D.

1 Human Nutrition
● Outline that essential nutrients cannot be synthesised by the body, therefore
they have to be included in the diet.
● Outline that dietary minerals are essential chemical elements.
● State that vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be
synthesised by the body.
● Outline why some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.
● Explain how the lack of essential amino acids affects the production of
proteins.
● Explain how malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess
of nutrients in the diet.
● Explain how appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus.
● Outline that overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and
type II diabetes.
● Outline that overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and
type II diabetes.
● Explain how starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue.
● Explain how ascorbic acid is produced by some mammals, but not others
which need a dietary supply.
● Explain causes and symptoms of scurvy.
● Explain how the lack of Vitamin D or calcium can affect bone mineralisation
and cause rickets or osteomalacia.
● Explain the cause and treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU).
● Outline the breakdown of heart muscle due to anorexia.
● State that cholesterol in blood can be used as an indicator of the risk of
coronary heart disease.
D.1.U1. Essential Nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body therefore
have to be included in the diet

Which of the following nutrients are essential ?

D.1.U1. Essential Nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body therefore
have to be included in the diet

● NUTRIENTS are chemical substances, found in foods, that are used in the human
body.
● Some nutrients are ESSENTIAL in the human diet because foods are the only
possible source of nutrition.
○ Examples: Amino acids, some unsaturated fatty acids, some minerals, calcium,
vitamins and water
● Other nutrients are NON-ESSENTIAL, either because another nutrient can be used
for the same purpose or because they can be made in the body from another
nutrient.
○ Examples: glucose, starch, and other carbohydrates
○ Reason: they are used in respiration for energy and lipids can be used instead.
D.1.U1. Essential Nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body therefore
have to be included in the diet

● Other nutrients are CONDITIONALLY

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
○ Example: Vitamin K
○ Reason: It is produced by
SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA in the
intestine. INFANTS do not have
these at birth, therefore require
SUPPLEMENTARY INJECTIONS of
vitamin K.
D1. U2: Dietary Minerals are essential chemical elements

● Minerals in the diet tend to be ions eg. Ca+2

● Inorganic

● If any minerals are missing from a diet, DEFICIENCY DISEASE can result.
○ Example: Iodine
○ Reason: Needed for the thyroid gland for synthesis of hormone THYROXIN

Minerals Chart
D.1.U3 Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be
synthesized by the body.

● Organic
● Required in small amounts
● Cannot be synthesized by body, therefore must be obtained through diet
● Serve a variety of roles such as co-factors for enzymes

Two major groups

1. Fat soluble: A, E, D, K
2. Water soluble: B (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12)

Vitamins Chart
D.1.U3 Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be
synthesized by the body.

Match the structure to the name of the vitamin A, B2, C

D.1.U3 Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be
synthesized by the body.

Match the structure to the name of the vitamin A, B2, C

Vitamin C Vitamin A
Vitamin B2
D.1.A1: Production of ascorbic acid by some mammals, but not
others that need a dietary supply.

● Vitamin C contributes to the formation of

collagen
● Majority of plants and animals can
synthesize vitamin C
● Mutations in genes that no longer
produce the protein necessary to make
Vitamin C have occurred multiple times in
evolution
D.1.U6 Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess
of nutrients in the diet.

Condition occurring when body does not receive enough nutrients

Causes include:

● Poor diet
● Starvation due to food not being available
● Eating disorders
● Problems with digesting food or absorbing nutrients from food
● Certain medical conditions that make a person unable to eat

You may develop malnutrition if you lack a single vitamin in your diet.
D.1.U4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.

● Omega -3 and Omega -6 Fatty Acids are essential in

diet - linoleic acid and alpha-linoleic acid
● These polyunsaturated fats are important as there is
growing evidence that they help lower the risk of
heart disease.
● Some studies suggest these fats may also protect
against type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and
age-related brain decline.
● Development of brain and eye require large
quantities.
D.1.U4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.
D.1.U5 Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins.

● Some amino acids are essential as they cannot be

synthesized by our bodies. The other half can be
made from simpler nitrogen compounds.
● Which amino acids is required for synthesis of all
proteins?
● Which are “conditional essential” amino acids?
D.1.U4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.
D.1.U5 Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins.

Which of the following amino acids is required for synthesis of all

proteins?
● The nine essential amino acids humans cannot synthesise
are: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leu
cine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.
● Tyrosine can be synthesised by the human body when
phenylalanine is present in the diet.
● Arginine cannot be synthesised by infants so it must be present in
the diet as well.
● As these two can be synthesised under some conditions but not
others, these are called conditionally essential amino acids.
D.1.U4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.
D.1.U5 Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins.

