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Brown Ryan 2004 Perils Promis Defin Mindfulness
Brown Ryan 2004 Perils Promis Defin Mindfulness
Perils and Promise in Defining and Measuring Intrepid scholars seeking to do so must enter the
shadowy realm of consciousness, the domain from
Mindfulness: Observations From Experience
which mindfulness arises. As old as the study of con-
Kirk Warren Brown and Richard M. Ryan,
sciousness is within the field of psychology, it nonethe-
University of Rochester less remains largely uncharted and mysterious territory
(Chalmers, 1995). Thus, Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson,
As mindfulness research advances on a variety of fronts, and Anderson (this issue) are to be commended for
it has become increasingly important to carefully define taking on the bold task of proposing a definition of
and measure the construct. In this commentary, we draw mindfulness, both conceptually and operationally.
from our recent research experience on these topics In this commentary, we share our perspectives on
in addressing four issues of primary concern to Bishop
Bishop et al.’s theory of, and proposed measurement
approach to, mindfulness, drawing upon our own recent
et al: The nature of mindfulness, the role of acceptance
research experiences (e.g., Brown & Ryan, 2003, in
in the phenomenon, the relation between mindfulness
press). Specifically, we address four topics of central
and meditation, and the measurement of mindfulness
concern to Bishop et al.: the nature of mindfulness, the
in meditative and other contexts.
relation of acceptance to present-centered attention and
Key words: attention, awareness, acceptance, mind- awareness, the link between mindfulness and meditative
fulness. [Clin Psychol Sci Prac 11: 242–248, 2004] practice, and the measurement of mindfulness in
meditative contexts and beyond.
Mindfulness is increasingly recognized as a phenom-
enon with functional import for outcomes as diverse as T H E P R O P O S ED D EFI NI T IO N O F M IN DFU L NE S S
physical health, psychological well-being, work and Bishop et al. propose a two-component model of
sport performance, and relationships. Paralleling this mindfulness, incorporating (a) attention and awareness
recognition is an increased interest in naturally occurring and (b) acceptance. We will discuss each of these in turn.
variations in mindfulness and how interventions and First, in highlighting attention and awareness as central
practices that facilitate mindfulness actually work. As to mindfulness, Bishop et al. are consistent with most
this research advances, the need for exacting theoretical scholarly and popular writings on the topic. However,
and operational definitions of mindfulness becomes they do not define these terms and often use them
more salient. However, mindfulness is a deceptively interchangeably. Although these terms are commonly
simple concept that is difficult to characterize accurately. used, clarity on their meaning is important, as this bears
directly on an understanding of the meaning of mind-
Address correspondence to Kirk Warren Brown, CSP, fulness, its practice, and its measurement.
Meliora Hall, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY Awareness refers to the subjective experience of
14627–0266. E-mail: kirk@psych.rochester.edu. internal and external phenomena; it is the pure
doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph078
Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, V11 N3, Ó American Psychological Association D12 2004; all rights reserved. 242
apperception and perception of the field of events that operating upon thought, as well as upon emotion and
encompass our reality at any given moment.1 Attention is other contents of consciousness, rather than within
a focusing of awareness to highlight selected aspects of them. Simply put, if mindfulness involves observing
that reality. In everyday awake states, awareness and thought, including thoughts about thoughts, it cannot be
attention are intertwined. Phrased in gestalt terms, thought. The observing capacity that defines mindful-
awareness is the field or ground upon which perceived ness is one reason why it has been associated with
phenomena are expressed, and attention continually ‘‘psychological freedom’’ (Martin, 1997). Because it
pulls ‘‘figures’’ out of that ground to hold them up for provides a ‘‘bare display of what is taking place’’ (Shear
closer examination. & Jevning, 1999, p. 204) it is not subject to the distortions
Awareness and attention are, of course, the primary and biases inherent in cognition and, evidence suggests,
features of consciousness, which several authors (e.g., in metacognition as well (Glenberg, Wilkinson, &
Averill, 1992; Mayer, Chabot, & Carlsmith, 1997) have Epstein, 1982).
distinguished from the other primary mental processing Distinctions between attention and awareness may
modalities, namely cognition, motives, and emotions. also prove important to the study of mindfulness-
Consciousness serves at least two key functions: moni- promoting practices. Bishop et al. present two views on
toring events and experiences as they unfold in real time mindfulness practice, one highlighting focused attention,
and directing or controlling the contents of conscious- the other emphasizing conscious awareness. Specifically,
ness (Westen, 1999). Mindfulness specifically concerns they note that in meditation, ‘‘the client . . . attempts
the monitoring, observing capacity of consciousness. As to maintain attention on a particular focus, most
Bishop et al. point out, mindfulness represents a height- commonly the somatic sensations of his or her own
ened or sustained attention to and awareness of current breathing’’ (p. 232). Yet later they write that mind-
events and experience. However, the fact that mindful- fulness ‘‘begins with making a commitment to maintain
ness, as a quality of consciousness, can be brought to bear an attitude of curiosity about where the mind wanders
on thought, emotions, and other contents of conscious- whenever it inevitably drifts away from the breath. . . .
ness means that it cannot be reduced to them. In this All thoughts, feelings and sensations that arise are initially
sense, labeling mindfulness a ‘‘metacognitive skill’’ (p. seen as relevant and therefore subject to observation’’ (p.
