Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168

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Developments in the Built Environment

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A new smart sustainable earth-cement composite doped by carbon

microfibers with self-sensing properties
Hasan Borke Birgin, Antonella D’Alessandro *, Filippo Ubertini
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti, 93, 06125, Perugia, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Civil constructions need to be monitored during their lifespan to assess any changes in structural performance
Smart sustainable materials following critical events. Among the various available monitoring solutions, this paper contributes to the liter­
Multifunctional composites ature on multifunctional construction materials that have the ability to provide an electrical output that can be
Load and strain sensing
correlated with materials’ damage. The novelty of the work consists of achieving self-sensing properties in a
Piezo-resistive self-sensing eco-friendly mate­
rials
sustainable concrete, where cement is substituted with natural earth in the ratio of 7/2 in volume. Self-sensing
Structural health monitoring properties are provided through the addition of a small amount of carbon microfibers enabling a piezoresistive
Carbon fillers behavior. Experimental tests were carried out using samples with different shapes to investigate their electrical
Electrical resistance mapping and sensing properties. The results showed that the best carbon microfiber doping level of 0.05% relative to the
binder exhibited clear and repeatable signals, an average gauge factor of 46, and high linearity. Moreover, the
smart multifunctional earth-concrete showed good electrical, diagnostic, and sensing properties during failure
tests.

1. Introduction performance by measuring, storing, and processing changes in its elec­

Sustainability in recent times has become a key design goal to ensure
a reduced environmental footprint of human development. The growing
focus on eco-friendliness has extended to the field of civil engineering,
particularly in material science, construction, and restoration. Material
science research can significantly contribute to the development of high-
performance and multifunctional building composites that can reduce
carbon emissions in the production and utilization phases. Such mate­
rials that have the ability to monitor their state of strain or damage, in
addition to load-bearing capacity, have the potential to enhance safety,
decrease costs, and improve the efficiency of decision-making.
Self-sensing materials have the ability to transform structural ele­
ments into networks of sensors that possess both load-bearing and
monitoring capabilities. These materials can monitor environmental
conditions (temperature, humidity), mechanical response (strains),
damage, and chemical features, by outputting changes in their electrical
resistivity. The present study aims to evaluate the sensing and multi­
functional capabilities of a new sustainable construction material with a
binder composed of earth and cement and the addition of carbon
microfibers, along with its applicability in civil engineering. The pro­
posed composite has the potential to continuously control structural
trical properties. The study investigates various sample types and ap­
proaches to identify the most promising and the best applications for this
material.
2. State of the art
2.1. Environmental impact of construction materials
The environmental impact of the construction sector is quite high,
due to the consumption of raw resources, the polluting emissions, and
the produced waste which occur during the building, restoration,
maintenance, and disposal phases of structures and infrastructures (Ding
et al., 2013; Wallhagen et al., 2011; Cabeza et al., 2013). Among all
construction materials, concrete is the most widespread due to its easi­
ness of use and versatility. However, its impact on the environment is
noticeable, resulting essentially from cement production and the use of
natural materials (Van den Heede and De Belie, 2012; Zamora-Castro
et al., 2021; Flower and Sanjayan, 2007). As an example, the studies
carried out by The United Nations Environment Programme (U. N. E. P.
International Energy Agency, 2018) revealed that constructions pro­
duced around one-third of the global greenhouse emissions, using 40%

