Republic of the Philippines

Cebu Normal University

Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

The Nature of Human Acts1

All normative ethical theories, from the ancient to the contemporary period, are
grounded on some kind of psychology, or views on human nature. The moral question
about what we ought to do and what we ought to be is intricately linked to the
psychological question of what we are basically inclined to do and what we can do.
There also other questions about whether human beings are naturally good or evil,
whether human beings are moral or non-moral beings, or whether human beings are
free or determined.
We will not delve into the intricate theories that seek to provide answers to
these questions. There is a proper time and venue for this. For our present purpose,
we will simply look at our common experience. We recognize that as human beings we
are endowed with intellect and will. The human intellect is a faculty of knowing. It is
naturally oriented to truth; it is not naturally inclined to falsehoods. The human will is
a faculty of willing and desiring; it is inclined to the good. According to St. Thomas
Aquinas human beings are created by a good God, and as such they have a natural
inclination toward the good. In human beings, this inclination to the good is called the
will. The will is a hunger and appetite for the good, not for any particular good
(referentially) but for good in general (attributively). While the will is naturally
inclined to the good, it does not determine what is good, for this task belongs to the
intellect. When the intellect apprehends and judges something as good, it presents this
to the will, which in turn wills it because it is good. Everything then that is willed is
first grasped by the intellect, for we cannot love something that is not first known to
us.
All of us agree that we are capable of knowing and understanding. Human
history and civilization bear an irrefutable testimony to the power of the human mind
to generate knowledge and seek the truth. We therefore affirm that we are intelligent
beings (not in the sense that we are brilliant although we are in varying degrees, but in
the sense that we are capable of knowing). We are recognize that we are capable of
willing and choosing. We are free to make certain choices and do certain acts. Freedom
is twofold: freedom to and freedom from. We have the freedom to dream, learn, travel,
marry, remain single, and speak, among others. We also do everything in our power to
be free from ignorance, hunger, sickness, deception, tyranny, and Covid-19?
We can agree that we are capable of knowing and that we have free will. Our
intellectual abilities are limited, so is our freedom. This limitation however does not
mean that we are not free. That we recognize that we are capable 2of knowing and that
we are free is both important and necessary, otherwise, it is useless to study ethics.

Moral Responsibility
The notion of moral responsibility is a key feature of morality. As a core moral
concept, moral responsibility relates to the agent (the actor, the doer of an act), the
human act, and the circumstances surrounding the human act.

1Benitez, J. (2022). Ethics: The science and art of living well. Ethics Module, First Semester,
S.Y. 2022-2023. Social Sciences Department, Cebu Normal University.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University
Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

Constituents of Human Acts

There are various types of acts such as “acts of God,” “acts of nature,” “republic
act,” “bestial act,” and of course “human acts.” In ethics, we are interested in human
acts. Human acts are special types of acts because these are acts that we can properly
relate to morality. We can speak of various acts of the intellect when it engages in such
activities as apprehension, comprehension, abstraction, judgement, and reasoning.
We can also speak of the acts of the will such as wish or intention. These do not qualify
as human acts. Our focus here are acts of agent like studying, praying, eating, and the
likes. There are three essential attributes of human acts, namely, knowledge, freedom,
and voluntariness. Knowledge pertains to the intellect. Voluntariness and freedom
pertains to the will.
Knowledge as an essential attribute of human acts refers to the knowledge
and understanding of the nature of the act itself, the end or motive of the act, and the
means used to achieve the end of the act. In this case, knowledge means knowing the
moral quality of an act (right or wrong), the motive behind the act (good or evil), and
the means used to achieve the motive (proper or improper). It is morally paramount
that we know what, how, and why we perform an act. Thus in ethics, the maxim
“Ignorance of the law excuses no one” does not apply. Without proper knowledge of
the act, its means and end, there cannot be any moral responsibility. Freedom entails
the performance of an act in a manner that is free from any external intimidation or
coercion. Freedom also requires that the actor has the option to act or not to act. The
third attribute is voluntariness. Voluntariness refers to willful performance of the
act. The will intends the act and commands the execution of the act. There are various
nuances of voluntariness such as direct and indirect voluntariness, perfect and
imperfect voluntariness, conditional voluntariness, simple voluntariness. For
instance, having a lung cancer due to heavy smoking is indirectly voluntary because
the decision and act to smoke implies that one indirectly wills its ill effects. Doing or
refraining from doing certain acts even if we like or dislike them, is simply voluntary.
For instance, we avoid doing a pleasurable act because it is wrong, or perform an act
even if we do not necessarily like it because it is the right thing to do.
We therefore assert that a human act is one that is done knowingly, freely,
and voluntarily. In Cebuano, we say, “nakasabot ka sa imong gibuhat,
gawasnon ka sa pagbuhat niini, ug gituyo nimo kini pagbuhat.” If all of these three
elements are present, then we can say that the doer or agent is responsible for the act.
If any of three attributes is absent then such an act cannot be considered a human act.
This means we cannot impute moral responsibility on the doer of the act. We
ask whether or not all actions of man are human acts. Our answer is negative. Acts that
are done without the active participation of the intellect (knowledge) and free will
(freedom and voluntariness) are not human acts, but acts of man. All acts in which one
of the three essential attributes is missing are called “acts of man.” Generally, acts like
sleeping, sneezing, dreaming, writing, walking and the likes are examples of acts of
man. Acts of man do not incur moral responsibility. However, context is very
important. We have to take note though that these acts are taken in themselves.
Sleeping per se is an act of man, but a security guard who knowingly, freely, and
voluntarily “sleeps” while on duty is morally liable.
When a certain act is performed knowingly, freely, and voluntarily, this act is
attributed to the moral agent, or the doer of the act. In this sense, the moral agent is
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 Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University
Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