What are the effects of protein deficiency

malnutrition (not enough protein)?
● Lack of blood plasma proteins
○ fluid retained in tissues
○ Edema (swelling)
○ More obvious in the abdominal
● Children may be impacted mentally and physically
○ Stunted growth & development disabilities
In your assigned groups research

(1) PKU (D.1A2)

(2) Vitamin D Deficiency (D.1.A3)
(3) Anorexia nervosa (D.1.A4)
(4) Scurvy (D.1.A1)

Outline the…

● cause (which nutrient lacking)

● symptoms
● prognosis
● reason for problem
 PKU
● Causes and Consequences of Phenylketonuria: A genetic
mutation changes the gene coding for tyrosine hydroxylase, which is
responsible for metabolising phenylalanine into tyrosine
● Phenylalanine is instead converted into phenylpyruvic acid, resulting
in a high level of ketones in the blood and urine
● Over time, this may result in brain damage and mental retardation
Diagnosis and Treatment of Phenylketonuria:

● Diagnosis can be made by a simple blood test for the levels of

phenylalanine – this test is conducted shortly after birth
● As PKU results in the build up of phenylalanine in the bloodstream, it
is treated by following a diet that is low in protein
● Diet should include fruits, grains, vegetables and special formula milk
and must be undertaken from early in life or else symptoms will
appear
● Symptoms may include tremors, seizures, eczema, skin rashes and
eventually brain damage (mental retardation)
 Lack of Vitamin D or calcium can affect bone mineralization and cause
rickets of osteomalacia
● Calcium and vitamin D work together to protect your bones—calcium
helps build and maintain bones, while vitamin D helps your body
effectively absorb calcium.
UV light causes the skin to synthesise vitamin D, where it is stored in
the liver for when UV levels are low (i.e. during the winter seasons)
● Insufficient sun exposure may lead to skeletal deformities (i.e. rickets)
due to insufficient vitamin D levels
● However high levels of UV light can damage skin cells and cause skin
cancers (malignant melanomas), so exposure must be limited
● Using sun block and covering skin with clothing will prevent UV
radiation reaching the skin, inhibiting vitamin D production
● Certain diets (e.g. vegans, vegetarians) are more likely to result in a
lack of vitamin D, so that such people need more exposure to sunlight
● Individuals with darker skin. pigmentation produce vitamin D more
slowly, but are better protected against skin cancers
● Certain ethnicities may be at a greater risk of vitamin D deficiency due
to cultural or religious practices (e.g. Muslims wearing a burqa)
● Including vitamin D supplements in the diet can reduce the risk of
vitamin D deficiency without requiring sun exposure
A diet deficient in vitamin D in conjunction with inadequate sun exposure
causes osteomalacia (or rickets when it occurs in children), which is a
softening of the bones. In the developed world, this is a rare
disease. However, vitamin D deficiency has become a worldwide issue in
the elderly and remains common in children and adults. Low blood
calcidiol (25-hydroxy-vitamin D) can result from avoiding the
sun. Deficiency results in impaired bone mineralization and bone
damage which leads to bone-softening diseases.
 Breakdown of heart muscle due to anorexia

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by self-starvation

and excessive weight loss. Malnutrition starves body tissues, thus the
heart walls can become thin and weak which causes the heart chambers
to enlarge . The pumping function of the heart declines and blood
pressure falls. Organs that are sensitive to blood pressure e.g. the liver
and kidney begin to fail.
 Vitamin C

● Vitamin C is also known as L-ascorbic acid. Humans and some

animals cannot synthesise this compound. Vitamin C is needed for
the production of collagen, the most abundant protein in the animal
kingdom, found in skin, connective tissues, tendons and blood
vessels. Vitamin C cannot be synthesised by some animals because
they have a mutation in the GLO gene which codes for an enzyme
that is needed for the last step in the synthesis of L-Ascorbic acid.
● A vitamin C deficiency can cause scurvy, a disease that was common
amongst sailors in past centuries because of a lack of citrus fruits in
their diets. Citrus fruits are a good source of dietary vitamin C.
● All the primates and some smaller monkeys require vitamin C in their diet.
Lack of Vitamin C causes scurvy.

Scurvy, the main symptoms of scurvy are:

● Bleeding gums, gingivitis or loose teeth. Vitamin C is necessary for the
synthesis of collagen, which builds and maintains tissue.
● Lack of energy. Loss of weight and extreme fatigue.
● Mood swings or depression. Irritability and rapid changes in mood may
indicate a severe deficiency. Depression is common.
● Chronic joint pain. Bleeding in the joints causes constant pain.
● Suppressed immune system. Frequent diseases.
● Slow wound healing and bruising. Bruising occurs easily and wounds take
a long time to heal.
Lemons and limes: a good source of L-Ascorbic acid.
D.1.U7 Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus.

● Hypothalamus responsible for making us feel satisfied when eaten enough food

Hormones secreted:

● Small intestine secretes PYY3-36

● Pancreas secretes insulin when blood levels high
● Adipose tissue secrete leptin when stored fat tissue high
D.1.A5 Cholesterol in blood as an indicator of the risk of coronary heart disease.
D.1.U8 Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes.

Unhealthy diets with excessive fat and refined carbohydrates have health consequences.
Two diseases are diabetes and hypertension

READ (and research) about Type II diabetes and hypertension on pg 665 in your textbook.
D.1.S1 Determination of energy content of food by combustion

CALORIES
What is a calorie?!

How can we calculate calories?

Fortunately we know the specific heat capacity of water 4.186J\

Q = m(water) x C(specific heat capacity) x ( )T

One calorie is the amount of energy that will raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1
°C
D.1.S2 Use of databases of nutritional content of foods and software to
calculate intakes of essential nutrients from a daily diet.

Foodtracker ←-----Link here

Track your food until next class!