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hasanborke.birgin@unipg.it (H.B. Birgin), antonella.dalessandro@unipg.it (A. D’Alessandro), filippo.ubertini@unipg.it (F. Ubertini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100168
Received 16 January 2023; Received in revised form 29 April 2023; Accepted 30 April 2023
Available online 9 May 2023
2666-1659/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H.B. Birgin et al.
of the total energy, 25% of the total water and 40% of the total re­
sources. In the last years, the societal awareness toward environmental
protection has significantly increased. Studies on the impact of concrete
constructions and their components allowed the development of novel
strategies for environmental safeguard through the optimization of new
eco-friendlier binders, production processes, and the use of recycled
materials and fillers (Chen et al., 2011; Rocha et al., 2022; Tinoco et al.,
2021). Concrete, and cementitious materials in general, could be
enhanced in different ways, due to their composite nature (D’Alessandro
et al., 2017). Promising approaches to limit the environmental impact of
the building materials used in constructions are through the use of
geopolymers, alcali-activated binders (Jain et al., 2022; D’Alessandro
et al., 2020), recycled aggregates (Daube and Bakker, 1986; Siddique,
2007; Breccolotti et al., 2015), additives for enhancing mechanical
properies, in order to decrease the dimensions of the structural elements
(Chiaia et al., 2014; Voo and Foster, 2010; Liu et al., 2012; Toledo Filho
et al., 2012). In recent years, the interest in the rediscovery of ancient
materials, more respectful of the environment, is inspiring new research
efforts to find cement alternatives (Zamora-Castro et al., 2021; Imbabi
et al., 2012; Juenger et al., 2011). Among these, the use of raw earth,
which represents one of the oldest building materials in human history,
is showing promising and interesting implications (Eko et al., 2012;
Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali, 2012). The earth inside a building material
binder decreases the environmental impact of the composite and the
effects of its disposal. However, the mechanical strength of earth-based
materials is generally lower than that of cement-based ones (Sub­
ramanian et al., 2021; Kouta et al., 2021). Furthermore, durability be­
comes a major issue (Guettala et al., 2006): as a matter of fact, the effects
of environmental conditions affect the earth-based composite, which
suffers humidity and temperature. The performance of earth composite
could be enhanced through the use of fibers (Koutous and Hilali, 2021;
Yun et al., 2022) or stabilizers, such as cement (Van Damme and Hou­
ben, 2018). A recent research work about a “shot-earth” construction
material based on raw earth demonstrated the potential of this type of
sustainable composites for specific building applications, by satisfying
both environmental and, to some extent, mechanical performance
(Curto et al., 2020; Bacciocchi et al., 2022).
2.2. Multifunctional and self-sensing materials
Conductive fibers, if properly dispersed within a non-conductive
matrix, can enable self-sensing properties and become incredibly use­
ful for controlling the integrity and performance of materials during
their service life. While self-sensing technology has been extensively
studied in concretes and cement-based composites, it is a comparatively
new field in earth-based construction materials (Birgin et al., 2022).
Moreover, these latter ones possess peculiar critical issues related to the
intrinsic difficulty of obtaining homogeneous composites, their higher
tendency to develop local damages, the lower durability of the material
which differentiate their electrical and sensing behavior from that one of
cementitious materials (Abedi et al., 1088). Various fillers have been
recently investigated in the literature to enhance the mechanical prop­
erties and provide materials with multifunctional properties, resulting in
improved performances for building applications (Chung, 2023; Han
et al., 2014). Carbon-based fillers (Li and Li, 2019; Li et al., 2004), in
particular, have been proven effective due to their unique physical,
mechanical, and electrical properties (U. N. E. P. International Energy
Agency, 2018; Tibbetts et al., 1993; Cui et al., 2018; Chung, 2001; Han
et al., 2016; D’Alessandro and Ubertini, 2022), despite some dispersion
issues (D’Alessandro et al., 2022a) within matrices, especially for
nano-sized fillers (Wen and Chung, 2007; Galao et al., 2017; D’Ales­
sandro et al., 2016a). Researchers have developed multiple approaches,
including sonication, surfactants, and mechanical mixing, to achieve an
effective dispersion of fillers in composite matrices. Micro-sized fibers
