimations nal); the electrodes were connected to a DC power
supply of low voltage. The content of the cell was 270
involve certain approximations. Nevertheless, they
cm3, and the tests were conducted in deionized water,
may be applicable to a slurry system, and they are not
working with 3 g of material. A stirring of 15 rpm by
as tedious as the experimental photographic tech-
a mechanical stirrer was applied to keep the particles
nique.‘j3sa The latter, applied to electrolytic flotation,
in suspension. It was shown (in Figure 7) that carboxy-
used a technique from droplet measurements in solvent
methyl cellulose and sodium hexametaphosphate re-
extraction and gave’bubble sizes of less than 100 pm,
duce dolomite recovery, whereas sodium silicate did
depending on the conditions (mainly current density).2
not affect the process at these conditions. Better de-
Much work was carried out by Finch and his group
pression results were obtained using the modifiers be-
on column flotation; in one of their studies,‘j5 a drift
fore conditioning with the collector (commercial fatty
flux approach was used to determine the bubble termi-
acid). Figure 8 presents similar experiments on magne-
nal rise velocity, from which bubble diameter was then
site; the current density was 100 A m-2. The - 15 pm
estimated and compared with photographic measure-
(in this case) fraction was discarded by decantation. It
ments. The hindered settling equations of spheric parti-
was observed that in the presence of a depressant, even
cles in a multispecies system was used, giving the rela-
if the collector concentration was doubled, the results
tive particle to fluid velocity.66 In another article,67 the
remained poor, particularly in the alkaline region.
gas holdup was estimated from, pressure difference
The problems with slime coatings and mineral solu-
measurements in two industrial flotation columns; from
bility interaction between magnesite and dolomite were
that, the mean diameter of mineralized bubbles was
found, taking into account the slurry and gas recircula-
tion owing to large scale. Deviations of 40-80% were
reported.
Dolomite
Finally, a laboratory method by optical sensors for
measuring bubble sizes (of the order of a few millime-
ters) was described.@ An increase in viscosity, solid- ‘““I
particle size, pulp density and air flow rate, and a de-
crease in temperature all resulted in larger bubbles.
Bubble size decreased with an increase in the frother
concentration and ionic strength of the solution. The
coalescence of bubbles should also be considered.
In a flotation kinetics study,69 the concept of the
critical bubble diameter was introduced. The hydrody-
namics of a bubble-particle system, for small particles,
will substantially affect the possibility of seizure and
the kinetics of the process. The hydrodynamic factor
often has been ignored. ” It seems that at least certain
aspects of flotation will be improved by fine bubbles. 0 60
It is true that for eftluent treatment, in contrast to
mineral processing, the particles involved are typically Modifier cont. (ppm)
small (less than 20 pm in diameter), close to neutral
Figure 7 Electrolytic flotation experiments on dolomite fines
buoyancy and in very dilute concentration (a few parts (-45 + 10 pm): effect of modifier concentration on recovery. (a)
per million). The use of very small bubbles, which Carboxymethyl cellulose. (b) Hexametaphosphate. (c) Sodium
can be achieved by such techniques as electrolytic and silicate. Adapted from reference 71.

Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 83

Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
100
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
PH
Figure 8 Electrolytic flotation of magnesite: the effect of solu-
tion pH. (a) 20 ppm collector, no modifier. (b) 40 ppm concentra-
tion. Both of collector and modifier (carboxymethyl cellulose).
Adapted from reference 71.
discussed.‘* With monomineral floatability experi-
ments, one may identify the conditions for a satisfac-
tory selective separation. The results, however, cannot
be extended to mixtures of mineral particles. It ap-
peared that this was not only due to stability of mineral
particles, being enhanced in the fine size range, but
also due to the low density of slime coatings. It was
reported73 that the depression in the xanthate flotation
of galena (due to slime coatings) was less marked than
in salt-type mineral-oleate system.
Some preliminary results on pyrite (iron sulfide) are
presented in Figure 9, at a current density of 300 A
m-*. Because of the specific gravity of pyrite, the size
fraction used in these experiments cannot be consid-
ered as very fine. Specific gravity of pyrite is 5.0 com-
pared with that of magnesite being 3.1 and dolomite
being around 2.85. The collectorless process was
shown to give around 35-40% recoveries. One of the
most significant developments in mineral processing in
recent years is the recognition that adsorption of thio-
type (as xanthate) collectors on sulfide minerals is an
electrochemical process. Charge transfer reactions oc-
cur resulting in the heterogeneous oxidation-fixation of
thio-reagent simultaneously with the cathodic reduc-
tion of dissolved oxygen. Accordingly, the use of so-
dium hydrosulfite (a known reducing, i.e., oxygen con-
suming, agent) was tried as presented in Figure 10.
The depressive effect is obvious. In fact many of the
examined modifiers used to control various flotation
processes may be considered as potential controlling
reagents.74
One of the common characteristics of sulfide miner-
als is their instability in atmospheric conditions, as they
tend to be transformed into stable, oxidized minerals6
In Figure 12 some floatability results are shown, con-
cerning a bulk pyrites industrial auriferous concentrate
in presence of sodium sulfate as ionic strength regula-
84 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April
tor; the concentrate was found to assay 33% Fe, 8.25%
As, 4.5% insoluble, and 23 ppm Au. It was found that
when the concentrate was leached by 20% HCl, to
remove the oxidized matter from the particles surface,
better floatabilities were observed (improvement in the
order of 60%). The interdependence of the potential
and the state of the sulfide mineral surface forms the
basis of collectorless flotation. Certainly, electrolytic
flotation being itself an electrochemical technique com-
plicates, from the first glance, the control of the pro-
cess, for instance, of redox potential.
However, in view of the excellent results shown in
Figure 12, it is believed that further research of this
technique is warranted. The difference, particularly of
magnesite behavior, was thought75 to be due to the
existence of ultrafines on magnesite particles. This salt-
type mineral was of crypto-crystalline (amorphous) na-
ture (see also Figure 3) and very fine particles were
even created during conditioning, by the stirring action
of impellers. The specific surface area also was 3.89
m* g- ’ for - 45 pm magnesite and only 0.5147 m* g-i
for dolomite (same fraction).
A multiparameter model by Levenspie176 was ap-
plied to electrolytic flotation” in an investigation of
hydrodynamics following the stimulus-response
method, as the efficiency is expected to be a function
of the residence-time distribution. Assuming that the
flow regime was composed of various flow types, both
the cocurrent and countercurrent operation mode was
examined. It was found that the plug flow region was
about the same for both the modes, while the difference
was in the mixed and dead-water regions. There was
more backmix flow in the countercurrent flow, and in
the cocurrent operation a dead-water region appeared.
It is also noted that during the conventional flotation
machine (i.e., Denver 4 L, 850 rpm) experimentation
it was observed that, especially with magnesite fines,
the cell was working merely as a frothing pump. The
Pyrite
60
50
g 40
?
30
:
0
: 20
@z
10
0 2 6 8 10 12
PH
Figure 9 Electrolytic flotation of pyrite fines (-45 + 25 pm) in
presence and not of a xanthate collector.
 Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.

Pyrite Pyrite
50

40
El
a

G-
30
L-
9)
:
2 20

(r
10

0 _
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Na,S,O, cont. (ppm)

PH
Figure 10 Electrolytic flotation of pyrite (by 15 ppm KEX) in presence of a sulfoxy-compound as modifier. (a) Effectof depressant
concentration fpH 4). fb) Effect of pH (4 ppm Na&Od

pulp density first had to be reduced to 4% in solids;
after 600 s conditioning by 500 ppm Acintol FA-I and
floated by 83.3 cm3 s-’ air, only around 30% magnesite
was recovered in the froth compared with 90% of do-
lomite.
Another comparison of electrolytic flotation, this
time with dissolved-air flotation, is given in Figure 23.
In this case, differences as great as before were not
taken; for some reason, increasing the modifier (de-
pressant) addition dissolved-air flotation was becoming
more effective (the case of dolomite). Nevertheless, in
the case of magnesite fines, electrolytic flotation had
improved recoveries. It has also been noticed that in
the areas of high results by the latter technique, a floc-
culation of particles in the concentrate was apparent
because of the so-called electrochemical effect.36
In conclusion, increased recoveries were succeeded
with this flotation technique. Work is continuing in
the laboratory on sulfides processing by electrolytic
flotation.
Dissolved-air flotation
Dissolved-air flotation is the dominant flotation tech-
nique applied in effluent treatment at the present
time.3,36,40In dissolved-air (pressure or vaccum) flota-
tion, fine-air bubbles are produced by the reduction in
pressure of a water stream saturated with air; usually,
in continuous flow the idea of recycle reactors is ap-
plied, coming from chemical reaction engineering. In
other words, a part of treated (hence, cleaned) effluent
is led to the saturator and then recycled and mixed
with the feed, where pressure is released.