the author of the act. As the author of the act, the moral agent stands to receive praise
or blame that is merited by the act. If the act is morally noble, then it incurs praise or
approval; if the act is wrong it incurs blame or sanction. This is the relationship
between moral agency and moral responsibility: an act that is done knowingly, freely,
and voluntarily results in moral agency, moral agency in turn leads to moral
responsibility. Responsibility in this case is either positive or negative. A moral agent
is responsible for a good act and earns approval and praise (positively responsible), or
a moral agent is responsible for a wrong act and earns blame or punishment
(negatively responsible). This is what we mean when we say “You are responsible for
your irresponsible act.”

Modifiers of Human Acts

An ideal human act is one that is done with full knowledge, freedom, and
voluntariness. However, considering the human condition, a totally perfect human act
is not always possible. We are susceptible to our inner dispositions and affected by our
psycho-social makeup. Thinkers have identified several modifiers of human acts:
ignorance, passions, fear violence and habit. They modify human acts to the extent
that they modify moral responsibility.

Ignorance
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge. Vincible ignorance is the absence of
knowledge which can be dispelled by diligent effort. If a taxi driver who is new to Cebu
City does not know where Carbon is, his ignorance is simply vincible. His ignorance is
reparable by study. If the same taxi driver lacks the effort to familiarize himself with
the places in Cebu City, then his ignorance is crass. If the same taxi driver intentionally
makes no effort to familiarize himself with the places in Cebu City so that he can reason
out “I’m sorry I do not know the place,” then his ignorance is affected. Invincible
ignorance is the absence of knowledge which no amount of diligence can dispel.
This type of ignorance is caused either by the person’s ignorance of his own
ignorance or his inability to dispel it. Since invincible ignorance is unconquerable, it
does not result in moral responsibility. However, acts modified by simply vincible and
affected ignorance entail responsibility.

Concupiscence
Concupiscence refers to the eleven human passions of love, hatred, joy, grief,
desire, aversion, hope, despair, courage, fear, anger. Passions are either antecedent or
consequent. Antecedent passions arise without the stimulation of the will. Examples:
the spontaneous joy at the sight of a beautiful sunrise; sudden outburst of anger due
to a sudden and great offense; and sudden onslaught of despair in the face of great
failure or loss. Antecedent passions become consequent passions when they are
deliberately nurtured and retained by the will. The sudden surge of a pleasurable yet
immodest thought at the sight of a sexy woman is antecedent but it can become
consequent if the thought is retained and leads to immodest or immoral acts.
Antecedent passions are acts of man, not human acts, and do not incur culpability. In
contrast, consequent passions are willed either directly or indirectly, so that acts that
are modified by them are culpable.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University
Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

Fear
Fear, one of the passions under concupiscence, is given special attention
because it affects the will in terms of committing or omitting an act. Fear is defined as
the “shrinking back of the mind from danger.” A person who is confronted with an evil
that he cannot avoid experiences fear. A sailor, who is caught in the midst of a storm
in the middle of the ocean, yet continues to sail toward his destination, acts with fear.
A sailor, who is caught in the midst of a storm in the middle of an ocean and decides
to sail back, acts from fear. Acts done with and from fear are voluntary and therefore
incur responsibility. However, acts done out of grave fear, such as being told to do
acts against one’s will at gunpoint or grave threats, do not entail moral responsibility.

