Architectural Science Review

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Clay 3D printing as a bio-design research tool:

development of photosynthetic living building
components

Assia Crawford, Pichaya In-na, Gary Caldwell, Rachel Armstrong & Ben
Bridgens

To cite this article: Assia Crawford, Pichaya In-na, Gary Caldwell, Rachel Armstrong
& Ben Bridgens (2022) Clay 3D printing as a bio-design research tool: development of
photosynthetic living building components, Architectural Science Review, 65:3, 185-195, DOI:
10.1080/00038628.2022.2058908

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2022.2058908

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group

Published online: 08 Apr 2022.

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ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW
2022, VOL. 65, NO. 3, 185–195
https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2022.2058908

Clay 3D printing as a bio-design research tool: development of photosynthetic living

building components
Assia Crawford a , Pichaya In-nab , Gary Caldwellc , Rachel Armstrongd and Ben Bridgense
a Department of Architecture, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA; b Department of Chemical Technology, Chulalongkorn University,

Bangkok, Thailand; c School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; d Faculty of Architecture, KU
Leuven, Ghent, Belgium; e School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Within architecture, microalgae are employed to address sustainability issues and mitigate the impacts Received 13 September 2021
of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions. This study proposes digital fabrication of ceramic ‘liv- Accepted 23 March 2022
ing’ building components as an investigative tool for design conditions. The health of the chlorophyte KEYWORDS
(green) microalga Chlorella vulgaris was monitored over two-week periods when immobilized in kappa Living materials;
carrageenan and clay binder-based hydrogels, and grown on a range of digitally fabricated ceramic compo- sustainability; additive
nents. The use of 3D printing is presented in relation to laboratory testing of controlled substrate variables manufacture; phytoplankton;
including the impact of ceramic firing temperature, component wall thickness, three types of geometry bio-design; material ecology;
for exploring cell growth, surface patterns to investigate cell migration, internal chamber subdivisions and creative practice
clay type. The experiments reveal the benefits and limitations of creating micro-ecologies for algae growth
through the introduction of geometry variation. In this study, the natural organismal sensing abilities are
explored as a means for cell distribution.

Introduction
Bio-design is an emerging field in architecture that utilizes
hybrid knowledge from a plethora of science and design dis-
ciplines. Bio-design often enlists biomimetic architecture prin-