Concentrate Concentrate

60
80 t
50

40
L

,_____C-+-
/'
1'

+ + *,+I!
20x HCI
10 -

0 m . ’ -
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 6

PH PH

Figure 11 Electrolytic flotation recovery (as total solids) of a bulk pyrites concentrate (-45 + 25 pm); effect of pH in presence of
1.1 x low3 Na,S04. (a) Leached and not (5 ppm KEX). (b) Varying the collector addition (leached concentrate).

Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 85

Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.

Dolomite Magnesite
100 7

Electroflotation 0 - ” e
Electroflototion
80
- F /
:‘-_-+ + _a--
--_A___--- +

Dispersed-air

+s- _--*
Dispersed-air _-**-
c-
+e-- +
*, _t_---
--5’--
20

0-
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

PH PH

Figure 12 Comparison of electrolytic flotation of dolomite and magnesite fines with dispersed-air flotation (both of Hallimond type):
effect of pH. From reference 75.

Dolomite Magnesite
100
loo I

80

i?
Electroflototion
; 60

ki
>

Dissolved-oir
20

0 0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300

CMC cont. (ppm) CMC cont. (ppm)

Figure 13 Comparison of electrolytic flotation with dissolved-air flotation of dolomite and magnesite (pH 9.5, 40 ppm collector):
effect of carboxymethyl cellulose concentration. From reference 75.

The system containing the particulate solids flows
under quiescent conditions into the flotation unit; the
latter is usually of circular design.36 In this case, the
system to be treated enters in the center of the unit,
where it is discharged approximately 1.5 m from the
base of a 3-m overall depth tank. Discharge is through
a circular discharge pipe with equispaced openings.
Approximately 0.5 m below the inlet point, pressurized
recycle water is introduced into the unit through a cir-
cular pipe fitted usually with nozzles. The pressure-
saturated water is then fed to the flotation chamber
through a valve. Downstream of the valve the pressure
is virtually atmospheric, and air commences to precipi-
tate out of solution; this air-water mixture is blended
with the system to be treated.38
The technique was applied to magnesium carbonates
processing.79 The construction of a novel microcell
based on the Hallimond idea was also reported.*O Floc-
culation of particles is generally required before dis-
solved-air flotation (see also Figure 6). An advantage
of dissolved-air flotation is that as the fine bubbles
precipitate out from solution, this happens on the solid
particles acting as nucleation seeds.*
Figure 14 presents the results of the dissolved-air
flotation with dolomite fines-l L dispersion initially,
3% pulp density, 50% recycle ratio.79 A portable jar
tester purchased from Aztec Environmental Control
Ltd. (UK) was used in this case; a multiple unit con-
sisted of four identical and transparent jars was else-
where used.42 An increase in fatty-acid collector,