are more suitable for water-based materials, such as cementitious and
earth-based ones, as they can be dispersed thoroughly, even for high
2
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168
amounts of material, through mechanical methods. The homogeneity of
the doped composite is quite important for building applications. The
composite material with conductive piezoresistive fillers acts as a diffuse
sensor of strain, stress, and damage, by outputting measurable changes
in electrical resistivity under an applied mechanical load (D’Alessandro
et al., 2021; Konsta-Gdoutos et al., 2010; Luo et al., 2009). Moreover,
critical conditions such as strain concentrations, excessive stresses or
cracks can be promptly identified (D’Alessandro et al., 2016b) (Birgin
et al., 2021). To this aim, DC, AC, or biphasic square-wave signals can be
utilized (Coppola et al., 2011; Rainieri et al., 2013). (Hou and Lynch,
2009). (Hou and Lynch, 2009; Javier Baeza et al., 2010; Wen and Chung,
2006). To eliminate polarization effects and enhance signal stability,
periodic voltage inputs such as AC and square-wave ones have been
found suitable for cement-based composites (Downey et al., 2017). DC
input is adequate for polymer-based composites (Birgin et al., 2022). In
the case of a binder composed of earth and cement, particular attention
must be paid to the performance and durability of the hardened com­
posite, as well as to shrinkage, degradation, and environmental effects
(Kouta et al., 1016; Ngo et al., 2020; Kanema, 2017; Eid, 2018).
2.3. Aim of this research
This work presents the sensing investigation on an earth-based
construction material for civil engineering developed within an inter­
national research project (cfr acknowledgements). Previous papers by
the Authors and project partners demonstrated the feasibility of the use
of the sustainable material in constructions (Tarantino et al., 2023;
Birgin et al. 2023; D’Alessandro et al., 2022b). As a major contribution
of this work, the material is doped with a small amount of carbon
microfibers in order to achieve self-sensing capabilities and material’s
features are investigated through a campaign of laboratory experiments.
3. Materials, samples, and experimental procedures
As described before, the binder of the investigated building material
was made of earth and cement. Carbon microfibers (CMF) were added
for enhancing the sensing capabilities of the composites. Different types
of samples and electrical configurations have been tailored for specific
experimental tests.
3.1. Material components
The proportions in the volume of the dry components cement:earth:
aggregates were 2:7:7. The cement was Portland 42.5R, the earth was
dry clay obtained from a quarry next to a brick company located in
Umbria (Italy). The aggregates possessed tailored characteristics for the
optimal preparation of the samples, with a maximum thickness of 8 mm.
For achieving self-sensing properties, the composite has been doped
with Chopped Carbon microfibers (CMF), type Sigrafil provided by Sgl
Carbon, used at increasing percentages with respect to the weight of the
dry binder (earth + cement). The physical and mechanical properties of
Table 1
Properties of the Chopped Carbon Micro Fibers adopted as fillers for earth-
concrete.
Property Units Value
density g/cm3 1.8
fiber length chopped mm 6
filament diameter μm 7
tensile strength GPa 4.0
tensile modulus GPa 240
elongation at break % 1.7
single filament resistivity μΩm 15
sizing type – glycerin
compatible with water-based systems
–
H.B. Birgin et al.
the adopted CMF are reported in Table 1. CMF had a diameter of 7 μm
and a length of 6 mm, as visible in Fig. 1(a): although they appear
attached in small clusters, such fibers can easily separate from each
other. Fig. 1(b) shows the appearance of CMF by use of a scanning
electron microscope (SEM): the 1-dimensional aspect ratio is clearly
visible. The preparation procedure for the doped inclusions had a first
phase consisting on the mixing of the dry materials (i.e. dried earth,
cement, aggregates) for 5 min. Then, the CMF were slowly manually
dispersed, and the mix was stirred for 5 min. The water, with a water-to-
binder ratio of 0.5, considering also the adsorption of earth and aggre­
gates, was finally added until a plastic consistency of the compound was
reached. Fig. 1 depicts the micrograph of a hardened fragment of con­
crete doped with carbon microfibers, where the presence and the good
dispersion of the fillers are clearly visible.
3.2. Preparation and experimental setup of cubic samples
The proposed carbon microfiber doped earth concrete has been first
used to produce small cube test samples, analyzed as concerns their
electrical characteristics and strain sensing properties. Cubes had a