ciples to provide sustainable solutions by drawing inspirations
from nature and integrating scientific findings during the design
process (Chayaamor-Heil and Vitalis 2021). Such investigations
often span digital computation, biology and craft to propose a
new multidisciplinary mode of creation (Stefanova 2021). This is
particularly pertinent as there is a growing need to reposition
humanity’s relationship with nature and revise making practices
that sustainably embrace biological solutions. There has been
a steady shift from imitating nature in mechanical processes
to integrating living organisms and their metabolic functions
to replace the need for energy-demanding processes as well
as potentially achieving multiple tasks in one system. Revolu-
tionary perspectives on living materials research include using
bacteria to stabilize ground conditions, create responsive mus-
cle systems, using fungi to digest toxins, and cyanobacteria to
produce bio-mineralized components (Guyet et al. 2018; Birch
et al. 2021; Shekhar, Maurya, and Srivastava 2017; Heveran et al.
2020). A further example is the use of microalgae to bioreme-
diate wastewater and capture carbon dioxide (CO2 ). Algae and
cyanobacteria produce at least 50% of the world’s oxygen and
have adapted to most environments, resulting in an abundance
of specialized biodiversity (Chapman 2013; Guiry 2012). Careful
consideration must be given to the needs of the species to be
deployed for a given site. This necessitates the development
of design and testing the design within human-made environ-
ments that support living organisms.
Biocomposite materials can provide a new palette of prod-
ucts for a sustainable building fabric that is grown and able
to perform desirable functions previously serviced by mechan-
ical systems (Stefanova, Bridgens, In-na, et al. 2020; Fazal et al.
2018; Månsson 2012; Su, Mennerich, and Urban 2012). Building
on existing research that uses minimal moisture environments
that sustain photosynthetic organisms through the hygroscopic
properties of material substrates, the present study evaluated
ceramic biocomposites and the effect of component wall thick-
ness, internal subdivisions, clay type and different firing temper-
atures on the photosynthetic performance of living microalgae
(Chlorella vulgaris) embedded within two matrix types (kappa
carrageenan and clay binder) (In-na et al. 2020; Stefanova et al.
2021; In-na, Lee, and Caldwell 2021). The study postulates the
creation of microenvironments through the use of designed
geometries that permit living organisms to migrate to the most
favourable growth zones, harnessing organismal intelligence.
Ceramics are of interest for the purposes of integrating bio-
composites into the built environment due to their hygro-
scopic properties when unglazed, offering a natural means
of distributing moisture and nutrients throughout the struc-
ture through liquid capillary flow as explored by Dudukovic

