Physics 3

Unit-3
Dielectrics
Department of Applied Physics

Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg (C.G.)
B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3
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SYLLABUS
Unit –III: Dielectrics and Electron Ballistics
Dielectrics: Dielectric constant, Dielectric Polarization, Bound and free charges, Relation
with polarization, Gauss's law in dielectrics, Dielectric susceptibility, Displacement vector
D, E, and P vectors, Polar and nonpolar dielectrics, Different types of polarization,
Temperature and frequency dependence of total polarization.
Electron ballistics: Motion of charged particles in transverse electric and magnetic field,
Aston and Bainbridge mass spectrograph, Geiger Muller Counter.
Course Outcome:
CO3: On successful completion of the course, the student will be able to explain fundamentals
of dielectric and electron ballistic.
Dielectrics: Dielectric materials are non-conducting materials. There are no free charge carriers
in a dielectric. When dielectric materials are placed in an electric field, they modify the electric
field and they themselves undergo appreciable changes because of which they act as stores of
electrical charges. When charge storage is the main function, the materials are called dielectrics.
For a material to be a good dielectric, it must be an insulator. Hence any insulator is a dielectric.
Fig. 1: An Insulator/Dielectric
Dielectric Constant: A dielectric is chiefly characterized by its dielectric constant. Dielectric
constant of a dielectric is defined and measured as the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor
containing the dielectric medium to the capacitance of the sane capacitor with air as the medium.
C
r 
C0
where C0 is the capacitance with air as the medium between the plates and C is the capacitance
with dielectric as medium.  r is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity. It is a
dimensionless quantity, which is always greater than unity in case of dielectrics, and it is
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independent of the size or shape of the dielectric. In fact,  r describes the ability of the dielectric
material to store electric charges. At times another quantity known as the permittivity of the
medium,  , is used. It is given by
   0 r
where  0  8.854 1012 F/m represents the permittivity of free space.
Dielectric Polarization: Let us consider an electrically neutral slab of an isotropic dielectric

inserted between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
Very low conductivity of the dielectric rules out the presence of free charges and their possible
motion in the electric field. Hence current does not flow in the material. However, the electric
field can act on the bound charges in the dielectric. These bound charges are not free to migrate
through the dielectric. The action of the field E0 on the bound charge consists in displacing the
bound charges relative to one another. The negative charges (electrons) arc displaced in a
direction opposite to that of the electric field, while the positive charges (nuclei) are displaced in
the same direction as that of the electric field. Each atom or molecule then acts as an elementary
dipole and acquires an electric dipole moment in the direction of the field. The cumulative effect
of formation of such dipoles is that negative charge is induced by the electric field on the
dielectric surface adjacent to the positive capacitor plate while a positive charge of equal
magnitude is induced on the dielectric surface adjacent to negative capacitor plate. Thus, the
action of the electric field on a dielectric is to induce charges on its surfaces. When charges of
opposite polarity are induced on the surfaces of a dielectric, the dielectric is said to be polarized.
The effect is known as dielectric polarization. The polarized dielectric is equivalent to a big
dipole consisting of polarization charges separated by a distance d, which is the thickness of the
slab. The intensity of polarization P is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the
material. Thus,
 d
P
V
where d is the dipole moment of an elemental volume and V is the total volume of the
dielectric. In fact, we can consider the polarized dielectric as a big dipole consisting of induced
charges separated by distance d. Thus,
  ( A p )d   pV
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where A is the area of the slab and  p is the surface charge density due to polarization. Thus, we
found that
P p
It follows that polarization is equal to the surface density of the induced charges in a dielectric.
The effect of polarization is to reduce the magnitude of the external field E0 . The induced
surface charges on the dielectric give rise to an induced electric field Ei which opposes the
external field E0 . Therefore, the net electric field E in the dielectric has a magnitude given by
E  E0  Ei
Gauss Law: Gauss law states that the total electric flux,  , through a closed surface is equal to
the charge enclosed by the surface. Thus,
   D  dA  q0
where D is the displacement vector. It is related to the electric field through the relation
D  E
Using the above relation, Gauss law can be rewritten as
  E  dA  q0
Gauss Law Applied to a Dielectric:
Fig. 3: A parallel plate capacitor (a) without and (b) with a dielectric.
Let us apply Gauss law to a parallel plate capacitor without a dielectric first and then with a
dielectric. Fig. 3(a) shows a Gaussian surface drawn enclosing the charge q on one of the plates.
q is known as the free charge on the capacitor plate. The electric field E0 at any point on the
Gaussian surface is given by
q
 E0  dA 
0
q
or E0 A 
0

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q
E0  …………………..(1)
0 A
Now, let us consider the case of the capacitor with a dielectric and draw a Gaussian surface, as
shown in Fig. 3(b) enclosing the free charge on the capacitor plate and induced charge on the
dielectric surface. Let q be the induced charge on the surface of the dielectric. q is known as
the bound charge. Note that q is negative charge. Then (q  q) is the net charge within the
Gaussian surface. Let E be the resultant field inside the dielectric. Then, according to Gauss
theorem
q  q
 E  dA  …(2)
0
q q
or E  …(3)
0 A 0 A
Equ. (3) indicates that the induced surface charge q weakens the original field when the
dielectric is present. The initial field and the resultant field are related through the relation
E0   r E
E0 q q
  
r 0 A 0 A
Using equ. (1), we write the above relation as
q q q
 
 0 r A 0 A 0 A
q
 q  q …(4)
r
Using (4) into equ. (2), we get
q  q q
 E  dA  
0  0 r
or  0 r  E  dA  q
or   E  dA  q …(5)
Dielectric Susceptibility
The magnitude of polarization is directly proportional to the intensity of the electric field Thus,
P   0 E …(6)

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 (chi) is the proportionality constant and is called the dielectric susceptibility of the material.
Dielectric susceptibility characterizes the case with which a dielectric material can be influenced
by an external electric field. It is a measure of the polarization produced in the material per unit
electric field.
The Three Field Vectors

The resultant field inside the dielectric is given by equ. (3) as
q q
E 
0 A 0 A
From the Fig. 3 (b), it is seen that
q
 p  P
A
q P
 E
0 A 0
q
or  0E  P
A
q
The quantity is called electric displacement D.
A
q
Thus, D …(7)
A
Therefore, D  0E  P …(8)
The three electric vectors, E, D and P are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4: The field vectors E, D and P. The electric field E is connected to the free charges the
vector P is related to polarization charges and the vector D to all charges.