sidelength of 5 cm. Two test samples have been manufactured out of
each composite mixture with increasing carbon microfiber percentages
of 0.00, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.1%. The dough has been compacted in
the molds, in order to reduce the voids and the imperfections of the
samples. During the molding phase, when the material was still fresh,
two copper wires with a diameter of 0.8 mm were embedded at the
center of each specimen, aligned, with a mutual distance of 2 cm. These
copper wires served as electrodes for characterization and sensing
measurements, as part of the electrical circuit. After the insertion of the
electrodes, the samples have been again compacted in the molds.
The cubic samples have been used to investigate first the electrical
characteristics, and then the sensing capabilities of earth-concrete. Fig. 2
(a) depicts the experimental setup for the cube samples. Accordingly, an
electrical circuit was built with the test sample and a shunt resistor of
known value (Rk = 100 kΩ), connected in series. The electrical circuit
has been powered with a 1 Hz biphasic squarewave voltage input of 5V
amplitude (Downey et al., 2017). The 80% charge points from the
positive parts of each duty cycle have been selected for the assessment of
resistance time history. The resistivity values of the composite materials
have been calculated using the resistance time history (Rs) obtained
from with the read biphasic voltage data between the electrodes
embedded in the samples. The voltage-time histories read through the
test sample and shunt resistor (Vs(t) and Vk(t), respectively), evaluated
during the voltage application, have been collected by the data acqui­
sition system through two analog channels (ch1 and ch2 in Fig. 2(a))
with an acquisition rate of 10 Hz. Considering that the input voltage was
a 1 Hz squarewave and the acquisition rate had a frequency 10 Hz, the
described method downsampled 10:1 the acquired voltage signals.
Fig. 1. Carbon microfibers adopted for the experimental campaign: (a) visual appearance of the fibers before their addition to the dry materials, and (b)
SEM micrograph.
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Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168
Then, the resistance time history has been calculated by employing
Ohm’s law (Equation (1)):
Vs (t)
Rs (t) = Rk (1)
Vk (t)
The variation in electrical resistance of the composite with
increasing percentages of CMF has been investigated through the iden­
tification of the percolation threshold, which corresponds to the for­
mation of the conductive net of the carbon fibers within the matrix. The
best filler amount for an effective piezoresistive behavior is typically
very close to the percolation threshold (García-Macías et al., 2017)
while strain-induced changes in electrical resistivity tend to decrease
dramatically when a conductive network forms above percolation
threshold (Baeza et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2017; Han et al., 2011).
After the electrical characterization, the cubes have been subjected
to electromechanical tests for the assessment of their strain-sensing
capability. The electromechanical test compared the variation in the
electrical resistance with the induced strain time history (ϵ, compression
was positive) by applying a predefined compressive stress sequence of
triangular compression cycles with peak load magnitudes of 0.30-0.30-
0.40-0.40 MPa. The stress increments have been applied on a pre­
compression of 0.20 MPa with a loading rate of 0.08 MPa/s. The applied
stress time history is plotted in Fig. 2(b). Electrical resistance has been
evaluated through Equation (1) and correlated with the strain time
history according to Equation (9), as derived in the following. The
resistance model of a conductive medium with embedded cylindrical
electrodes is illustrated in Fig. 3, where d is the diameter of the cylin­
drical electrodes, L is the distance between electrodes, ρ is the resistivity
of the surrounding medium, Φ(P) is the electrical potential at any point
P on the conductive medium with distances of r1 and r2 to the electrodes
1 and 2, with charge densities Λ and − Λ, respectively; t is the embedded
length of the electrodes and F is the applied force in direction 1.
Accordingly, the electrical potential at point P can be formulated as
(Hong et al., 2019; McDonald, 2019):
r1
Φ(P) = 2Λln , (2)
r2
Considering the point P on the surface of electrode 2, Equation (2) yields
into:
L− d 2L
Φ = 2Λln ≈ 2Λln . (3)
d/2 d
Similarly, the electrical potential at the surface of electrode 1 is the
negative of the one calculated at electrode 2, resulting in the potential
difference between the electrodes as follows:
2L
V = 4Λln . (4)
d
H.B. Birgin et al. Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168