CONTACT Assia Crawford assia.crawford@ucdenver.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/),
which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.
186 A. CRAWFORD ET AL.
(Dudukovic et al. 2021). Furthermore, ceramics present a wide
range of applications from loadbearing unit-based components
to tiles, screens and three-dimensional self-supporting prod-
ucts that present opportunities for probiotic architectural design
(Ramirez-Figueroa and Beckett 2020). From a design perspec-
tive, such minimal moisture algae cultivation is less restrictive
than the use of liquid algae cultures. A practical solution with
minimal moisture is possible via biocomposite technology that
can operate with very low water demand and would offer higher
cell loading per unit area.
The craft of ceramic digital fabrication
Digital fabrication has steadfastly accompanied a large propor-
tion of bio-design investigation (Elsacker et al. 2021; Zhou et al.
2021) where natural intelligence is paired with embedded digital
intelligence (Zimbarg 2021). Within bio-architecture, 3D printing
is present in studies with various living cells including printing of
living mycelium for furniture design, bacterial cellulose printing,
or printing with living algae cells on textiles (Fairs 2013; López
et al. 2017; Stefanova, In-Na, et al. 2020). Digital fabrication via 3D
printing gives a unique opportunity for the testing of parameters
through prototyping where the level of precision, replaceabil-
ity and ability to rapidly alter designs to respond to new data
is particularly well suited for design investigations that utilize
both laboratory and design tools. Pressure extrusion systems
lend themselves to bio-design investigations as they can accom-
modate bespoke matrices as well as materials that may offer
greater level of compatibility with living organisms than stan-
dardized filaments commonly used in heat-based extrusion. The
use of digital manufacture within this study offers an alternative
to manual techniques, for the development of the biocomposite
substrate. Digital fabrication permits the manufacture of com-
plex structures that provide control over the amount of surface
area as well as the ability to create lightweight ceramic com-
ponents that can be standardized and replicated outside of a
commercial setting. The designed geometries are inspired by
high surface area structures formed by the silicified shells of
diatoms – a highly successful group of single-celled microalgae
(Cassaignon et al. 2014) that present an example of a natural
composite structure. The level of precision and uniformity within
the created geometries, makes this method of fabrication partic-
ularly applicable within laboratory testing where the geometry
of components can be assessed because of the consistency of
final products.
Figure 1. (A) First geometry design iteration test with high level of complexity where distortion occurs during printing (B) Simple geometries with fewer polygon faces
that display a higher level of fidelity in relation to the digital model.
Digital and manual fabrication have often been framed as a
dichotomy between mechanical processes and craft. It is often
assumed that the digital is divorced from intuitive processes
and that its predetermined outcome limits creativity, replacing
it with automated precision. However, when printing with clay
the nature of the material acquires an experiential quality dur-
ing the making process that goes beyond digital instructions
executed by the machine. Clay responds to gravity whilst wet,
especially with an increased moisture content compatible with
3D printing. This material behaviour is taken into consideration
when designing the components, which affects both the mini-
mum wall thickness as well as the geometry angles. Designing
for 3D printing is not a linear process and requires testing to
help refine the final design and plays a role within the level of
complexity. In this study, the fabrication process incorporates
manual adjustment of the geometry during printing with vari-
ous traditional tools such as a wet brush to aid layer adhesion,
and pottery instruments for the creation of holes and refinement
of geometry to ensure correct deposition and the incorporation
of necessary openings. Although digital fabrication allows a high
level of complexity that can serve to increase the surface area, it
may not be possible to achieve a high level of resolution; there-
fore, strategies that provide smoother surfaces were explored for
the proposed study as shown in Figure 1.
Method
The methods utilized in this paper are based on existing pro-
tocols used to develop algae-based biocomposites (In-na et al.
2020; Stefanova, Bridgens, Armstrong, et al. 2020; Stefanova
et al. 2021). The bio-gel matrices incorporate the use of kappa
carrageenan, a hydrocolloid polymer extracted from red sea-
weeds and a clay-based paint binder (Auro 331) (McHugh 2003;
Auro n.d.). The study was split into six parts: (a) kappa car-
rageenan and Auro binder-based matrices applied to (b) a range
of wall thickness ceramic components (hereafter referred to as
vessels) fired at (c) 1200°C, compared with a firing temperature
of 1000°C, (d) four different clay types (157-1142 White Special
Stoneware, Porcelain and Stoneware ES65 and White Fleck) fired
at fired at 1000°C with two wall layers along with (e) two matrix
types and (f) multiple internal chamber subdivisions (0% infill,
15% rectilinear infill, 25% aligned rectilinear infill, 25% cubic
infill) fired at fired at 1000°C with two wall layers, using 157-
1142 White Special Stoneware coated in both matrix types for
comparison.