Violence
Violence refers to the employment of external force by another person with the
purpose to compelling a person to do an act against his will. It must be noted that the
will cannot be affected by violence. However, acts that are done under violence,
provided that due resistance has been offered, cannot be imputed to the agent.

Habits
Habit refers to “lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts.”
A person who is accustomed to telling the truth will find it difficult to tell a lie.
Similarly, a person who is accustomed to telling a lie will find it difficult to tell the
truth. Acts done out of the force of habit are voluntary and therefore the agent is fully
accountable.
We have shown that our inner dispositions modify our acts insofar as they affect
voluntariness. Invincible ignorance negates voluntariness and antecedent passions
diminish voluntariness. Fear and habit do not destroy voluntariness while violence
absolves the moral agent of responsibility.

The Determinants of Morality

By determinants we mean the basis for determining whether a human act is
right or wrong, moral or immoral. We determine the morality of an act by examining
the act itself, the end or motive of the moral agent, and the circumstances under which
the act occurs in relation to the norm of morality.

The Act
The act in itself is right if it conforms to the norm of morality, otherwise it is
wrong. Evil or wrong acts pain, harm, suffering, or death. In Christianity, an act is
sinful if it violates the commandment of God. Sin is considered a moral evil because it
offends God who is love and at the same time distorts human dignity which is imago
Dei (image of God).

The End
The end of the act corresponds to the very purpose the agent wishes to achieve
in the performance of the act. The motive of the agent gives meaning to the act. Bereft
of any motive, an act is meaningless. We have heard somewhere that the path to hell
is paved with good intentions. It is also said, “Qui bene cantat bis orat" (He who sings
well prays twice). Singing in itself is neither good nor bad, but if singing well is used
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 Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University
Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

as a means to seduce someone, then it comes wrong. It is equally wrong to help

someone in order to extract unwholesome favors. This means the end does not justify
the means. A noble motive does not make an act right.
A good motive or end must be brought to completion with a good means. It
would be gravely wrong to kill all the poor to solve the problem of poverty. A good deed
accompanied with a good motive is doubly meritorious. A good deed performed with
evil motive becomes evil. An evil deed done on account of an evil motive is gravely evil.

The Circumstances
The third determinant of morality refers to the circumstances under which an
act is done. These circumstances include “who, what, where, with whom, why, how
and when.” These circumstances either aggravate, mitigate, justify, or exempt moral
responsibility.
Aggravating circumstances are those that increase the seriousness of a
fault. Stealing from the poor is an aggravating circumstance. Mitigating
circumstances are those that diminish the gravity of responsibility. The
responsibility of a driver who bumps another vehicle due to low visibility caused by
heavy rains is mitigated. A mitigating circumstance only lessens culpability; it does not
eliminate it. Justifying circumstances are those that make the execution of the act
right. Killing an armed and violent attack in the name of self-defense and self-
preservation is a justifying circumstances. The act of self defense is right and justified.
Exempting circumstances are those that acquit a person from moral
responsibility. This applies to the case of physical injury committed by an insane
individual. Insanity exempts a person from moral liability.
Who refers to the doer and to the one affected by the act. Who includes the
person’s social status, authority and relations to the person(s) involved in the act.
Parricide, for example, is graver than ordinary murder or homicide due to the close
relationship involved. The burden of moral restraint rests much heavier on people of
authority and higher educational background. It is said that those who have much,
much more will be expected.
What denotes the nature of the act together and its qualitative and quantitative
properties. In the case of burglary, the number and the cost of the items stolen
determine the gravity of the offense.
Where refers to the place where the act is committed. A wrongful act that is
done in what society considers a holy place, like temples and churches is morally grave.
With whom refers to the persons or accomplices in the commission of the act.
The number of companions and their status are also considered. Gang rape is much
graver than a rape that is perpetrated by one person alone.
Why refers to the motive of the agent. We have already discussed this under
motive.
How refers to the manner by which the act is performed. Murder is said to be
graver than homicide because the former involves the intent and deceit.
When refers to the time when the act occurs. There is big difference between
killings in times of war and killings in times of peace, or killing a person in any time of
the year and on his or her birthday.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University
Osmeña Blvd. Cebu City, 6000 Philippines

College of Arts & Sciences

Telephone No.: (+63 32) 254 6814 local 140
Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph
Website: www.cnu.edu.ph

We have just learned some important ethical concepts and principles. These
will allow us to undertake moral analysis of moral scenarios.