EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-

Study of Specimens and

Identification with Reason

EXPERIMENT

Object. Study of plant specimens and identification with reasons-Bacteria,

Oscillatoria, Spirogyra, Rhizopus, Mushroom /bracket fungi, Yeast, Liver wort, Moss
Fern, Pinus, one monocotyledon, one dicotyledon and Lichens.

1. BACTERIA
Comments
0ecteria
Bac
are microscopic, unicellular and
1. prokaryotic organisms.
Racteria
2.
Bacteria have different
shapes. These
are Coccus (spherical). Bacillus (rod shaped),
Spirillum (spiral-shaped), Vibrio (commna shaped) and Filamentous.

a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Bacillus Cocci Bacillus (flagellated)
Spirillum Vibrio
Fig. 2.1. Different forms of bacteria.

Plasma
Lipid globule Mesosome membrane

Glycogen Mucilage
Nuclear body Respiratory
(Nucleoid) enzymess
Pilus (Fimbria)

RNA

Polyribosome
Filament
Ribosome L Basal body flagellum
- Cytoplas1m
Lcell wal

An ultra structure

Pilli
Plasma
membrane-

Cell wall

Ribosomes

Nuclear
region

Mesosome
Flagellum
A bacterial cell

Fig. 2.2. Bacterial cell.

 and membrano
3 The bacterial cell have prokaryotic
organisation i.e., a distinct nucleus ane
bound cell organelles are absent.
chromosome, formed of a
4. The material is in the form of a single circular
hereditary
DNA alone.
5. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Many bacteria also form endospores durino
infavourable conditions.

Diagnostic Features
1. Microscopic and unicellular.
2 True nucleus absent.
3. Membrane bound organelles are absent.
4. Hereditary material is in the form of circular DNA.

2. 0SCILLATORIA

Comments
1. It occurs in stagnent water, ponds, pools, ditches etc., as bluish green scum on the
surface of water.
2. It is a filamentous blue green alga.
3. The filaments of oscillatoria is unbranched and
cylindrical. Each filament consists of a
trichome made up of a row of cylindrical cells
of trichome oscillate like pendulum.
enveloped in a sheath of mucilage. The tip

Apical cell

Vegetative
- Dead cell
-Centroplasm cells

Cell wall Mucilaginous

pad
Chromatin Separation
disc Cell wall

Hormogonia
Central
body

Chromoplasm
B
C
Fig. 2.3.Oscillatoria. A. Filaments ; B. D
Magnified view
oscillating tip; D. Afilament showing of cells ; C.
Single filament with
separation disc and
hormogonia.
EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2 85

4. ach cell of the filament has prokaryotic organisation. The cytoplasm of the cell is
differentiated into a peripheral chromoplasm and a central centroplasm.
5. The chromoplasm contain pigmented thylakoid lamellae and reserve food in the form of
cyanophycean granules.
6. The centroplasm contains nuclear material in the form of circular naked DNA.
7. Reproduction occurs by means of hormogonia formed due to the formation of deadcells.
Diagnostic Features
1. Bluish green in colour.
2. Filaments unbranched and enveloped in a mucilage sheath.
3. Each cell is prokaryotic.

3. SPIROGYRA (Water silk or Pond scum)

Comments
1. Spirogyra occurs in fresh water bodies such as ditches, ponds, lakes etc. It is commonly
called water silk or pond seum because of slippery touch of its thread like filaments.
2. It is a multicellular, filamentous green alga covered by a mucilagenous sheath.
3. Each filament consists of cylindrical cells placed end to end.

Cell wall

X
Chloroplast
Cytoplasmic
strand

Nucleus

Pyrenoids

w
Cytoplasm

A B

Low magnified Highly magnified

Fig. 2.4. Spirogyra. A. Small portion of two filaments;
B. A portion showing detailed cell-structure.
 COMPREHENSIVE LABORATORY
MANUAL IN BIOLOGY-X
86
4. The cell wall is two layered and is made up of cellulose and pectin.
a vacuole in the centre.
5. Cytoplasm lies in the periphery of cell, enclosing
are present in the cytoplasmn.
6. One or more ribbon spirally arranged chloroplasts
shaped
Each chloroplast bears pyrenoids.
centre of the vacuole by cytoplasmic strands.
7. Single nucleus is suspended in the
8. It reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by conjugation.

Diagnostic Features
touch.
1. Unbranched, filamentous body with slimy
2. Ribbon shaped, spiral chloroplast.
3. Nucleus suspended by cytoplasmic strands.

4. RHIZOPUS (Bread mould)

Comments
1. It commonly grows on stale bread, decaying vegetables and fruits.