Substrate design, preparation and 3D printing
The porosity of the clay is used to distribute moisture and nutri-
ents to provide a suitable environment for microalgae growth.
The vessels were designed with a hollow centre to be filled
with nutrient enriched water through a small round opening
at the top. For this study, 157-1142 White Special Stoneware
(sourced from http://www.potclays.co.uk) was used initially as
smoother lower aggregate makeup clays are better suited to
minimal moisture C. vulgaris cultivation (Stefanova, Bridgens, In-
na, et al. 2020; Stefanova, Bridgens, Armstrong, et al. 2020). Clay
pH (Mettler Toledo Seven Compact) was tested by suspending
1 g in 5 mL of deionized water. The geometries were modelled
in 3D Studio Max 2018 and exported as.OBJ files into Slicer 3D
software to generate a 3D printing file for a 3 mm nozzle clay
extruder. The printer used was Lutum 4.5 air-based extrusion
clay printer at a pressure of 60 psi. Wet clay sold in 12 kg bags was
mixed with 10% w/w water to achieve a soft consistency com-
patible with the 3D printing equipment. The clay was manually
loaded into 2 kg cartridges.
Geometry
Three orthographic pyramid geometries were developed based
on a pyramidal geometry that permitted digital fabrication
with a desktop size clay printer whilst permitting developmen-
tal assessment using Imaging-PAM M-Series equipment with
homogenous illumination imaged area of 10 × 13 cm. Although
it was initially inferred that greater area would accommodate
larger number of cells the study seeks to establish how micro-
climatic conditions created by the variations of geometry affect
the growth and saturation of the algae colonies. By pulling sur-
faces outward there is a greater increase of area compared to
inward folding. However, surfaces present greater risk of sudden
evaporation in corners that move away from the centre point.
The base geometry offers the smallest surface area for deposi-
tion of cells however it provides the most constant conditions in
Table 1. Geometry variations as design in software, sowing values prior to kiln firing that resulted in 20% shrinkage.
Geometry Dimensions prior
Iteration Name to firing (cm)
Base Geometry Smooth 12.0 cm × 4.8 cm × 12.0 cm
Variation 1 Outward Folding 15.0 cm × 7.4 cm × 12.0 cm
Variation 2 Inward Folding 12.0 cm × 4.8 cm × 12.0 cm
Figure 2. Clay 3D printing of (A) four, (B) one and (C) two wall ceramic vessels that have the same outer dimensions and variable inner volume.
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW 187
terms of access to light and evaporation and therefore the least
amount of microenvironmental conditions. All geometries share
a common height dimension as well as base area offering a set
of base constraints (Table 1).
Wall thickness
In the first assay, four wall thicknesses were tested, including
one, two, three and four wall layers of 3 mm each. This was
to establish the effect on water distribution in relationship to
wall thickness. Wall thickness was added internally reducing the
internal space, but maintaining the same outer shell dimensions
(Figure 2).
Internal chamber subdivision
Variations of internal chamber geometry were designed to
establish if water distribution through internal partitions would
influence cell development along with the impact on fabrication.
The design of the internal subdivision patterns was generated in
Sl3er 3D (open-source 3D printing software for the generation
of 3D printer compatible files, available from slic3r.org). Wholes
were placed manually during printing to connect adjacent pock-
ets so as to permit water to fill the entire interior through a single
external opening located at the top of each geometry. Therefore,
this part of the study required a hybrid manufacture approach
where digital and traditional fabrication was used to generate
the final vessel (Figure 3).
Clay type
Previous small scale controlled laboratory studies indicate a vari-
ation of response of Chlorella vulgaris microalgae in relationship
to clay type (Stefanova, Bridgens, In-na, et al. 2020; Stefanova,
Bridgens, Armstrong, et al. 2020). The current study builds on