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Relation Between  r and 
In order to describe the combined effects of the applied electric held E and electric polarization
P. we have introduced the auxiliary vector D, called the displacement vector.
D   0 E  P ………………..(9)
Substituting the expression for P from equ. (6), we get
D  (1   ) 0 E
which we can write as D   0 r E   E
 r  1  …(10)
Relation between P and E
 1
q  q 1  
 r 
q
But P p 
A
q q D
Therefore, P  ( r  1)  ( r  1) t
A r A r
or P   0 ( r 1) E …(11)
Example: When NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 50 V/cm, the resulting
polarization is 2.215107 C/m 2 . Calculate relative permittivity of NaCl.
Solution: P   0 ( r 1) E
P 2.215107 C/m 2
  r  1  1  6.006
0E 8.85 1012 F/m  50 V/cm 100 cm/m
Induced Dipoles
In order to understand the action of electric field on a dielectric, it is necessary to understand its
action on an atom. In an atom the nucleus is about 1015 m in diameter and it can be regarded as
a point. The electron cloud is about 1010 m in diameter and it may be assumed that its negative
charge is concentrated at its centre. Therefore, the centres of gravity of positive and negative
charges in an atom coincide (5 a).

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Fig. 5
Consequently, such an atom neither produces any electric field of its own nor is acted upon by an
external field.
If now the atom is placed in an electric field of strength E, the electron cloud will be displaced in
the direction opposite to that of E by a distance “d” with respect to the nucleus (Fig.5 (b)). The
centres of gravity of positive and negative charges in the atom no more coincide. The atom is
now equivalent to a system of two charges of equal magnitude q  Ze but opposite in sign and
separated by a distance “d”. Such a system is called an electric dipole or simply a dipole. We say
that a dipole is induced in the atom due to the action of the external electric field. Though a
dipole is electrically neutral, the induced dipole sets up its own electric field in a direction
opposite to that of the external electric field.
Fig. 6
The product of the magnitude of the charges and the distance of their separation is called the
dipole moment,  of the electric dipole. Thus,
  qd …(33.18)
The dipole moment is a vector directed along the axis of the dipole from the negative charge to
the positive charge.
In general any neutral system of N point charges Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , ....., QN occupying a volume having
linear dimensions “d” acts as a dipole. The sum of charges  Qi in the volume should be equal to
zero to ensure the neutrality of the system. The dipole moment of such a neutral system of point
charges is given by
   Qi ri …(12)
i

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where ri is a vector drawn from the origin of coordinate system to the position of the charge Qi .
Dielectric materials are made up of atoms and molecules, which are neutral systems. When a
molecule is subjected to an electric field, the electric field tends to displace the equilibrium
positions of bound charges, as a result of which dipole moment is induced in the molecule. The
amount of induced dipole moment, , will be proportional to the field strength, E. The larger the
field, the greater is the displacement of charges and hence the larger the induced dipole moment.
As the charges are displaced along the field direction, the dipole moment is induced in the same
direction.
Fig. 7
The molecule is then said to be polarized by the field. When a molecule becomes polarized,
restoring forces due to coulomb attraction come into play, which tend to pull the displaced
charges together. The charges separated until the restoring force balances the force due to the
electric field.
Restoring forces vary in magnitude from one kind of molecule to another and therefore, the
extent of dipole moment induced differs. As the amount of induced dipole moment is
proportional to the field strength, we write
ind  E
or ind   E …(13)
where  is the proportionality constant and is known as the polarizability of the molecule.
Polarizability characterizes the capacity of the electric charges in the molecule to suffer
displacement in an external field. It has the dimensions of volume. Induced dipole moment
vanishes as soon as the electric field is switched off.
Permanent Dipoles
In some molecules, known as polar molecules, the centers of gravity of the charges of opposite
sign an separated even in the absence of an external electric field. Such molecules are said to
have intrinsic dipole moment and carry permanent dipoles.

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Fig. 8
When a molecule having intrinsic dipole moment is placed in a uniform electric field E, the field
exerts a force  q E on charge  q and  q E on charge  q. The net force on the dipole is zero
since the two forces acting on it are equal and opposite to each other. Therefore, there is no
translational force on the dipole in a uniform electric field. However, the forces are antiparallel
and constitute a couple which tends to rotate the dipole. The torque acting on the dipole is given
by
  qEd sin   E sin
or  E …(14)
Thus, a dipole experiences a torque in a uniform electric field and rotates in an attempt to align
with the field direction. In fact, a free dipole aligns its axis with the field direction.
Further, the electric field can also induce a dipole moment in the molecule. Therefore, the total
dipole moment of the molecule is a sum of the induced and permanent dipole moments. Thus,
  ind   per …(15)
However, in case of polar molecules, ind   per and therefore,
   per
Nonpolar and Polar Dielectrics

Dielectrics are broadly divided into two major groups, namely, nonpolar and polar dielectrics
basing on dipole moment.
A molecule is a neutral system in which the algebraic sum of all the charges is equal to zero.
However, the spatial arrangement of charges in a molecule may differ from material to material.
All positive charges of a molecule may be replaced by one equivalent positive charge located at
the center of gravity of positive charges. Similarly, all negative charges in it may be replaced
with a single equivalent negative charge located at the center of gravity of all negative charges.
The two resultant charges are equal in magnitude. Their points of action in space may coincide
or may not coincide. When the points of action coincide, the molecule will not possess a
permanent dipole moment. Such molecules are called nonpolar molecules and the material is
known as a nonpolar dielectric. Their permittivities are low and range from 1 to 2.2.

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If the points of the resultant charges of a molecule do not coincide in space, the molecule possess
an intrinsic dipole moment. Such molecules are called polar molecules and the materials made
up polar molecules are called polar dielectrics. In a polar molecule consisting of several bonds,
each bond may carry a permanent dipole moment. The resultant dipole moment of the molecule
may then be obtained through the vector addition of the moments associated with the different
bonds. The permittivities of polar dielectrics are high ranging from 3 to 8 and more.
Whether a molecule is a polar or nonpolar can be judged from its structure. It is obvious that
symmetric molecules are nonpolar since the centres of gravity of positive and negative charges
coincide with each other. Thus, monoatomic molecules He, Ne, Ar, and Xe are nonpolar.
Molecules consisting of two identical atoms linked by a homopolar bonds such as H2, N2, C12
are nonpolar.
On the other hand, asymmetric molecules are polar. The molecules of ionic compounds with a
heteropolar bond, such as potassium iodide (KI) have a high dipole moment and are polar.
Fig. 9
In estimating the intrinsic dipole moment of a molecule by its structure, it is necessary to
consider the actual distribution of charges in space rather than its chemical formula taken in
conventional form. For example, the chemical formula of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
look identical in form. But CO2 molecule is nonpolar whereas H2O molecule is polar. The dipole
moments of the two C = 0 bonds in CO2 molecule are oppositely directed and cancel each other
(Fig.9 a). Therefore, the resultant dipole moment of CO2 molecule is zero. On the other hand, the
water molecule has the form of an isosceles triangle with a bond angle of 104.5o. Consequently,
the resultant dipole moment of water molecule comes to 6.11030 C.m. and the molecule is
polar.
All hydrocarbons are nonpolar. The intrinsic dipole moment in these molecules is either zero or
very small. But hydrocarbons become polar substances when hydrogen atoms are replaced by
other atoms or groups of atoms. Let us consider the example of methane. Methane is the simplest
hydrocarbon and its chemical formula is CH4. The dipole moment of methane is zero. When the
hydrogen atoms ate replaced one after the other with chlorine atoms, we obtain methyl chloride
CH3Cl, methylene chloride CH2Cl2. chloroform CHCl3 and carbon tetra chloride CCl4 their
structures and dipole moments are shown below (Fig. 10).