Sporangium Sporangial wall

Spores
Columella

Spores
Spores

Columella

Sporangiophore
B

Sporangiophores Stolon Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Vacuole

2
Rhizoids Oil droplet Hyphal wall

A D

Fig. 2.5. Rhizopus stolonifer (Bread mould). A. Mycelium; B. Sporangium;

C. Spores D. hypha.
A
EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2 87

2. Its body is made up of interwoven mass of white cottony threads or hyphae, and is
known as mycelium.
3. The hyphae of the mycelium are branched, unseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic
hyphae).
4. The horizontally growing hyphae are called stoloniferous hyphae and those penetrating
into the substratum are called rhizoidal hyphae. Vertically above rhizoids grow
sporangiophores.
5. Each sporangiophore bears a globular sporangium at its tip. The sporangium contains
black coloured spores, which give black colour to the mycelium in reproductive phase.
6. Asexual reproduction occurs by spores and sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation.
Diagnostic Features
1. Mycelium is unseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic).
2 Sporangiophores arise in the form of a tufts.
3. Presence of stoloniferous and rhizoidal hyphae.

5. AGARICUS (Mushroom)

Comments
1. It is a saprophytic fungus that grows in humus rich soils, piles of straw and rotting
wooden logs.

Pileus

Basidiospores
Gills Basidium
Annulus

Stipe (stalk)

Gill
Mycelium

A
B
Paraphysis
C

Fig. 2.6. Agaricus campestris. A. Basidiocarp; B. T.S. Pileus; C. A portion of T.S. gill.
 COMPREHENSIVE LABORATORY MANUAL IN BIOLOGY
88
white or
substratum. The mycelium produces cream
. It has septate mycelium under the above the substratum.
coloured umbrella shaped fruit bodies or basidiocarps
3.
3. A basidiocarp consists of a stalk like stipe and a cap like pileus.

Pileus is circular, umbrella like and bear a number of vertical plate like structures
4
called gills.
The gills bear club shaped basidia on either sides. The basidiospores are placed on the
5.
basidia.
Diagnostic Features
1 The fruit body is umbrella shaped.
2. Gills are present on the lower side of the pileus.

6. SACCHAROMYCES (Yeast)

Comments
1. It is commonly found growing in sugary medium such as fruit surfaces, nector, cane
juice etc.
2. It is a unicellular but may form a pseudomycelium by repeated budding.
3. Yeast cell is oval or elliptical in shape with a distinct cell wall made up of chitinous
material.
4. The cytoplasm has a large central vacuole with a nucleus on its side. Dark strands over
vacuole from the nucleus.

Cell wall Buds

Volutin granules
Oil globule
Cytoplasm
Nucleolus
Chromatin network

Nuclear vacuole
A B

Fig. 2.7. A. Saccharomyces (Yeast); B. Vegetative reproduction by budding.

5. Volutin granules and glycogen droplets are present as reserve food in the
6. Asexual reproduction takes cytoplasm.
place by budding and sexual reproduction occurs by the
formation of ascospores.
 ERIMENT FOR POTTING 89
Diagnostic Features
1. Unicellular.

. Presence of nuclear vacuole.

3. Reproduction by budding.
7. RICCIA (Liverwort)

Comments
1. It grows on damp and humid places and commonly found in hilly areas.

2 The plant body is a dorsiventrally flattered and dichotomously branched thallus. It

may form a rosette due to repeated dichotomous branching of thallus.
3. The thalus has a midrib on dorsal surface and apical notch with growing point at the
apex.
4. Scales and rhizoids are present on the ventral surface. Scales protect the growing apex
and retain moisture.
5. Rhizoids are unicellular, colourless and tubular. They help in anchorage and absorption.
6. The thallus represents haploid gametophytic stage. It bears both sex organs-antheridia
(male sex organ) and archegonia (female sex organs).
7. Sporophyte is represented by a capsule, embedded in the thallus. It produces haploid
spores.

Notch furrow
Scale
Mid rib
Rhizoids
Rhizoids

A C

Fig. 2.8. Riccia. A. Thallus with rosette habit; B. Dorsal view of thallus
C. Ventral view of thallus.

Diagnostic Features
1. Plant body is a thallus with repeated dichotomous branching.
2 Sex organs and sporophyte embedded in the thallus.

8 MARCHANTIA (Liverwort)
Comments
hills.
moist, shady and damp places
on
t commonly grows on

Notch

Gemma cup

Midrib

Rhizoids
Fig. 2.9. Vegetative thallus of Marchantia with gemma cup.