these findings and seeks to establish the impact of scaling and
geometry variation upon the interaction between living cells
Surface Area prior to Volume prior to firing
firing (cm2 ), area (cm3 ), volume
difference compared to difference compared to
base geometry (%) base geometry (%)
333 cm2 350 cm3
445 cm2 (+ 33.6%) 483 cm3 (+38%)
371 cm2 (+11.4%) 283 cm3 (−14.3%)
188 A. CRAWFORD ET AL.
Figure 3. (A) 0% infill, (B) 15% rectilinear infill, (C) 15% aligned rectilinear infill, (D) 25% rectilinear infill, (E) 25% aligned rectilinear infill.
Figure 4. (A) Porcelain, (B) White Fleck, (C) ES65.
and clay type. The same designs (2 walls, 3 geometries) were
replicated in three clay types; porcelain, a smooth white clay,
157-1142 White Special Stoneware, an off-white clay with an
even composition, White Fleck an off-white clay with low aggre-
gate content and ES65, a red terracotta clay with aggregate
(Figure 4).
Firing temperature
Ceramics have a different porosity depending on the tempera-
ture of firing in a kiln. The kiln used was an Ecotop 43 L-UK from
Helmut Rohde GmbH. The full firing cycle involved ramps of 60°C
per hour until reaching 600°C followed by 250°C per hour until
reaching 1200°C and a gradual cooling initiated upon reach-
ing maximum temperature lasting 14 h. The brisk firing cycle
involved ramps of 30°C per hour until 250°C, 50°C per hour until
600°C followed by 250°C per hour until reaching maximum tem-
perature of 1000°C and gradually cooling for 12 h upon reaching
maximum temperature. Surface characterization was conducted
by scanning electron microscopy using a Hitachi TM 3000 SEM.
Algae matrix preparation
The inoculating liquid algae culture was grown in full strength
Blue–Green medium (BG11) comprising 1.5 g/L NaNO3 , 0.036 g/L
CaCl2 · 2H2 O, 0.075 g/L MgSO4 · 7H2 O, 0.04 g/L K2 HPO4 and
0.02 g/L Na2 CO3 , at 18 ± 2 °C with a 16:8 h light to dark pho-
toperiod, at a light intensity of 2,500 lux ( ≈ 30.5 µmol m−2 s−1 )
provided by 30 W daylight-type fluorescent tubes (Sylvania Lux-
line Plus, n = 6) (Stanier et al. 1971; Thimijan and Heins 1983).
The cultures were placed in 50 mL Falcon tubes and centrifuged
at 1620 RCF (relative centrifugal force) for 10 min to produce a
dense algae slurry. The algae slurry was mixed with the tested
matrix at a ratio of 0.05 mL algae slurry per 1 mL of gel (Stefanova,
Bridgens, In-na, et al. 2020).
Each bio-gel matrix was prepared in 20 mL batches in 50 mL
beakers. For the baseline kappa carrageenan treatment, 0.8 g of
kappa carrageenan (from > 99.9% pure powder; Sigma Aldrich,
UK) was added to 20 mL (0.04 g/mL) of full strength BG11 and
stirred at room temperature. Once a gel-like consistency was
achieved, 0.4 mL of C. vulgaris slurry was added and stirred until
homogeneous. Auro 331 Clay Paint binder (AURO Paint Com-
pany, UK) were tested as additives to the kappa carrageenan
baseline. For the Auro paint, 0.64 g of kappa carrageenan was
dissolved in 16 mL of BG11 (0.04 g/mL), to which 10 mL of Auro
331 was added (equivalent to 50% w/w Auro content) (Stefanova
et al. 2021).
Set up and incubation
An even layer of the two mixtures was added using a paintbrush,
leaving the base and a strip of 0.5 cm off the base clear. Each ves-
sel was placed within a plastic well plate lid (Figure 5). The vessels
were filled with 40 mL BG11 using a syringe and an additional
10 mL of BG11 was added to the well plate.
The samples were incubated in triplicate at room tempera-
ture with each sample set of ceramics and controls placed in
a non-airtight clear plastic box measuring 47 × 35 × 24 cm and
sprayed with deionized water once every 24 h. A 45 W plant
growth light with 52 red and 28 blue lamp beds was used to
illuminate the samples on a light (16 h) to dark (8 h) cycle.
Control samples were tested in triplicate as follows; BG11 and
algae slurry suspension samples, algae slurry and carrageenan,
algae slurry, carrageenan and Auro binder. Samples of 3 g/ 3 ml
were cultivated in 6 well-plates that remained open for the dura-
tion of the test and were incubated in the same conditions as the
ceramic samples.