Fig. 2. (a) Experimental setup of cube samples for electrical and sensing tests; (b) Load time history adopted for sensing tests.

Here, 1/ln(2L/d) + ν is a positive value and can be denoted by β.

Introducing the strain, ϵ = ΔL L , parallel to the applied compression load
in the direction 1 (Fig. 3),the linear equation for strain sensing becomes:
ΔR Δρ

(9)
R ρ
λ=− =− − β,
ϵ ϵ

where λ is the gauge factor and strain is defined positive under

compression. Considering the left-hand side of Equation (9), the gauge
factor represents the positive number determined as the coefficient of
the linear model established between the variation of resistance and
induced strain, and which assesses the sensitivity of the sensor. Higher
values of the gauge factor are desirable for minimizing the influence of
signal noises, therefore improving the sensing quality.
Fig. 3. The illustration of prismatic geometry and the interpretation of vari­
ables for the derivation of electrical resistance of the zone between cylindri­
3.3. Preparation and experimental setup of medium-scale column sample
cal electrodes.

A medium-scale column-type sample has been prepared to assess the

The electrical resistance, R, of the zone enclosed by the electrodes can be strain-sensing ability of sensor materials at a larger scale and explore
formulated by the use of the current density, J: further types of electrode configurations related to different possible
monitoring applications of the developed smart earth concrete. The
I E
J= = . (5) composite had the same composition as that of the cubes, but the mold
A ρ
dimensions were 10 × 20×10 cm3, as described in Fig. 5(b). The elec­
Where, I is the total current, A is a surface inside the conductive me­ trodes, copper wires with 0.8 mm of diameter, were placed during the
dium, enclosing the electrode with positive charge density, and E is sample formation, along the maximum dimension, at three height levels,
electrical field. Considering a cylindrical surface, which is located very at a mutual distance of 3 cm. Overall, 12 wires have been inserted in one
close to electrode 1 at a distance r so that r ≪ L, the electrical field sample, passing from one side to the other (Fig. 5(a)).
becomes 2Λ/r and the current can be formulated as: The first type of test on the medium-scale sample was a compressive
test. The compression load sequence adopted for such experiments
I = πrt
2Λ 2Λ
= πt . (6) consisted of triangular compressive stress cycles with a loading rate of
ρr ρ 0.02 MPa/s applied on top of a prestress load of 0.05 MPa. The peak
stress magnitudes for the triangular cycles were 0.10-0.10-0.15–0.20
Finally, using R = V/I, the resistance of the entrapped body becomes: MPa. The triangular compressive stress time history is shown in Fig. 4
2ρ 2L (b). The second type of experiment was a compression failure test. The
R= ln , (7) loading rate was 0.1 kN/s, up to the failure. The electrical setup of the
πt d
two tests was the same: the electrodes used for the electrical measure­
assuming the electrode diameters constant under the mechanical strain. ments were the most distant ones. The strain gauges applied on the
The formulation of the fractional change of the electrical resistance opposite lateral sides of the samples were acquired during the electro­
becomes: mechanical tests for the evaluation of the deformation. Fig. 4(a) shows
ΔR Δρ ΔL 1 Δt Δρ ΔL 1 ΔL the electrical setup and the placement of electrodes and strain gauges.
= + − = + +ν . (8) The electrical input during the experiments has been selected as a 1 Hz
R ρ L ln 2L t ρ L ln 2L L
d d
biphasic square wave with a 10 V peak-to-peak voltage difference. This
way of electrical input eliminated the polarization effect that may cause