Male receptacle

Female receptacle

Gemma cups
Thallus

Rhizoid
A
B
Fig. 2.10. A. Marchantia thallus with
B. Marchantia thallus
with
antheridiophore;
archegoniophore.
2. The thallus is
dorsiventrally flattened and dichotomously branched with notched
3. The thallus bears a median apex.
ridge on the ventral side. longitudinal groove on dorsal surface and a corresponding
 EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2 91

Cup shaped bodies called gemma cups are present on the median groove on dorsal su
4.
face of the thallus. The gemma cups contain gemmae for vegetative propagation.
Multicellular purple coloured scales and unicellular rhizoids are present on the ventral
5.
surface of the thalluus.
Antheridia and archegonia are present on special erect gametophores called anther
6
idiophores and archegoniophores respectively born on separate thallai.
is on the archegoniophore after fertilization. It is differentiated
7. Sporophyte produced
into foot, seta and capsule.
Diagnostic Features
1. Plant body is a dorsiventrally flattered and dichotomously branched thallus.
2. Presence of gemma cups.

3. Sex organs are produced on antheridiophores and archegoniophores.

9. FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA (Moss)

Comments
creoices of rocks.
1. It commonly grows on moist, shady and damp soils, walls of houses,
differentiated into rhizoids, axis
2. The plant bodyis gametophyte. It is green, erect and is
(stem) and leaves.
3. Rhizoids are multicellular and branched with oblique septa.
leaves. Each leaf is sessile with a distinct
4. Main axis is erect and bears spirally arranged
midrib.
and is called male shoot. A lateral branch
5. The main axis bears antheridia at its apex
its tip.
called female shoot bears archegonia at
6. After fertilization a dependent sporophyte develops on the female shoot.
partially
T. The sporophyte is differentiated into foot,
seta and capsule. The capsule encloses spore

sac that contains spores.

filamentous protonema.
8. The spores germinate into
Diagnostic Features
filamentous protonema and adult leafy gametophyte.
1 Gametophyte is represented by a
2Rhizoids branched and obliquely septate.
2

the gametophyte.
3.Sporophyte is a partial parasite upon
 COMPREHENSIVE LABORATORY MANUAL IN BIOLOGYX
92

Capsule

Calyptra-

Seta-

Antheridial
cluster
Perichaetial
leaves
Perigonial
eaves
Female
branch

Leaves Female branch

Withering
male branch

Rhizoids

A B
Fig. 2.11. Funaria hygrometrica ; A. Gametophore bearing male and female
B. Gametophore bearing branches;
sporogonium.
10. DRYOPTERIS (Male Fern)

Comments
1. Dryopteris commonly called male fern, is a perennial land
and moist places. plant. It grows in cool, shaay
 EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2 93

2. The plant body is sporophyte and is differentiated into root, stem (underground rhi-
zome) and pinnately compound leaves (fronds).
3.
4.
The matureleaves
The young leaveshavecircinate ptyxis and are covered with hair called ramenta.
bear kidney shaped sori. Such leaves are called sporophylls. The sor
bear sporangia that contains spores.
5. prothallus. are haploid which give rise to heart shaped membranous gametophyte called

The prothallus
is monoceious i.e., bears both antheridia and
archegonia.
Diagnostic Features
1. Stem is a rhizome.
2. Young leaves have circinate ptyxis and bear ramenta.
3. Leaves pinnate with furcate venation.

_Furcate
venation

Sori
Rachis Pinnae

Petiole.
Young lea with Persistent
Circinate Ptyxis leaf base

Rhizome-
Adv. roots

A B
Fig. 2.12. Dryopteris (Fern).
A. Complete plant ; B. Sporophyll.

11. PINUS ROXBURGHII (Chir)

Classification
Kingdom - Plantae

Division - Spermatophyta

Class - Gymnospermae

Genus - Pinus

Species - roxburghii
 COMPREHENSIVE LABORATORY MANUAL IN BIOLOGYV
94 XI
seszcvass

Comments
I t grows in temperate and sub-tropical regions on the slopes of hills.
2. The plant body is sporophyte. It is a evergreen tall tree differentiated into root, stem
m
and leaves.
3 Root have tap root system and often associated with mycorrhizae.
4 Stem is covered with bark and bears two types of branches long shoots and dwarf shoots
The long shoots bear scale leaves and grow indefinitely by apical bud, whereas dwarf
branches bear scale leaves and foliage leaves (called needles) and are of limited growth.