Figure 5. (A) Algae Auro binder and kappa carrageenan matrix being applied to
an inset sample using a brush, (B) Algae kappa carrageenan matrix coated ceramic
samples.
Imaging PAM and visual observation
Cell viability was assessed using an imaging pulse amplitude
modulated-fluorometer (Imaging-PAM M-Series; Walz GmbH)
that quantifies the level of chlorophyll fluorescence using
intense light pulses to stimulate photosystem II (Schreiber 2004).
Data were collected every two days for 14 days by opening the
plastic container and placing each individual sample along with
its well plate lid within the imaging chamber and applying 1
µsec pulses of 660 nm (pulsed LED, 0.5 µmol quanta m−2 s−1 ) to
induce photosynthesis using 16 red LEDs (660 nm) and 16 near
infrared LEDs (780 nm) (Figure 6).
Figure 6. (Left) Algae Auro binder matrix 1 Wall Day 0, imaged using I-PAM (Right) Same sample and imaging method Day 14 showing increase in cells and cell migration
to the well-plate. Black indicates an absence of photosynthetic cells, whilst greens and blues indicate highest amount of chlorophyll fluorescence. [See Colour Online].
Figure 7. SEM images of (Left) stoneware ceramic fired at 1000°C (Right) stoneware ceramic fired at 1200°C.
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW 189
Statistical analysis
Normality of the data was tested using the Anderson–Darling
test using Minitab 18. Since all data were non-normally dis-
tributed with two factors, the non-parametric Scheirer–Ray–Hare
test was conducted using RealStatistics add-in on Microsoft
Excel.
Results
Substrate characterization
The pH of the clay was 7.5, which is compatible with C. vulgaris
survival. The higher firing temperature produced reduced poros-
ity as shown in Figure 7 and greater strength of the ceramic as
suggested by the smaller pore size (Cultrone et al. 2004).
Kappa carrageenan matrix
The samples fired at 1000°C outperformed those fired at 1200°C
(Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 1, H = 20.48, P ≤ 0.001),
although both sets supported positive fluorescence yields for
the duration of the experiment. Geometry wall thickness was
also significant (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 3, H = 8.81,
P = 0.032), with the 4-walled vessels supporting the high-
est fluorescence yield, although there was no clear trend
among the other multi-walled vessels. There were no significant
190 A. CRAWFORD ET AL.
Figure 8. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.027 StDev) of algae grown over 14
days while immobilized within kappa carrageenan on single walled vessels fired at
1000 and 1200°C compared with suspension and gel controls.
Figure 9. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.060 StDev) of algae grown over 14
days while immobilized within kappa carrageenan on multiwalled vessels fired at
1000°C compared with the single walled vessels.
interactions between the two variables (Scheirer–Ray–Hare,
n = 64, d.f. = 3, H = 2.14, P = 0.544) (Figures 8 and 9).
Binder and kappa carrageenan matrix
There was a clear differentiation between samples fired at
1200°C and 1000°C, with the former retaining less water and
Figure 10. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.036 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within Auro 331 on single walled vessels fired at 1000
and 1200°C compared with suspension and gel controls.
prone to higher levels of evaporation due to the binder
drying quicker than a carrageenan gel matrix as observed
upon application. In this set of experiments firing temperature
was a significant factor (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 1,
H = 47.26, P ≤ 0.001) whereas geometry wall thickness was
not (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 3, H = 0.40, P = 0.940),
the interaction between the two variable was also not signifi-
cant (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 3, H = 0.52, P = 0.914)
(Figures 10 and 11).
Internal chamber subdivision
The samples of various internal subdivisions with gel coat-
ings exhibited more consistent performance throughout the
experiment whereas binder coated samples showed greater
fluctuation, however matrix type was not significant (Scheirer–
Ray–Hare, n = 80, d.f. = 1, H = 3.74, P = 0.053). Internal
chamber subdivision was significant (Scheirer–Ray–Hare,
n = 80, d.f. = 4, H = 11.68, P = 0.020). There were no signifi-
cant interactions between the two variables (Scheirer–Ray–Hare,
n = 80, d.f. = 4, H = 7.48, P = 0.113) (Figures 12 and 13).
Clay type
The samples of various clay types with gel coating exhibited
more consistent performance throughout the experiment with
ES65 being the only one to show decline in maximum fluo-
rescence yield, whereas Auro 331 coated samples underwent a
period of decline followed by gradual increase in fluorescence
yield. Matrix composition was a significant factor in this assay
(Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 1, H = 6.44, P = 0.011). Glay
type was also significant (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 3,