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Fig. 10
Polarization
Let us once more consider a slab of dielectric located between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor. In the absence of an external electric field each elementary volume of the dielectric
has no dipole moment. If the dielectric is a nonpolar material, the constituent molecules do not
possess intrinsic dipole moments and in case the dielectric is a polar material, the individual
molecular dipoles are randomly oriented so that in an elementary volume    0. Hence, the
polarization is zero. When the electric field is switched on dipoles are induced in nonpolar
molecules, which form chains along the field lines, as shown in Fig. 11.
The polarization is given by
P  N   N E Nonpolar dielectric …(16)
where N is the lumber of molecules per unit volume.

In a polar dielectric, the molecular dipoles experience a torque that tends to align them with the
field direction. Total alignment is not achieved because of the disordering effects of thermal
agitation. An average alignment    is achieved in the direction of the field. The polarization
is therefore given by
PN  Polar dielectric …(17)
Thus, the action of electric field brings the dipoles into a certain ordered arrangement in space. It
is seen that the ends of adjacent dipoles carrying opposite charges neutralize each other. Only the
charges of the dipole ends terminating on the opposite faces of the slab remain uncompensated.
Thus, the application of an electric field to a dielectric products a displacement of charge within
the material through a progressive orientation of intrinsic or induced dipoles. This is known as
dielectric polarization.

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Fig. 11. Polarization of a dielectric according to atomic point of view. The induced charge
density on the dielectric is less than the free charge density on the plates.Types of
Polarization
Dielectric polarization is classified into three basic types.
(i) Electronic polarization.
(ii) Ionic polarization,
(iii) Orientation polarization, and
One or two of the polarizations are always present and at a particular temperature or frequency of
applied field, one or another may contribute in a large measure to the total polarization.
(i) Electronic Polarization

This is the polarization that results from the displacement of the electron clouds of atoms,
molecules and ions with respect to heavy ‘fixed’ nuclei to a distance that is less than the
dimensions of the atoms, molecules or ions. It occurs in all dielectrics for any state of
aggregation. The phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12: Electronic polarization- (a) Atoms are not polarized in the absence of the electric
field, (b) Electronic polarization results from the distortion of electron cloud by an applied
electric field.
The electronic polarization sets in over a very short period of time, of the order of 1014 to
1015 s. It is independent of temperature.
Expression for Electronic Polarization: Let us consider a single atom with atomic number Z.
The charge on its nucleus is +Ze and Z electrons move around the nucleus. Let us assume that

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the nucleus is a point charge and the total negative charge  Ze is homogeneously distributed
throughout a sphere of radius, R. When this atom is subjected to an electric field E, the nucleus
and the electron cloud will move in opposite directions. The coulomb attractive force opposes
the movement, which acts as the restoring force here. Equilibrium condition will be attained in
which the nucleus is displaced relative to the center of attractive force opposes the movement,
which acts as the restoring force here.
Fig. 13
Equilibrium condition will be attained in which the nucleus is displaced relative to the center of
the electron cloud by the amount, x. The force on the nucleus along the field direction is
F = ZeE …(18)
To determine the coulomb attraction on the nucleus, we divide the electron cloud into two
regions. One region is the one that is inside the sphere of radius x and the other is the annular
region lying between the two spherical surfaces of radii x and R. By applying Gauss theorem, we
find that the force experienced by the nucleus arises due to the negative charge lying within the
Ze x 3
spherical region of radius x. The charge inside this region is given by  3 . The force exerted
R
by this charge on the nucleus is given by
1 ( Ze)( Zex3 R3 )
F . …(19)
4  0 x2
The equilibrium condition is that the above two forces balance each other. Thus,
1 ( Ze)( Zex 3 R3 )
ZeE  .
4 0 x2
Therefore, the displacement of the nucleus is
4 0 R3
x E …(20)
Ze
Now the dipole moment induced in the atom due to the displacement is
ind  (Ze) x
4 0 R3
 ( Ze) E
Ze
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or ind  4 0 R3 E …(21)
 ind  e E
where e  4 0 R3 …(22)
It follows that the electronic polarization in a unit volume of the dielectric is given by
Pe  Ne E …(23)
where  e is the electronic polarizability. The contribution of Pe to the dielectric constant may be
obtained as follows
Pe N E
  1   1  1
0E 0E
N e
r  1 …(24)
0
The above expression indicates the contribution to dielectric constant due to electronic
polarization alone and thus gives the dielectric constant of a nonpolar gas. Note that it depends
on the polarizability of a molecule and the number of molecules in a unit volume of the
dielectric. In case of monoatomic gas  e  4 0 R3 .
  r  1  4 NR3 …(25)
Example 33.2. Calculate the electronic polarizability of argon atom. Given  r  1.0024 at NTP
and N  2.7 1025 atoms/m3.
N e
Solution.  r  1 
0
 0 ( r  1) (8.85 1012 F/m)(1.0024  1)

 e    7.9 1040 F.m 2 .
N 2.7 10 /m
25 3
Example 33.3. The number of atoms in hydrogen gas is 9.8 1020 atoms/cc. The radius of
hydrogen atom is 0.053 nm. Calculate its electronic polarizability and relative permittivity.
Solution.  e  4 0 R3  4  3.14  8.85 1012 F.m  (0.053 nm)3  1.657 1041 F.m2 .
 r  1  4 NR3  1  4  3.14  9.8 1026 /m3  (0.053 nm)3  1.0018.
(ii) Ionic Polarization

Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals. It occurs due to the elastic displacement of positive
and negative ions from their equilibrium positions. Let us take the example of sodium chloride
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crystal. A sodium chloride molecule consists of Na+ ions bound to Cl– ions through ionic bond. If
the interatomic distance is d, the molecule exhibits an intrinsic dipole moment equal to ‘ed’.
When a dc electric field is applied to the molecule, the sodium and chlorine ions are displaced in
opposite directions (Fig. 14) until ionic bonding forces stop the process. The dipole moment of
the molecule increases consequently. When the field direction is reversed the ions move closer
and again the dipole moment undergoes a change. Thus, dipoles are induced. The induced clippie
moment is proportional to the applied field and is expressed as
i  i E …(26)
where i is known as ionic polarizability.
Fig. 14. Ionic Polarization - (a) unpolarized dielectric. (b) Ionic polarization results from
the relative displacement of electrically charged ions in response to an applied electric field.
Ionic polarization takes 1011 to 1014 s to build up, and is not influenced by temperature.
(iii) Orientation Polarization

The orientation polarization is characteristic of polar dielectrics, which consist of molecules
having permanent dipole moment. In the absence of external electric field, the orientation of
dipoles is random resulting in a complete cancellation of each other’s effect, as illustrated in Fig.
15 (a).
Fig.15. Orientation polarization - (a) molecular dipoles are randomly oriented when E = 0
(b) When the field is applied the dipoles are partially aligned.