233) is, we believe, misleading. 233). Citing Hayes, Strosahl, and Willson, they write,
As noted above, consciousness and cognition are ‘‘It involves a conscious decision to abandon one’s
distinct processing modalities. As a cognitive process, agenda to have a different experience and an active
metacognition operates within the realm of thought, to process of ‘allowing’ current thoughts, feelings and
monitor and control cognitive activities and to ensure sensations’’ (p. 233).
that cognitive goals have been met (Schwartz & Perfect, Bishop et al. do not make clear how these two forms
2002). Specifically, these processes consist of planning of mindfulness meditation are related, and the forms
and monitoring cognitive activities and checking or appear contradictory. How can one ‘‘maintain attention
testing goal-related outcomes. Here is a common on a particular focus’’ and at the same time be curious
example: After reading this article, a reader may about where the mind wanders? If one is encouraged to
question herself about the ideas discussed, with the ‘‘abandon one’s agenda,’’ doesn’t this also include the
cognitive goal of better understanding the text. Self- self-imposed agenda to maintain attentional focus on the
testing in this way is a typical metacognitive strategy for breath? The apparent contradiction here can be resolved
monitoring comprehension. If the reader concludes that by understanding each form of mindfulness meditation
her comprehension is less than adequate, she can then as distinct aspects of meditative practice that may play
take further action (e.g., re-reading the article and self- different roles in how mindfulness is realized.
testing again) to ensure that she meets her goal of text A number of Buddhist scholars and teachers have
comprehension. described two corresponding forms of meditative prac-
Mindfulness differs from such metacognitive pro- tice: concentration and awareness/insight (e.g., Kapleau,
cesses in that its mode of operation is perceptual, 1980; Kornfield, 1993; Rahula, 1974). Concentration
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE V11 N3, FALL 2004 244
We continued to believe, however, that acceptance is
Table 1. Correlations of presence, acceptance, and total mindfulness with
important to mindfulness, but not in the way we first
psychological well-being indicators
thought. We have operationally defined mindfulness
Scale Presence Acceptance Total as an open or receptive attention to and awareness of
Traits and attributes
ongoing events and experience (e.g., Brown & Ryan,
NEO-PI Neuroticisma .53**** .25**** .52**** 2003), and the MAAS measures this by asking
NEO-FFI Neuroticismb .46**** .24**** .45**** respondents to rate the frequency with which their
RRQ Ruminationb .47**** .22**** .45****
MSEI Self esteemb .38**** .21**** .37**** day-to-day consciousness reflects this quality. The
TMMS Emotional intelligencea .50**** .18*** .47****
redundancy of the acceptance factor that we found in
Emotional disturbance
CES-D Depressionb .42**** .26**** .43****
our preliminary work may be because mindfulness, as
STAI Anxietyb .45**** .29**** .46**** we define it here, subsumes an acceptance of what
Emotional-subjective well-being occurs.
Pleasant affectb .32**** .19*** .32****
Unpleasant affectb .38**** .20*** .37**** Specifically, embedded within the capacity to sustain
PANAS Positive affectb .30**** .23**** .33**** attention to and awareness of what is occurring is an
PANAS Negative affectb .46**** .25**** .45****
TSWLS Life satisfactionb .30**** .14** .29**** openness to and acceptance of it. Such presence means
Eudaimonic well-being ‘‘taking each moment as it comes.’’ When an individual
SVS Vitalitya .44**** .09 .38**** does not accept what is occurring at a given moment,
MAP Self actualizationb .43**** .24**** .43****
PWB Autonomyb .37**** .29**** .40**** a natural reaction is to limit awareness and redirect
PWB Competenceb .44**** .24**** .43****
PWB Relatednessb .31**** .09 .26**** attention, to seek to avoid or escape from the event
Physical well-being or experience—mentally, behaviorally, or in some
Reported physical symptomsb .26**** .13** .26**** other way. To turn away is to become (intentionally)
HSCL Somatizationa .40**** .23**** .41****
inattentive and unaware—that is, to cease to be present,
Note. Superscripts a and b refer to samples with N 5 313 and N 5 327, or to be mindless. Kornfield noted that, ‘‘to pay attention
respectively.