Figure 11. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.060 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within Auro 331 on multi-walled vessels fired at 1000°C
compared with the single walled vessels.
Figure 12. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.041 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within kappa carrageenan on multi-internal subdivision
double walled vessels fired at 1000°C.
H = 20.35, P = 0.000) and there was significant interactions
between the two variables (Scheirer–Ray–Hare, n = 64, d.f. = 3,
H = 13.85, P = 0.003) (Figures 14 and 15).
Visual observations
The translucent nature of the carrageenan mixture allowed
imaging of cells that were locked within the matrix using PAM,
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW 191
Figure 13. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.067 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within Auro 331 on multi-internal subdivision double
walled vessels fired at 1000°C.
Figure 14. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.050 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within Auro 331on multiple clay type, double walled
vessels fired at 1000°C.
which appeared as a higher density of cell in the early stage vis-
ible to the naked eye and showing clearly in I-PAM (Figure 16).
The Auro binder matrix, however, offered an impermeable sur-
face where the colour of the mixture was considerably lighter
and cells located below the surface were not imaged. Over the 14
days period however more saturated patches began to appear in
the case of 1000°C fired ceramic samples. The distribution indi-
cated that cells grew away from outward folds and that smooth
surfaces or inward folds offered a more hospitable environment.
This is likely due to higher levels of moisture at the inward folds
192 A. CRAWFORD ET AL.
Figure 15. Fluorescence yield (n = 3, mean ± 0.055 StDev) of algae grown over
14 days while immobilized within Auro 331on multiple clay type, double walled
vessels fired at 1000°C.
along with the lower level of algae cell wash off that typically
occurs at exposed folding channels.
Discussion
This study employed Chlorella vulgaris, a naturally occurring,
single cell photosynthetic microalga that is compatible with con-
ditions presented within interior building settings, such as tem-
peratures ranging between 18°C and 24°C, as well as a light and
dark cycle that is typically found within offices and other public
use buildings (Serra-Maia et al. 2016). In addition to its compat-
ibility with many interior environments, C. vulgaris is a resilient
species that is less susceptible to issues of contamination, can
Figure 16. Photograph and I-PAM of 2 Wall sample fired at 1000°C with Auro binder (A) day 0 (B) day 14. The images demonstrate how the matrix visibly acquires a darker
green colour indicating higher cell density whilst the I-PAM images demonstrate lighter areas in outward folds except for top edge which offers a flat surface.
withstand limiting factors such as moisture level fluctuation
and can utilize waste products such as human urine as nutri-
ents (Stefanova, Bridgens, In-na, et al. 2020). The current work
builds upon previous biocomposite studies that rely on immo-
bilizing microorganisms (including living photosynthetic cells)
within a protective layer, such as sol–gel ceramics, bio-polymer
plastic alternatives (Soltmann and Böttcher 2008; Mihranyan
2011; Wahid et al. 2013; Vasilieva, Lobakova, and Solovchenko
2021). The demonstrated work follows the strand of architec-
tural research that has manifested in a number of speculative
and realized algae building projects that explore the potential
for integration of living algae cells in an architectural contexts
(Malik et al. 2020; Kim 2013; Lofgren 2013; Bruno, Jothinathan,
and Rajkumar 2018). Here, we identified that the clay type and
the design of the internal subdivision of the component have
an impact on the development of the algae laden matrices.
From our findings, it became apparent that a hollow chamber
offers better growth conditions on the surface of the component
compared to smaller subdivisions for both matrix types, whilst
smoother clays such as Porcelain, 1142 White Special and White
Fleckperform similarly in relationship to cell growth whereas
ES65 exhibited a decline when combined with gel and outper-
formed the other clay types when paired with binder matrix.
This indicated that the surface conditions responsible for algae
growth are impacted by both the composition of the ceramic
substrate as well as by both the internal and external geometry
of the component.
We have demonstrated the role of digital fabrication in the
development and laboratory testing of living ceramic biocom-
posite materials. The digital fabrication of 3D printing allows
for consistency and variable testing of geometries. For each
geometry, a single sample area was used from high cell density
patches which offers an overview of the performance of optimal
areas. Further studies that consider the whole area or multi-
ple, equally distributed sample areas would be useful to deter-
mine the average performance of each unit. The variation of
topography produced heterogeneous distribution and growth