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When the electric field is impressed the molecular dipoles rotate about their axis of symmetry to
align with the applied field. In case of electronic and ionic polarizations, the force due to the
external field is balanced by a restoring force due to coulomb attraction, but for orientation
polarization, restoring forces do not exist. However, the dipole alignment is counteracted by
thermal agitation. The higher the temperature, the greater is the thermal agitation. The dipoles
can turn only through a smell angle, as illustrated in Fig.15 (b). Even in case of liquids or gases,
where molecules are free to rotate, a complete alignment cannot be achieved due to the
randomizing effect of the temperature. However, it is estimated that it is enough if one molecular
dipole in 105 completely aligns with the field to produce orientation polarization of the order of
electronic polarization.
Thus, orientation polarization is strongly temperature dependent. This type of polarization occurs
in gases, liquids and amorphous viscous substances. In case of solids, the molecules are fixed in
their positions and their rotation is highly restricted by the lattice forces, leading to a great
reduction in their contribution to orientation polarization. Because of this reason, while the
dielectric constant of water is about 80, that of solid ice is about only 10.
As the process of orientation polarization involves rotation of molecules, it takes relatively
longer time than the electronic and ionic polarizations. The buildup time is of the order of 1010
or more.
33.14.5 Total Polarization

In a material, which can experience all forms of polarization, the total polarization is equal to the
sum of the electronic, ionic, and orientation polarizations. The total polarization is given by
Ptotal  Pe  Pi  P0 …(27)
The total polarization of a polar dielectric is therefore given by
P  N[ e   i   0 ]E
 e2  1 1   2 
 N 4 0 R 3  2     …(28)
0  M m  3kT 
or E

The total polarizability is given by
   e  i   0
e2  1 1   2
or   4 0 R 3     …(29)
02  M m  3kT
It is possible for one or more of the contributions to the polarization to be either absent or
negligible in magnitude relative to the others. For instance, orientation polarization does not exist
in non polar dielectrics. Similarly, ionic polarization will not be found in covalently bonded
materials. Electronic polarization will be negligible compared to orientation polarization in polar
dielectrics.

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Temperature Dependence of Polarization
It is seen from equ. (29) that the electronic and ionic polarization do not depend on temperature
and remain constant at all temperatures. However, the orientation polarization is inversely
proportional to the temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. If polarization P is
plotted as function of 1T , a straight line will be obtained, as shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 16. The variation of total polarization as a function of 1T .
The intercept of the line with y-axis at 1T  0 gives the value of N ( e  i ) from which
( e  i ) can be evaluated. The dipole moment  can be computed from the slope of the
straight line, knowing the value of N, and the number of molecules per m3 .
Frequency Dependence of Total Polarization

In many practical situations, a dielectric is subjected to an alternating electric field. An ac field
changes its direction with time. With each direction reversal, the polarization components are
required to follow the field reversals in order to contribute to the total polarization of the
dielectric. It follows that the total polarization depends on the ability of dipoles to orient
themselves in the direction of the field during each alternation of the field. The dependence of P
on frequency of the electric field is sketched, in Fig. 17, for a polar dielectric.
Fig. 17
In audio frequency region, all types of polarization are possible and the dielectric is characterized
by a polarizability    e  i   0 and the polarization P  Pe  Pi  Po . At low frequencies, the
dipoles will get sufficient time to orient themselves completely along the instantaneous direction
of the field. This orientation occurs first in one direction and then in the other, following the
changes in the direction of the field (Fig. 18). The average time taken by the dipoles to reorient
18
in the field direction is known as the relaxation time  . The reciprocal of the relaxation time is
called the relaxation frequency v. If the frequency of the applied electric field is much higher
than the relaxation frequency of the dipoles. the dipoles cannot reverse fast enough. If the dipole
relaxation time  is less than half the period of the electric field T ( T  2), the dipole can
easily follow electric field alternations and contribute to orientation polarization. Consequently,
the orientation polarization, which is effective at low frequencies, is damped out for higher
frequencies, ( f field  f relax ). Usually in the radio frequency or microwave band region, the
permanent dipoles fail to follow the field reversals and the polarization falls to a value
corresponding to (Pi + Pe). As a result,  r decreases considerably.
Fig. 18: The behaviour of (a) permanent and (b) and (c) Induced dipoles in an alternating
electric field.
Again, typically in the infrared region the ionic polarization fails to follow the field reversals due
to the inertia of the system and the contribution of ionic polarizability ceases. In this region, only
electronic polarization contributes to the total polarization. Therefore P = Pe, in the optical
region, the electron cloud follows the field variations and the material exhibits an electronic
polarizability  e . The relative permittivity in the optical region will be equal to the square of the
refractive index ‘n’ of the dielectric. Thus,
[ r ]optical region  n 2
In the ultraviolet region, the electron cloud too fails to follow the field alternations and electronic
contribution to the polarization ceases. Consequently, the total polarization becomes zero. The
relative permittivity approaches unity at frequencies above the ultraviolet range. Thus,
[ r ]X-ray  1
To cite the example of water, the low frequency dielectric constant, generally referred to as static
dielectric constant at room temperature is about 80.

19
Electron Ballistics
Electron Volt
An electron (or a charged particle) gains energy when it is accelerated in an electric field; the
kinetic energy so gained is very small compared to a joule. Hence, in atomic physics, particle
energies arc expressed in terms of a smaller unit called electron-volt (eV). An electron-volt is
defined as the energy acquired by an electron when it gets accelerated through a potential
difference of one volt. We see that the electron volt is related to the joule through the relation
1 eV  Charge on the electron1 V  (1.6021019 C)(1 V)  1.6021019 J
Electric Field Perpendicular to Initial Velocity

We now consider the case of a uniform electric field applied perpendicular to the initial direction
of motion of the electron.
Let A and B be two plane parallel metal plates of length l oriented horizontally and separated by
a small distance d. If a potential difference V is applied across the plates, a uniform electric field
E  (V d ) is produced in the region between the plates. The electric field is directed vertically
downward from plate A to plate B, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Electron motion in a transverse uniform electric field. The electron describes a
parabolic path in a transverse electric field.
Let an electron be moving in x-direction with velocity v0 . The electron velocity in y-direction is
initially zero. At point K, the electron enters the uniform electric field. As the electric field acts
in y-direction, the electron experiences an upward force and gets deflected upward in y-direction.
The acceleration acquired by the electron in y-direction is given by
eE
ay  ……….…..(1)
m
The velocity attained by the electron after traveling for a time t in the electric field is
eE
y  t ………….(2)
m
If y is the displacement of electron in the field direction during time t, then