CES-D Depression 5 Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
carefully is . . . a surrender to what is actually happening
(Radloff, 1977); HSCL Somatization 5 Hopkins Symptom Checklist in each moment without trying to alter or change or put
(Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974); MAP Self
actualization 5 Measure of Actualization of Potential (Lefrançois, Leclerc, a conceptual framework around it. . . . This cultivates
Dubé, Hébert, & Gaulin, 1997); MSEI Self esteem 5 Multidimensional Self- a state of mind which allows us to be open, to observe
Esteem Inventory (O’Brien & Epstein, 1988); NEO-PI Neuroticism 5 NEO
Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992); NEO-FFI Neuroticism 5 and experience fully the entire range of mental and
NEO Five Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992); PANAS Positive affect,
Negative affect 5 Positive and Negative Affect Scales (Watson, Clark, & physical reality without either suppressing it or acting
Tellegen, 1988); Pleasant affect 5 Pleasant hedonic valence (Diener & it out’’ (1993, pp. 56–57, emphasis added). Likewise,
Emmons, 1984); PWB Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness 5 Personal
Well-Being Scales (Ryff, 1989); Reported physical symptoms 5 (Larsen & Tolle (1999) asserts that in giving ‘‘fullest attention to
Kasimatis, 1991); RRQ Rumination 5 Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire
(Trapnell & Campbell, 1999); STAI Anxiety 5 State Trait Anxiety Inventory
whatever the moment presents . . . implies that you
(Spielberger, 1983); SVS Vitality 5 Subjective Vitality Scale (Ryan & also completely accept what is, because you cannot give
Frederick, 1997); TSWLS Life satisfaction 5 Temporal Satisfaction With Life
Scale (Pavot, Diener, & Suh, 1998); TMMS Emotional intelligence 5 Trait your full attention to something and at the same time
Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey & Palfai, 1995); resist it’’ (p. 56). Without regular or consistent, open,
Unpleasant affect 5 Unpleasant hedonic valence (Diener & Emmons, 1984).
** p , .01, *** p , .001, **** p , .0001. and non-judgmental observation, mindful states, as
simply defined by frequent attention to and awareness
(see Table 1). The correlations of presence with SVS to what is occurring, would be uncommon, resulting in
vitality and PWB relatedness were in fact higher than low scores on a mindfulness scale that assesses attention
those of the total scale score, ps , .05. These and other and awareness, as the MAAS does.
findings suggested to us that as a distinct construct,
acceptance is functionally redundant in mindfulness. I S MIN DF UL N ES S S P ECI FI C T O
We then focused our efforts on the presence construct, M E D I T A T I V E C O NT E X T S ?
and items from this factor were incorporated into Bishop et al. emphasize the role of meditation in
a second-generation measure: the Mindful Attention cultivating mindfulness. They note, for example, the
Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003). role of attentional focus on the breath as a means to
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE V11 N3, FALL 2004 246
CONCLUSION Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (in press). Fostering healthy
The field of mindfulness studies is still in an early stage self-regulation from within and without: A Self-Determi-
of development. Much of the research to date has nation Theory perspective. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph
concerned the efficacy of mindfulness training to (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
enhance well-being in clinical contexts, and the results Carlson, L. E., & Brown, K. W. (2003). Validation of the Mind-
have been quite positive (Baer, 2003). As researchers ful Attention Awareness Scale in a cancer population. Manu-
begin to explore the applications of mindfulness in more script submitted for publication.
varied contexts and populations, scientific progress will Chalmers, D. J. (1995, December). The puzzle of conscious
experience. Scientific American, 80–86.
rest upon our definitions and measures of the phenom-
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/cor-
enon. In this regard we share Bishop et al.’s deep interest
relation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,
in basic questions concerning mindfulness: What is it?
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
How is it expressed and how is it best measured? How Costa Jr., P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO
does mindfulness operate to produce salutary outcomes? personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO five-factor
Given the depth and complexity of the phenomenon, inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual. Odessa, FL:
debate over such basic issues is to be expected and well- Psychological Assessment Resources.
conducted empirical research can help to refine both Depraz, N., Varela, F. J., & Vermersch, P. (2000). The gesture
answers and questions. Equally importantly, the study of awareness: An account of its structural dynamics. In
of basic questions will also help to more firmly place M. Velmans (Ed.), Investigating phenomenal consciousness:
mindfulness within a network of other, established fields New methodologies and maps (pp. 121–136). Philadelphia,
of study, and thereby enhance our understanding of PA: John Benjamins.
human nature as a whole. Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickels, K., Uhlenhuth,
E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins Symptom Checklist
(HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral
N O T ES
Science, 19, 1–15.
1. The term ‘‘perception’’ is typically used to refer to the Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of
consciousness of external stimuli received through the five positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social
senses, while philosophical discourse often refers to ‘‘apper- Psychology, 47, 1105–1117.
ception’’ as the consciousness of internal events and experience Epstein, M. (1990). Psychodynamics of meditation: Pitfalls on
(Depraz, Varela, & Vermersch, 2000). the spiritual path. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 22,
17–34.
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