4
H.B. Birgin et al.
Fig. 4. Electromechanical tests on a medium-scale sample: (a) experimental setup of medium-sized column sample, (b) the load time history adopted for
sensing tests.
Fig. 5. Smart earth-concrete medium-scale element: (a) picture of the lateral side, (b) sketch of the sample with dimensions and placement of electrodes.
a constant positive drift in the resistance time history leading to
misleading results.
The third type of test was an electrical resistance interpolation
mapping, useful for the detection and location of defects, imperfections,
voids, or cracks within the volume of the sensing element. Such defects
alter the resistance of local segments, affecting the homogeneity of the
resistance distribution. The imperfection could be caused by issues
during the production process, such as the existence of pores, poor
dispersion and agglomerations of conductive fillers inside the material,
weak interconnections of electrodes within the sensing element, or
changes and damages during the service life, such as load variations,
cracks formation, presence of moist, temperature changes, and more.
During the electrical resistance mapping, the electrical resistance values
between the horizontally and vertically neighboring electrode pairs
were recorded, plotted, and interpolated in the lateral area of the sam­
ple. These electrical measurements, performed diffusely on the sample,
have been carried out only in the two cases of undeformed state and
after failure test, in order to preliminary assess the potential of the
material at self-monitoring internal cracks.
3.4. Instrumentation and devices
The electrical response, which reflected the instantaneous electrical
resistance of the test sample, was recorded by dedicated hardware
capable of reading analog voltage. The recordings were later post-
processed to observe the correlation of the test samples’ electrical
resistance to the induced load and strain. For the data acquisition system
during the tests, the National Instruments and LABVIEW® environment
has been employed for testing purposes. The voltage source was a NI-
5
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168
PXIe 4138 voltage module. The analog voltage reader was a 32-channel
NI-PXIe 4302 analog-to-digital converter module. The above-listed
modules have been mounted inside a NI-PXIe 1092 chassis. Following
the acquisition of square-wave voltage signals from the electrome­
chanical tests, the post-processing of recorded signals has been carried
out under the LABVIEW® and MATLAB® environments, according to
the procedure described in Section 3.2.
For the mechanical equipment of the tests, a software-controlled
dynamic compression machine Controls Advantest (software: Advant­
est9), with a maximum load of 15 kN, has been used. The strains induced
in the material have been measured through 2-cm monoaxial strain
gauges by KYOWA, with an internal resistance of 120 Ohms, and a gauge
factor of 2.1. The strain gauges attached to the samples have been
recorded by Advantest9 software simultaneously with the recording of
the applied load time history. Fig. 6 shows the experimental setups for
resistance readings and electromechanical tests carried out on an earth-
concrete sample.
4. Results
4.1. Electrical characterization of the earth-concrete cubes
From the signals acquired during the electromechanical tests, the
unloaded electrical resistance values have been calculated according to
Equation (1). Two test samples were tested for each content level of the
carbon microfibers. The average resistance of the two recordings and
maximum-minimum intervals are plotted with respect to carbon
microfibers doping level in Fig. 7.
From the graph, the effect of the carbon microfibers on the increase
H.B. Birgin et al. Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168

Fig. 6. Experimental tests on a medium-scale sample (a) data acquisition system; (b) detailed view of the sample during the test.

Fig. 7. Variation in sample electrical resistance with respect to increasing CMF content in the earth concrete.

Fig. 8. Electromechanical tests on cubic samples with different CMF percentages.

6
H.B. Birgin et al.
in electrical conductivity of the composite material appears very sig­
nificant. Accordingly, a strong drop in the sample resistivity occurred
with the composite doped with 0.025% carbon microfibers, while only
small reductions in resistivity were observed with increasing doping
levels. These results suggest that the percolation zone is around 0.025%–
0.05%, which represented the most promising doping range for
enhanced sensing properties of the earth concrete investigated in this
paper.
4.2. Sensing tests on cubic samples
The electromechanical tests conducted on cubic samples for the
assessment of strain sensing produced results similar to the electrical
resistance readings, indicating that the percolation zone was between
the doping percentage of 0.025% and 0.05%. The resistance time his­
tories together with the applied strain time histories are plotted in Fig. 8
for all the samples and at each doping level.
Inspecting the strain states of the test samples, the cube made of
undoped earth concrete sustained permanent deformation. The samples
with 0.025% and 0.05% showed majorly elastic deformations and the
residual deformations appeared to be negligible. The deformation values
for these samples were 6–7 times less than those of undoped ones.
However, permanent deformations and reduced mechanical strength
were observed for the test samples doped with a higher quantity of CMF,
at 0.1%. This can be explained by the weakened interconnections of the
binder, for relatively large amounts of carbon microfibers inside the
material matrix. Inspecting the electrical responses generated by the
samples, the cubes with 0.025% and 0.05% of CMF showed a better
behavior. Among them, the percentage of 0.05% resulted in a more
reliable performance since the first test sample of 0.025% material
underperformed. The electrical response of the undoped material
appeared highly correlated with the strain time history. The linear
Fig. 9. Linear models obtained from sensing tests on cubes.
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Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168
models of sensing, established between the variations of resistance and
induced strains are plotted in Fig. 9.
As expected from the obtained time histories, the mix design with
0.05% of carbon microfibers was the best among all smart earth con­
cretes. An average gauge factor of 46 was achieved with high reliability
of the linear model yielding an average R2 value of 0.95, which are
comparable to those ones of cementitious materials. The undoped ma­
terial also showed high linearity and high gauge factor, but its me­
chanical performance was not satisfactory. The results presented in this
section, regarding the enhanced sensing performance are similar to
earlier research findings. A similar material matrix was investigated in
(Birgin et al., 2023), where the characterization tests had been con­
ducted with more samples highlighting comparatively better perfor­
mance of mixtures with 0.025% and 0.05% CMF additions with respect
to other mixes. Another study with cement matrix and CMF was carried
out in (Birgin et al., 2021), where suitable fraction of CMF of same type
were investigated. The best rated samples of the reference study corre­
sponded to a CMF volumetric fraction around 0.015%, which corre­
sponds to a doping level between 0.025% and 0.05% for the current
study.
4.3. Sensing tests on medium-scale column element and electrical
resistance mapping
From electromechanical findings on small-scaled cubes, the best
performing mix design (i.e. with 0.05% of CMF) has been identified and
adopted for the production of the medium-scaled column sample. Fig. 10
summarizes the repeated electromechanical test conducted on the col­
umn sample to explore its strain sensing performance. As described
before, the electrical and electromechanical behavior of the medium-
scale sample have been investigated through (i) sensing tests by use of
compressive load cycles; (ii) failure compressive test, and (iii) electrical
H.B. Birgin et al. Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168