20
eE 2
y r ………………….…(3)
2m
Since the initial velocity  0 is in a direction perpendicular to the electric field E, it remains
unchanged. Therefore, the horizontal displacement of electron in x-direction in time t is
x  o t ………………………..(4)
 eE 2 
Therefore, the co-ordinates of the electron after time t are  x   ot , y  t .
 2m 
t is known as the transit time and is given by

t ……………………………….(5)
o
Eliminating time t from equ. (3) and equ. (5), we obtain the equation of the path as
2
 eE  x 
y 
 2m  o 
 eE  2
y   x
2 
…(6)
 2m0 
or   k x2
where k is a constant.
This is an equation of a parabola. It means that
• An electron moving with uniform velocity follows a parabolic path when it passes through a
transverse uniform electric field.
Electrostatic Deflection
The deflection of electron caused by an electrostatic field is known as electrostatic deflection. An
electron follows a parabolic path in a transverse uniform electric field and finally, it emerges out
of the electric field. Since, electron is an invisible particle, we cannot determine the electron
displacement caused by the electric field, say at point M in Fig.2. Therefore, we keep a
fluorescent screen at some distance in the path of electron and locate its position. When the
moving electron strikes fluorescent screen, it causes a luminous glow on the screen and makes its
position known. Referring to Fig. 2, the electric field terminates at MN and the electron does not
experience force to the right of the plates beyond the line MN. The electron then onwards
follows a rectilinear path. It travels along the line MP with a velocity  and strikes the
fluorescent screen at point P. If the electric field is switched off, the electron moves without
deviation and strikes the screen at point Q. Therefore, QP is the linear deflection caused by the
electric field. When the line MP is extended backward it cuts the axis KQ at O and the line PO

21
represents the tangent to the parabola KM at M. The angle  (  POQ) represents the angular
displacement of the electron path.
In Fig. 14.6, let QP  DE , OQ  L, AB  d and AA  l.
From le OQP, QP  OQ tan 
 Electrostatic deflection DE  L tan  …(7)
Fig. 2: Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam due to uniform electric field acting
perpendicular to its path.
 dy  d  eEx 2  eEl
But tan       2
 …(8)
 dx  x l dx  2mo  x l mo
2
Using equ. (7) into equ. (8), we get
LeEl
DE  …(9)
m o2
If we have a stream of electrons, they have the same e m value, but may have different initial
velocities in the x-direction. Therefore, the electrons are deflected according to their velocities.
All electrons with a given value of o , will reach a point P on the screen. If the initial velocity
o has been obtained by passing the electron through voltage VA, we have
2eVA
o  ………………….…(10)
m
Using the value for o (equ.10) and E  V  d into the equation (9), we obtain
LeVl m
DE  .
md 2eVA

22
LVl
 DE  …(11)
2dVA
Thus, DE is proportional to the deflecting voltage V and inversely proportional to the

accelerating voltage VA.
 When the accelerating voltage is smaller, the electron travels through the electric field
sufficiently slowly and undergoes appreciable deflection. It is required that VA be large
so that the particles will have sufficient kinetic energy for the production of a luminous
spot on the fluorescent screen. But a high accelerating voltage requires a high deflection
potential V for causing a sufficient amount of deflection, DE. Therefore, the value chosen
for VA has to be a compromise to meet these conflicting requirements.
 The angle of deflection of the electron beam in electrostatic deflection is to be restricted
to smaller values. Otherwise, at angles greater than a certain value, the electrons hit the
deflection plates instead of reaching the screen. Because of this limitation, the area that
can be covered on the screen by the electron beam on the screen is smaller.
 The deflection sensitivity, S, of the deflection plates is given by the deflection caused by
one volt of potential difference applied to deflection plates.
Dg Ll
S  ……………………(12)
V 2dVA
The reciprocal of the deflection sensitivity S is called the deflection factor. Thus,
1 2dVA
G  volts  m ……………….…(13)
S lL
Example: A proton has an initial velocity of 2.3105 ms in the x-direction It enters a uniform
electric field of 1.5 104 NC in a direction perpendicular to the field lines.
(i) Find the time it takes for the proton to travel 0.05 m in the x direction, and
(ii) Find the vertical displacement of the proton after it has travelled 0.05 m in the x-direction.
Solution:
l 0.05 m
(i) Time taken by the proton t   2.2 107 s
o 2.3 10 m s
5
(ii) Displacement in the vertical direction due to electric field is
eEt 2 (1.602 1019 C)(1.5 104 N  C)(2.2 107 s)2

y 
2m 2 1.67 10 27 kg
(kg.m s 2 ) s 2
 3.48 102  3.5 cm.
kg
Magnetic field Parallel to Initial Velocity

23
(a) A static magnetic field does not act on an electron which is at rest. For an electron at rest,
  0 and hence F  eB sin  0.
(b) When an electron enters a uniform magnetic field parallel to the magnetic field lines, the
magnetic force acting on the electron is zero.
As   0o , F  eB sin  0
Similarly, when an electron moves opposite to the field lines, i.e.,   180o , then again,
F  eB sin  0.
Fig. 3 Electron in a uniform magnetic field. (a) When an electron is at rest, it is not acted
upon by the magnetic field. (b) A longitudinal field B does not act on a charged particle.
As the force is zero in the above two cases, the acceleration is zero. Therefore, the electron
continues to move along the initial direction of motion without suffering any change in its speed
or direction of motion.
Magnetic Field Perpendicular to Initial Velocity

We consider now the case of an electron entering a uniform magnetic field with its initial
velocity perpendicular to the field. Then the angle  between  and B is 90o and sin   1.
 F  eB …(14)
We assume that the magnetic field B is acting into the page (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: An electron describes a circular path in a transverse uniform magnetic field

24
This is indicated by the crosses, which represent the tail of B vector. The force F due to magnetic
field acts perpendicular to the velocity  and B. This force does not perform work on the
electron and hence cannot change the magnitude of electron velocity.
However, the action of the force is to deflect the electron from its path and hence change the
direction of velocity. After an infinitesimal change of direction, the electron has the same speed
and is still moving perpendicular to B; but the direction of F changes. As the force F deflects the
electron, the directions of  and F change continuously and the electron follows a curved path.
The force that produces the curvature is F. Since the magnetic field is uniform everywhere, and
the speed  is constant and is unchanged by the field, the magnitude of F is constant. As the
direction of the force F needs to be always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle, it is
obviously a centripetal force and causes the electron to move in a circular path in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The sense of rotation in is clockwise for an electron. The
centripetal acceleration caused by the force due to magnetic field is  2  R, where R is the
radius of the curvature. The centripetal force F is given by
m 2
F …(15)
R
Comparing equations (14) with (15), we get
m 2
eB  …(16)
R
m
 R …(17)
eB
It is seen that the radius of the circle depends on the momentum ‘ m ’ of the electron. Thus,
R  m
The radius of the orbit of an electron moving at right angles to the magnetic field is proportional
to its momentum.
The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius of the electron path and the smaller is the
curvature. It is because it becomes more difficult for the magnetic field to change the direction of
motion of the electron with greater momentum.
The time taken by the electron to complete one revolution is called the time period, T. It is given
by
Distance travelled by the electronin one revolution