86 Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April


Dolomite
‘““II
i?
- 60
? ?
al
z >
0” 40
Is
0’ - . I
0 100 200 300 400
Cc01 bpm)
Figure 14 Dissolved-air flotation of dolomite fines (-45 + 15
pm): effect of commercial collector concentration. (a) Hexameta-
phosphate. (b) Carboxymethyl cellulose (both 100 ppm, pH 9.5).
Adapted from reference 79.
mainly in the case of sodium hexametaphosphate de-
pressant, improved recoveries, which reached the or-
der of 70%. Figure 1.5 presents the case of pyrite fines
(10% recycle) in presence of copper sulfate as modifier,
with various collectors (potassium ethyl xanthate and
cetyl-trimethyammonium bromide) as well as a collec-
torless series. Copper was shown to adsorb on pyrite.80
Copper sulfate is a commonly added activator for
sphalerite, during mixed sulfides processing.
The effects of oxidation of sulfides and surface min-
eralogic heterogeneity were stressed.*’ Difficulties
arise in identifying and particularly controlling the sur-
face species, for example, as result of grinding (i.e.,
galvanic interactions) as well as the solution species
under various flotation conditions. Attention was re-
cently concentrated on collectorless flotation.82
Figure 16 presents some further work on dissolved-
air flotation (40% recycle) of pyrite. Compared with the
conventional cell (both of Hallimond tube), a similar
behavior of the techniques was observed.86 The addi-
tion of copper sulfate resulted in a slight pyrite activa-
tion in the pH range from 7-9. When potassium per-
manganate (an oxidizing agent) was added to the pulp,
a considerable increase of pyrite recovery was noticed
of the order of 25%, at a pH of around 4. It is noted
that preliminary tests gave the optimum concentrations
of the modifiers and conditioning needed (600 s for
copper and 1.8 ks for permanganate; flotation time of
600 s).
Conclusion
Many industrially important processes use or generate
fine particles. These particles, which generally range
from 1 to 100 pm in size, can be of substantial impact
in production, even at low concentrations and addition-
ally can cause potential environmental problems, if
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.
Pyrite
80
s
- 60
0,
0
” 40
z
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
PH
Figure 15 Dissolved-air flotation of pyrite fines (-45 pm, 0.5
g I-‘) effect of pH, in presence of 50 ppm Cu2+, (a) CTMAB 10
ppm. (b) KEX 20 ppm. (c) Collectorless. Adapted from reference
43.
released to the environment. This article briefly re-
views certain flotation techniques suitable for fine parti-
cles separation from liquids, as technology current
stands.
The situation is more complicated and, conse-
quently, difficult if selective separation of fines is
needed. Flotation is a unit operation that apparently
has attracted little attention from chemical engineers,
so there is still work left to be done in the future,2*40
for instance, on circuit design and plant control. Much
of the information available on flotation machines de-
sign is coming from the manufacturers brochures.
In mineral processing, with the increasing demand
for minerals, the continuously diminishing grade of
ores and various economic pressures (i.e., cost of fuel),
the problem of fines processing becomes impor-
tant. Will the field succeed to pass the crossroads?54
There are numerous examples of processing systems
in which the ore must be deslimed, as the conventional
method is inadequate in the subsieve range. In the
Florida phosphate industry, one third of the phosphate
is discarded as slimes as well as one fifth of the world’s
tungsten and one half of Bolivian tin.53
Because of the small mass and large surface area of
fines, various problems affect both flotation concen-
trate and grade including high reagent consumption,
excess froth stability, low adhesion probability, higher
dissolution, rapid oxidation, nonspecific collector ad-
sorption, and so on. 54 Perhaps column flotation is an
answer to that, with some further modifications.
Any new processing method to treat fine particles
has to meet, at the same time, current energy, environ-
mental, and economic constraints. Flocculation looks
attractive in mineral fines processing, but further ad-
vances are needed regarding selectivity. Entrainment
has to be avoided, and only the attachment of hy-
drophobic particles should proceed.
Sep. Technol., 1993, vol. 3, April 87
Separation of fines: K. A. Matis et al.

Pyrite Pyrite
1oc 100

cla Ll
b
80 Dissolved-air
Dispersed-air
GY
- 60
t‘
a,

0
g 40
Dispersed-air
z
Dissolved-air
20 20

0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

PH PH

Figure 16 Comparison of dissolved-air with dispersed-air flotation on pyrite fines (-25 + 10 pm) by 15 ppm KEX. (a) KMnO,, 100
ppm. (b) CuS04.5H20, 10 ppm. From reference 86.

Smaller bubbles are more efficient in the flotation Acknowledgments

of fines, at least from the collision aspect. For low-
Experimental collaboration of the chemistry
density particles an appreciable increase in flotation
F. Malamas is acknowledged.
rates was observed.‘j3 The bubble-size measurements
and also its estimation were discussed. The latter some-
times gave gross approximations. It is envisaged that References
the application of fine bubbles, less than 120 pm ap-
proximately compared with 0.6-l .O mm convention- I.
ally, would be on separate flotation circuits. In this 2.
sense, dissolved-air flotation and electrolytic flotation
were examined with several original experiments. 3.
Promising results were found by these two flotation
techniques, originated in effluent treatment.
4.
Perhaps the preparation and use of novel, specific
reagents can help; certainly analytic chemistry will in-
fluence the results as well as thermodynamics, which 5.
will explain interactions of collectors (and other re-
agents) with particle surfaces. So, the mechanism of 6.
adsorption on minerals might be evaluated more clearly
and the necessary models constructed to help flo- 7.
tation.
Research is required too in electrochemical flotation
8.
technology (i.e., sulfides), for the industrial control of
pulp potential74 and, hence, optimum separation pro-
cess. Electrolytic flotation might have a future here. 9.
Apart from the new development in flotation cells,
one can expect innovative applications of the flotation 10.
process itself, for instance, in water treatment (dis-
solved-air flotation), which is a case for central and 11.
populated countries,3 or even biotechnology, where
separation is indeed a problem.’ This point also applies
to hydrometallurgy (ion-precipitate flotation) for the 12.
selective removal of metals from leaching solutions.
In conclusion, to meet the economic challenges fac- 13.
ing the industry worldwide, fine particles separation
and recovery is a must, It is believed that further work 14.
in flotation science and technology has a definite role
in these efforts for production improvement. 1.5.
student
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