Fig. 10. Electromechanical test results of the medium scaled sample with 4 repetitions of the same load pattern (i-ii-iii-iv); (a) Electrical response and strain time
histories during the tests; (b) Linear models of sensing, established according from electrical time histories.

resistance mapping.
4.3.1. Sensing tests
The electrical response generated by the medium-scaled sample
under cyclic compression loads showed coherent trends with the strain
time histories induced in the electromechanical tests. From Fig. 10(a), it
can be noted that the variations in resistance time histories of the
electrical response of the material were low noise signals without
noticeable polarization drift. In addition, the sample outputted non-
linear resistance variations in the response to triangular strains, and a
good strain sensitivity also at low magnitudes of the applied load. The
established linear models in Fig. 10(b) prove the ability of the material
to output repetitive and highly linear responses under cyclical com­
pressions. The obtained values for the gauge factor of the material were

Fig. 11. Electromechanical test results of conducted failure tests: (i) up to first jump in the electrical response corresponding to the first crack; (ii) until total failure of
the sample. For both cases ae reported: (a) the electrical response and strain time histories during the tests; (b) the load time history plotted together with stain time
histories; (c) the linear models of sensing established according to the obtained time histories.

8
H.B. Birgin et al.
consistent and replicable, especially after the first cycle. This is an
interesting outcome: the sample started to produce better responses
after the repeated loading-unloading cycles, in terms of both linearity
and gauge factor. The improvement can be observed between the ex­
periments, as well as between the triangular cycles of each experiment.
This effect, probably due to the porosity of the material, can be attrib­
uted to the internal settlement of the smart earth material.
4.3.2. Failure tests
The results of failure tests are reported in Fig. 11. The failure tests
have been carried out in two phases. The first step has been performed
until the occurrence of the first crack, highlighted by the variation of
resistance time history (Fig. 11 case-(i)). This phase allowed the analysis
of the gradual changes in the electrical response of the material until the
limit state. The second step (Fig. 11 case-(ii)) has been performed until
the complete failure of the tested sample (see Fig. 12).
Inspecting the variation of resistance time history generated in the
initial phase (Fig. 11(i)), the material was able to sustain a consistent
linear response to the induced strain. According to the strain time his­
tories, the material initiated its cracking around a load magnitude of
0.23 MPa. The gauge factor showed a decaying trend with increasing
strain, reflecting similar findings of other literature studies (Dong et al.,
2019). The complete failure also produced meaningful results (11(ii)). In
this phase, the variation in resistance time history sustained sudden
changes in both directions because of the variations of stress distribution
inside the material due to forming cracks. Despite such cracking, the
resistance time history continued to follow a trend until total failure, as
revealed by the obtained gauge factor in Fig. 11(ii-c), which is consistent
with previous tests. During compression, one side of the material
(strain-2) measured a higher compression strain than the opposite side
(strain-1), demonstrated by Fig. 11(i-b and ii-b). This behavior was due
to the occurrence of a shear failure, as depicted in Fig. 13(a). Accord­
ingly, after the yielding in the shear plane, the strain relaxation occurred
on the strain-2 side.
Another remark demonstrated by the results was the damage
detection capability of the material, proved by the variation in resis­
tance time history, which resulted more effective than that of strain
gauges. As a matter of fact, the self-sensing smart material was able to
monitor the whole internal volume between the electrodes. Therefore,
any internal deformation triggered by external loads was observable in
the signal outcome. The failure test revealed that the sample started to
produce inconsistent signals around the 40th second of the test, while
the strain gauges started to report inconsistencies after the 200th second