T
Speed of the electron
Circumference of the path


Speed of the electron
2 R 2 m
 T  .
  eB
25
2 m
 T …(18)
eB
The frequency of revolution in the orbit is given by
1 eB
  …(19)
T 2 m
Equ. (18) and equ. (19) indicate that

• The time period and frequency of revolution are independent of the electron velocity as well as
the radius of circular path.
This is because  and R adjust themselves in such a way that for a given magnetic induction
value B. T and  remain constant. It implies that
• Slower electrons move in smaller circles while faster electrons move in larger circles but all of
them take the same time for completion of one revolution.
Example: An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 5 kV and enters uniform
magnetic field of 0.02 wbm2 acting normal to the direction of electron motion. Determine the
radius of the path.
Solution: The radius of the circular path described by the electron in the magnetic field is given
by
m
R
eB
The velocity of the electron accelerated through a potential V is given by
2eV

m
1 2mV
 R
B e
1:2
1  2(9.111031 kg)(5 103 V) 
  
0.02 wb m 2  1.6021019 C 
C.m N.s
 119.3 10 4  12 mm.
N.s C
Velocity Selector
A velocity selector is an electro-optic device which utilizes uniform electric and magnetic fields
in crossed configuration for selecting a stream of single-velocity charged particles from a beam
of particles having a range of velocities. This device is also known as a velocity filter.

26
A narrow beam of electrons traveling in vacuum enters a region where a uniform electric field E
and a uniform magnetic field B are acting at right angles to each other. Let the electrons in the
beam have velocities in the range of o   spread around a central value o . Let the beam
enter the crossed field region in a direction normal to both the fields, as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Schematic of a velocity selector

The uniform electric field E is produced in the vertical direction by a set of charged parallel
plates. The uniform magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to E over the same region of space.
Both E and B act normal to the direction of velocity o of electrons. The electric field produces
an upward force on the electrons in the beam, whereas the magnetic field produces a downward
force. Now, if the field values are adjusted so that the electric force balances the magnetic force,
then the electrons will not be subjected to any net force. Thus, the resultant force is
FR  FE  FB  0
or eE  eo B
E
 o 
B
Geiger-Muller Counter
Nuclear radiations emitted by disintegrating nuclei cannot be sensed directly. Indirect methods
are to be employed to detect them. Alpha, beta and gamma rays have the ability to ionize neutral
atoms. This property is used in radiation detecting instruments.
Fig. 6 A Schematic of Geiger-Mullet counter. Radiation ionizes the argon gas molecules in
the tube giving rise to electrical pulse, which is counted.
The Geiger-Muller counter is a radiation detector. It is a modified cathode ray tube with
electrical circuits needed to amplify the current and detect it. The Geiger-Muller (G.M.) tube
(Fig. 6) consists of a rugged metal case enclosed in a thin glass tube. The hollow metal case acts
27
as cathode. A fine wire, usually of tungsten, runs through the center of the tube and is insulated
from the metal. It acts as anode. The tube is evacuated and then partially filed with a mixture of
90% argon at 10 cm pressure and 10% ethyl alcohol vapour at 1 cm pressure. At one end of the
tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of radiation into the tube.
A dc potential of about 1200 volts is applied between the cathode and the wire. The value of the
voltage is adjusted to be somewhat below the breakdown voltage of the gaseous mixture. A high
resistance R is connected in series with battery.
A high energy particle entering through the mica window will cause one or more of the argon
atoms to ionize. The electrons and ions of argon thus produced cause other argon atoms to ionize
in a cascade effect. The result of this one event is a sudden, massive electrical discharge that
causes a current pulse. The current through R produces a voltage pulse of the order of 10V . An
electronic pulse amplifier accepts the small pulse voltages and amplifies them to about 5 to 50
volts. The amplified output is then applied to a counter. As each incoming particle produces a
pulse, the number of incoming particles can be counted.
The number of secondary electrons is independent of the number of the primary ions produced
by incoming particle. The incoming particle acts as a trigger to release an avalanche of secondary
electrons. The electrons reach the anode and cause ionization current in the circuit, whereas the
positive ions move slowly and form a sheath around the anode for a short time. They reduce the
potential difference to such a low value that the current in the circuit is stopped. Therefore, a
brief pulse of current is produced by each incoming particle.
Fig. 7 shows a plot of counts per minute as a function of voltage. For voltages less than 1000
volts there is no discharge and hence no counts. Between 1000 to 1200 volts the number of
pulses increases with the applied voltage almost linearly. Above 1200 volts, the number of
counts remains constant over a certain region known as plateau. In this region, the magnitude of
pulses becomes independent of the amount of original ionization. This plateau region is used for
G.M. counter operation. If the voltage is increased above this region, a continuous discharge will
take place, which is undesirable and is hence avoided.
Fig. 7. A plot of potential difference applied across the electrodes in a G.M. counter versus
count rate. G.M. counter is operated in the plateau region.
Quenching: When the positive ions reach the cathode, they dislodge secondary electrons front
the cathode because of their high energies. These electrons move toward anode and produce
unwanted avalanches. As a result the counter goes into a state of continuous avalanching. During
the measurements, the counter fails to distinguish between the two types of pulses, one that is
due to an incoming particle and the other due to unwanted avalanching. The process of
28
preventing the undesirable continuous avalanching is known as quenching. In other words,
quenching is the elimination of sheath of positive ions around the cathode.
Self-quenching: To cause internal automatic quenching, a small percentage of ethyl alcohol
vapour is added to the argon gas in the tube which prevents undesirable continuous avalanching.
Counting rate: The G.M. counter can count about 5000 particles per second. The counting rate
depends upon the dead time and recovery time of the GM counter.
Dead time: Dead time refers to the time taken by the tube to recover between counts. In the
counter, the slowly moving positive ions take about 100 s to reach the cathode. If a second
particle enters the tube during this time, it will not be registered, as the potential difference
across the electrodes is very low. Hence, the time interval is known as the dead time.
Recovery time: After dead time, the tube takes approximately 100 s before it regains the
original working conditions. This time interval is known as recovery time. Thus, recovery time is
the time after which the original pulse levels are restored.
Paralysis time: The sum of dead time and recovery time is known as paralysis time, which is
200 s. The tube can respond to the second incoming particle only after 200 s.
Applications: The G.M. counter is very useful for detecting nuclear radiations and charged
particles. It is largely used for recording cosmic ray events and measuring cosmic ray intensities.
Limitations:
1. G.M. counter has a large ‘dead time’ and recovery time of the order of 200 s. If a large
number of particles enter the G.M. tube at a rapid rate, the tube will not have time to recover and
some particles may not be coupled.
2. It has very efficiency for detection of  -radiation.
3. It cannot detect neutral particles.