Apical bud

1st year cone

2nd year cone

L Long shoot

Dwari shoot

3rd year cone

Scars of dwarf shoots

Fig. 2.13. Pinus. Showing long and dwarf shoots and

the female (seed) cones (1st, 2nd and 3rd
year).
5. The leaves are of two types
(i) Scale leaves are thin, membranous
non-photosynthetic and protective in function.
(iü) Foliage leaves are long, acicular, green and
with its leaves is called spur shoot. photosynthetic in function. Dwarf shoot
6. Pinus tree is monoecious and bears
both male and female cones in
7. Male cones are borne in clusters on spring season.
long branches. Each male cone is brown in
ovoid,
colour, narrow at the base and broad at the A number of membranous
apex.
microsporophylls are arranged spirally around its axis. Each microsporophyll bear two
microsporangia, bearing winged microspores or pollen grains.
EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2 95

8. Female cones are borne singly on the long shoots.Each female cone is cone snapeaa
bears large and woody megasporophylls. Each megasporophyll bears two ovules On us
dorsal surtace. The ovules mature into winged seeds.
Diagnostic Features
1. Evergreen, woody, perennial tree.
2. Presence of long shoots and dwarf shoots.
3. Reproductive organs are cones.
4. Seeds are naked.

Ovuliferous
scale

Microsporophyll
Ovules

Microspores
(Pollen grains) B. A megasporophyll

Cone-axis

Microsporangium-
Microsporophyll

Microsporangia
(Pollen sacs)
C. A microsporophyll

Tube nucleus

Wing
A. L.S. of male cone D. Wingen pollen grain
Fig. 2.14. Pinus A. L.S. of male cone ; B. A megasporophyll;
C. A microsporophyl ; D. Winged pollen grain.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT

12. BRASSICA CAMPESTRIs (Mustard)

Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Division Spermatophyta
Class Angiospermae
Sub-class - Dicotyledonae
- Brassica
Genus
Species campestris

Comments
1 It is a cultivated annual herb.
2. It has a tap root system.
3. The stem is soft green with distinct nodes and internodes.

Flower
-

Petal
Gynoecium
Stamen Sepal
Flower (Half)
Fruit Stigma
Pollen grain

Anther
Bud
Ovary
Ovule
Vein
Node Gynoecium
Internode
Fruit
Seed
Petiole Mid-rib
Leaf-blade

Main root * *

Lateral root Fruit

Root hairs
Seed
Fig. 2.15. Parts of an
angiospermic plant (mustard plant).
 RIMENT FOR SPO -2
97
The
The leaves
leaves are alternate, sessile, simple with lobed
4 margin and reticulate venatior
5. Tt bears yellow colour flowers for
reproduction. Each flower
v us
with cruciform corolla. is bisexual and
D1
6. The fruit 1s an
elongated capsule like with a false septum (replum) called silgud
The seeds are enclosed within the
fruit,
8.
The seed contains an embryo with two
Diagnostic Features
cotyledons.
1. Tap root system.
Leaves with reticulate venation.
2.
3. Bimerous flowers.
3.
Seeds are enclosed in fruits.
4
. Embryo with two cotyledons.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT
18. SPHODELOUS TENEUFOLIUS (Piazi)
Classification
- Plantae
Kingdomn
Division Spermatophyta
Class Angiospermae
Sub-class -Dicotyledonae
Genus Asphodelus
Species teneufolius.
Comments
It is an annual herbaceous weed found growing along with crops.
1.
2. It bears adventitious root system.
soil.
3. The stem is reduced and lies under the
hollow and has parallel venation.
4. Leaves are borne in cluster. Each leaf is cylindrical,
out of the soil and bears
trimerous flowers.
5. Floral axisgrows
6. The seeds are produced within the fruits.

1. The seed enclosed an embryo with only one cotyledon.

Diagnostic Features
1. Adventitious root system.
2. Leaves with parallel venation.
3. Flowers trimerous.
4. Seeds enclosed in fruits.
Embryo with one cotyledon.
RRISIR682NERSRNS

Flower

Perianth-

Stamen-

Ovary
Thalamus

NW
A Adventitious roots
A

Fig. 2.16. Asphodelous teneufolius (Piazi).

14. LICHENS (A Symbiotic Association)

1. Lichens are composite organisms representinga symbiotic association between a fungus
and an alga.

Apothecia Apothecia

Apothecia
Tree trunk

'Crustose lichen Thallus

Foliose lichen
Fruticose lichen
Fig. 2.17. Different types of Lichens.
EXPERIMENT FOR SPOTTING-2
9
2 Lichens grow on lands, rocks, tree trunks and
walls of houses, like dry vegetation.
3. The thallus of a lichen resembles neither
alga norfungus.
4. In a lichen, thallus the algal individual called phycobiont belongs to chlorophyceae or
myxophyceae, and the fungal individual called mycobiont belongs to ascomycetes or
Basidiomycetes.
5.
5. Lichens occur in three forms:
(i) Crustose lichens are thin, membranous, found attached to the substratum in the
form of a crust.
(i) Foliose lichens have flat, lobed and leaf like thallus.
(i) Fruticose lichens have branched and small bushy thallus attached to the substra-
tum by means of a disc.
6 Lichens reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by soredia and isidia and
sexually by forming sex organs like those formed in Ascomycetes (sac fung1).