Figure 17. 3D printed ceramic, interlocking hollow building block designs that feature an increased surface area and a large internal nutrient storage capacity. The designs
present interlocking and reconfigurable units that add a level of flexibility within the building fabric. Work by Assia Crawford.
rate of cells, confirming it is possible to manipulate surface
geometry to produce feasible microenvironments that able to
function in desirable conditions.
Although, the geometry of the samples was not quantita-
tively assessed, a larger surface area offers more spaces for algae
cells to be deposited per unit. Thus, the complexity that 3D
printing permits is a welcome aspect in the design of such com-
ponents and opens a plethora of bespoke design solutions that
can incorporate greater level of bespoke design and flexibility.
Based on the findings, we have gone on to prototype building
size interlocking, unit-based components that have the poten-
tial to be stacked to create hollow interior partitions that can be
internally supplied with water and nutrients (Figure 17). Further-
more, digital manufacture and designs of tested geometries can
be distributed virtually through open-source systems that would
allow the onsite manufacture of pre-assessed components in
places where laboratory settings are not possible.
Maintenance and care become a vital factor in the success-
ful performance of the proposed living material components
similar to other living building proposals such as interior and
exterior green facades (Pérez et al. 2014; Perini et al. 2011).
This can act both as a limiting factor deterring widescale adop-
tion or as a tool for cultivating a culture of care and a sense
of responsibility (Puig de la Bellacasa 2017). There are alter-
natives to human labour such as mechanical monitoring and
maintenance that would allow the components to be integrated
on a large scale and where optimal conditions can be guaran-
teed. The system would have to be studied against the energy
running requirements. This is possible if the energy sources
for running the mechanical systems, such as artificial lighting,
humidifiers and nutrient distribution systems that this type of
living building component may require, are sourced from sus-
tainable sources such as hydroelectric power. In addition to that
water distribution and nutrient delivery need to be investigated
as within the controlled study excess water caused cell wash
off and contributed to cell migration within the well-plate con-
tainer. Therefore, direct water delivery via rain, sprinklers and
other high water content alternatives are unsuitable as they
are likely to result in cell depletion or algae blooms caused
by runoff.
Although, there is a level of resilience that comes from the
design of hollow components that can hold a reserve of water
and nutrients, surface evaporation occurs quickly and is likely to
be exacerbated by air movement and types of inhabitation. This
points to the need for an evaporation retardation strategy and
a study of the components in appropriate in vivo settings such
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW 193
as offices and interiors of public buildings. Equally, the creation
of hollow ceramic walls can be envisaged as an in situ 3D printed
system using an air-drying alternative that can tap into the build-
ings plumbing and utilize human urine and rainwater as nutrient
and water sources (Chen et al. 2019; Nerella and Mechtcherine
2019).
The design of a full building setup and the scale of fabrication
goes beyond the scope of this study and merits separate inves-
tigation in an in vivo experiment. However, the design is likely to
take the form of either a rigid or a tensile layer that can create
an air pocket that limits the amount of air movement and evap-
oration and that may be able to direct and trap moisture from
sources such as humidifiers or natural evaporation from water
bodies, such as interior water features or it can be paired with
water harvesting technologies (Chandler 2018).
The visible changes exhibited by the components over time
illustrate live behaviour, therefore giving inhabitants a sense of
coexistence with living biota. This phenomenon may strengthen
recognition of the material as different from traditional building
components, fostering a probiotic attitude to human environ-
ments. The study suggests a building fabric that is sustained
through mucous membranes, that has agency and that can-
not be fully standardized and that is the subject of speculative
design thinking that explores the possibility of a living archi-
tecture (Armstrong 2018; Proksch 2018; Tandon and Joachim
2014). The type of architecture therefore will ask inhabitants to
consciously share their environments, a concept that departs
from anti-biotic notions of hygiene prevalent within twentieth
century design thinking (Pike 2008; Lorimer 2020).
Conclusion
The study demonstrates a method for the digital manufacture of
ceramic substrates for living building biocomposites. It reveals
how the design of the geometry, wall thickness and firing tem-
perature of the substrate actively influence the behaviour and
performance of living photosynthetic microalgae within two
types of matrices. The performance of the components is influ-
enced predominantly by evaporation and moisture levels and
therefore the results point to a need for a vapour control sys-
tem. The experiments offer vital fundamental data that can
inform further development of commercially viable, full system
designs. In addition, the method of testing and fabrication sets
out a blueprint for further investigations into ceramic-based bio-
composites that rely on interdisciplinarity collaboration, method
adaptation, and knowledge exchange.
194 A. CRAWFORD ET AL.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This research was funded by Research England as part of the Hub for Biotech-
nology in the Built Environment.
ORCID
Assia Crawford http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6602-2208
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