4. It cannot provide information regarding the nature of the ionizing particle.
5. It has limited lifetime.
Example. A G.M. counter wire collects 108 electrons per discharge. When the counting rate is
500 counts min, what will be the average current in the circuit?
Solution: Number of electrons collected in one minute, n  108  500
Charge per minute, Q  n e  (108  500)(1.6021019 C) min.
Q (108  500)(1.602 1019 C)

Average current, t    1.3 1010 A.
60 s 60 s
♦♦♦

29
Mass Spectrograph
Mass spectrograph is an instrument which, by using electric and magnetic fields, separate
different isotopes from a stream of positive ions of an element and measures their individual
mass as well as their relative abundances. By analogy with the instrument that separates light of
different wavelengths, the instrument that separates ions of different masses is called a mass
spectrograph. Positive ions having the same q / M value are brought to a common focus and
produce a line on photographic plate in the mass spectrograph. Ions of different q / M values
register on the plate different lines of different intensity. Owing to its similarity to an optical line
spectrum, the image obtained on the plate is called a mass spectrum.
Aston’s Mass Spectrograph

Franchis W. Aston (1877 – 1945), the British scientist improved greatly the Thomson’s
technique and designed in 1919 the first mass spectrograph. The chief improvement consisted in
the focussing of positive ions of different velocities to the same position on a photographic plate
instead of allowing them to spread along a parabola.
Principle: The principle of the method is to subject a narrow beam of positive ions successively
to uniform electric and magnetic fields acting at right angles to the path of the beam in different
regions.
Working: A schematic of Aston’s mass spectograph is shown in the Fig. 8. A beam of positive
ions issuing out of a discharge tube is collimated by a system of slits and is allowed to pass
through a uniform electric field first. The electric field produces a dispersion of the ions with
respect to the velocity. It is because ions with a given value of q / M travelling slow, spend more
time in the electric field and experience more deflection, while the ions travelling faster are
deflected less. Consequently, the ions leave the electric field in the form of a diverging beam.
The beam next passes through a magnetic field whose direction is normal to that of the electric
field. Again, in the magnetic field, the ions moving with more speed are bent less (large R),
while those travelling with less speed are bent more (smallest R). It results in focussing of the
ions of same q / M value to the same point. This method is, therefore, known as velocity
focussing method. Ions of different q / M values get focussed at different points on the
photographic plate.
Fig. 8

30
Principle: The positive rays emerging from perforated cathode are made into a fine pencil by
using slits. They are then subjected to an electrostatic field in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of rays with the help of electrically charged plates P1 and P2. The beam is not only
deflected but also dispersed because the particles are having different velocities. The dispersed
beam is then subjected to a magnetic field whose direction is perpendicular to the direction of
electrostatic field. Thus the magnetic field produces dispersion and deviation in an opposite
direction but in the same plane. If a photographic plate is held in the direction of deflected beam,
line images are obtained. Each line corresponds to a particular value of q / m. The number of
lines correspond to the number of isotopes present in the element.
Theory: The different parts of the Aston’s mass spectrograph are shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9
AC is the direction of positive rays before entering the electrostatic field. S1 and S2 are slits
which provide a line pencil of positive rays. The electrostatic field is maintained by plates P 1 and
P2 and the direction of the field being from P1 and P2. The beam is deflected and dispersed
downwards. Let  and d be the angles of deviation and dispersion. Using a diaphragm D
some of the rays are selected and are allowed to pass between the poles of an electromagnet. The
magnetic field being perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inward. According to the
Fleming’s left hand rule, the beam will be deflected upwards. This magnetic field annuls the
dispersion produced by electric field and recombines the particles which are brought to focus in
the form of sharp lines on a photographic plate CD. The lines are similar to those of spectral
lines.
Let q  charge on positive ray particle.
m  mass of each particle.

E = electrostatic field
B = magnetic field strength
  velocity of each particle.

  angle of deviation produced by magnetic field
31
d  angle of dispersion produced by magnetic field.
Considering that the deflection in electrostatic field is small, the curve near the vertex may be
considered as circular of radius r, we have
m 2 1 Eq
Eq  or 
r r m 2
Hence the deflection  , which is proportional to 1 / r is given by
Eq q
 C  C1
m 2
m 2
(where C1 = C E, because E = constant)
d q 
 dispersion  2C1  2 …(1)
d m 2

If r is the radius of curvature in magnetic field, then
m 2 1 Bq 
Bq  or 
r r  m
Bq q
   C  C2 ( B is constant)
m m
d q 
Again dispersion  C2  …(2)
d m 2

From equation (1) and (2), we have
d d
2 …(3)
 
Thus for a given deflection, the dispersion due to the electric field is twice that due to magnetic
field. The small changes d and d refer to the particles with identical mass and charge but
prossessing velocities differing by d.
In the absence of magnetic field, the dispersion produced in the beam for a distance (a + b) is
given by
 (a  b) d …(4)
where a = distance OO and b = distance OF.

The magnetic field acts in a direction perpendicular to the electric field and produces the same
dispersion in a distance b but in the opposite direction.
Dispersion produced by the magnetic field

32
 b d …(5)
As all the ions are focussed to the same position

(a  b) d  b d
d b
and  …(6)
d (a  b)
d 2
From eq. (3) 
 
b 2
  or b  (a  b) 2
( a  b) 
b(  2 )  2a  …(7)
This is the condition of focussing.
Let OR be perpendicular to the line CD produced and  ROV   . Then from  ROO, we
have
RO  OO sin(   )  a sin(   )
In  ROF , RO  OF sin( RFO)
 b sin[180  (     )]  b sin(     )
 a sin(   )  b sin(     )
For small angles, a (   )  b (     ) …(8)
Comparing eqs. 7 and 8, it is observed that two equations are same when    . Thus the
focussing condition is that the photographic plate must be placed at an angle  with the direction
of the incident positive ray beam.
Thus we find that in Aston’s apparatus.
Bainbridge Mass Specgtrograph:

In 1933, K.T. Bainbridge, the American physicist, designed a mass spectrograph in which a
velocity selector was used to produce a monovelocity ion beam and a transverse magnetic field
was employed to discriminate between ions of different masses.
Principle: The Bainbridge mass spectrograph is based on the principle that a uniform magnetic
field acting normal to the path of ions having the same velocity deflects the ions of different
masses from a straight path into several circular paths of different radii, the radius of each
circular path being linearly related to the mass of the ion describing the circular path.

33
Fig. 10 Schematic of Bainbridge mass spectrograph
Construction: Figure 10 shows a schematic of Bainbridge mass spectrograph. It is essentially a
vacuum chamber placed in a uniform magnetic field acting perpendicularly to its larger surface.
Slits S1 and S2 collimate the incoming ion beam. The deflection plates are placed next to the slits.
The electric field produced by the charged deflection plates and the transverse magnetic field
constitute a velocity filter. Beyond the velocity filter, another slit S3 is arranged to further
collimate the narrow monovelocity ion beam. A photographic plate is mounted in the analysing
chamber in line with the slit S3.
Working: The element under study is taken in the form of gas and introduced into a discharge
tube. When a potential difference of about 20 KV is applied across the electrodes, the gas is
ionized and positive ions are accelerated and conducted into the mass spectrograph through the
slits S1 and S2. The ions in the beam have a wide range of velocities and they pass through the
velocity filter. The electric field strength is adjusted such that ions having a velocity   E / B
emerge out of the filter without deflection and pass through the slit S3. Ions having velocities
different from  get deflected away and are absorbed by the walls of the chamber. The beam
passing through S3 consists of ion all having a single velocity . In the analysing chamber A, the
ions are deflected by the transverse magnetic field B, and describe circular paths. The ions are
recorded on the photographic plates mounted in line with the slit S3.

34
Fig. 11. Mass spectrum of germanium.
The transverse magnetic field acting on the analysing chamber constitutes a momentum selector
and separates out ions of different masses. The different isotopes produce multiple number of
lines on the photographic plate. The visual record of ions in the form of vertical lines on the
photographic plate is called the mass spectrum. Fig. 11 shows the mass spectrum of germanium
isotopes.
Consider a singly ionized ion (q = +ve) with a mass M entering the magnetic field B with a
velocity . It is deflected along a circular path of radius R, given by
M ME
R  …(1)
q B q B2
As E, q and B are all fixed,
RM …(2)
or, RM …(3)
E
where, k is a constant.
qB2
Therefore, ions with different mass values are focussed at different positions on the photographic
plate. The distance of any line on the photographic plate can be measured from the centre of the
slit S3. Let it be designated as x. obviously x is the diameter of the circular path of the ion. Thus
x  2R …(4)
qB2
M x …(5)
2E
As the relation between M and x is a linear relation, the mass of the ion is obtained from the
measurements of E, B and x by proper calibration of the photographic plate. The relative masses
of two isotopes involve only measurement of x and so can be obtained with high precision. If M1
and M2 are the masses of two isotopes and if x1 and x2 respectively are the distances from S3, the
line separation is given by
2E
 x  ( x2  x1 )  ( M 2  M1 ) …(6)
q B2
In practice, one kind of ion is employed as a standard of mass and the mass of the ion under
investigation is compared with it by means of equation (6).
Example. In a Bainbridge mass spectrograph, the electric field used is 8 104 V/m. The
magnetic field common to both plates is 0.55 Wb/m2 . If the ion source consists of singly ionised
Neon isotopes of atomic masses 20 and 22, calculate the linear separation of the lines formed on
the photographic plates.

35
Given: Electric field, E  8 104 V/m
Magnetic induction, B  0.55 Wb/m2
Atomic masses, M1  20 amu., M 2  22 amu.
Charge of the ions, q  1.6021019 C.
2(8  104 V/m)(22 - 20) amu

Solution: x 
(1.602 1019 C)(0.55 Wb/m 2 )2
2(8  104 V/m)(2  1.67  1027 kg)

 (as 1 amu  1.67 1027 kg.)
(1.602 1019 C)(0.55 Wb/m 2 ) 2
kg.V 1
 0.011 .  0.011 m
C.m. ( Wb/m 2 )2
  x  11 mm.
DISCLAIMER
The information presented here is merely a collection by the
faculty members for their respective teaching assignments.
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be
used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks. We would like
to acknowledge various sources like freely available
materials from internet particularly NPTEL course material
from which the lecture note was prepared. Further, this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purpose
and the faculty members are not accountable for anyissues,
legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The
faculty members make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of
this document.

36
DISCLAIMER
The information presented here is merely a collection by the faculty
members for their respective teaching assignments. This document
does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute
for prescribed textbooks. We would like to acknowledge various
sources like freely available materials from internet particularly
NPTEL course material from which the lecture note was prepared.
Further, this document is not intended to be used for commercial
purpose and the faculty members are not accountable for any
issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The
faculty members make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this
document.

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Unit-3

Department of Applied Physics

where  0  8.854 1012 F/m represents the permittivity of free space.

Dielectric Polarization: Let us consider an electrically neutral slab of an isotropic dielectric

Using the above relation, Gauss law can be rewritten as

Gauss Law Applied to a Dielectric:

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

Using equ. (1), we write the above relation as

Using (4) into equ. (2), we get

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

The Three Field Vectors

From the Fig. 3 (b), it is seen that

Therefore, D  0E  P …(8)

The three electric vectors, E, D and P are shown in Fig. 4.

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

Substituting the expression for P from equ. (6), we get

which we can write as D   0 r E   E

Relation between P and E

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

  ind   per …(15)

However, in case of polar molecules, ind   per and therefore,

Nonpolar and Polar Dielectrics

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

P  N   N E Nonpolar dielectric …(16)

where N is the lumber of molecules per unit volume.

PN  Polar dielectric …(17)

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

(i) Electronic Polarization

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

Therefore, the displacement of the nucleus is

where e  4 0 R3 …(22)

 0 ( r  1) (8.85 1012 F/m)(1.0024  1)

 r  1  4 NR3  1  4  3.14  9.8 1026 /m3  (0.053 nm)3  1.0018.

(ii) Ionic Polarization

where i is known as ionic polarizability.

(iii) Orientation Polarization

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

33.14.5 Total Polarization

The total polarization of a polar dielectric is therefore given by

The total polarizability is given by

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

Fig. 16. The variation of total polarization as a function of 1T .

Frequency Dependence of Total Polarization

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

1 eV  Charge on the electron1 V  (1.6021019 C)(1 V)  1.6021019 J

Electric Field Perpendicular to Initial Velocity

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

t is known as the transit time and is given by

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

In Fig. 14.6, let QP  DE , OQ  L, AB  d and AA  l.

From le OQP, QP  OQ tan 

 Electrostatic deflection DE  L tan  …(7)

Using equ. (7) into equ. (8), we get

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3

Thus, DE is proportional to the deflecting voltage V and inversely proportional to the

(ii) Displacement in the vertical direction due to electric field is

eEt 2 (1.602 1019 C)(1.5 104 N  C)(2.2 107 s)2

Magnetic field Parallel to Initial Velocity

Magnetic Field Perpendicular to Initial Velocity

Fig. 4: An electron describes a circular path in a transverse uniform magnetic field

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Physics Unit-3