of the test when the sample started to deform on a large scale. This result
Fig. 12. Experimental setups for failure test (a) front view; (b) assonometric view; (c) back view.
9
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168
is very promising towards full-scale monitoring applications.
4.3.3. Electrical resistance mapping
The internal resistance mapping of the test sample resulted in critical
findings highlighting other promising multi-functionalities of the smart
composite, thus showing the material’s feasibility to perform as a
damage detector. The recorded strain time histories from the electro­
mechanical tests indicated that the sample was weaker on the side of the
electrodes 9–12, following the numbering scheme given in Fig. 13(a). In
the electrical resistance interpolation map of the undeformed sample
(Fig. 13(b)), such zones showed higher resistance than the rest of the
sample. The observed higher resistance was related to the existence of a
more porous area, which occurred during the preparation and curing of
the sample. The level lines of the internal resistance were generally
horizontal, reflecting the adopted layer-by-layer casting. The electrical
resistance map has been also repeated for a second time after a failure
test. (Fig. 13(c)). The internal resistance of the zones around electrodes 9
and 3 increased dramatically, due to the significant crack which formed
along the diagonal during the complete failure test (Fig. 13(d)), where
the variation of the resistance field around electrode 3 resulted partic­
ularly evident.
5. Conclusion
This study has presented a new sustainable multifunctional material
made of earth, cement, aggregates, and carbon microfibers, which
couples structural properties with self-monitoring capabilities. The
material should be regarded as sustainable given the substitution of a
large portion of cement with natural earth (earth:cement volume pro­
portion of 7:2). Although applications are limited to small constructions
due to reduced mechanical properties compared to traditional concrete,
the material is especially attractive as it is shown capable of self-sensing
owing to the addition of a small amount of carbon microfibers. The
monitoring abilities allow to enhance the service life of the material and
of the structures built with it. To investigate the sensing capabilities of
the material and identify its best formulation, electrical and electro­
mechanical tests were conducted under compressive cyclical loads and
monotonic loading until failure. Additionally, internal electrical resis­
tance reading tests were conducted to examine the spatial sensing
properties of the composite. The best mix design showed a better
repeatability, signal clarity and feasibility, as well as higher dis­
persibility, pivotal to obtain a homogeneous composite. The study
yielded the following findings: (i) the best carbon microfiber doping
level is determined to be 0.05% relative to the weight of the binder
H.B. Birgin et al. Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100168

Fig. 13. Readings of internal electrical resistance between electrode pairs of the smart medium-scale earth sample; (a) the sample after the failure test; (b) the
electrical resistance map in the initial state; (c) the electrical resistance map after failure; (d) the difference of internal resistances between states.

10
H.B. Birgin et al.
(earth + cement) based on electrical readings and electromechanical
tests; (ii) the material exhibits strain sensing properties on small and
medium-scale specimens; and (iii) the earth concrete can detect the
formation and propagation of cracks, as revealed by distributed sensing
and electrical resistance mapping. While exploiting resistance-vs-strain
variations is appropriate when embedded sensors made of smart mate­
rials are adopted for monitoring purposes, diffused sensing applications
should better build upon strain sensitivity of fundamental material
properties, such as electrical resistivity. Defining appropriate measuring
setups for a similar purpose is however an open challenge which would
require to get rid of internal electrodes. This topic, which is transversal
to many studies on strain sensing materials, is left for future work.
Author contributions
Following contributions are made by authors; conceptualization, A.D
and F.U; methodology, H.B.B. and A.D.; software, H.B.B.; validation, A.
D. and F.U.; resources, F.U.; writing—original draft preparation, H.B.B.
and A.D.; writing—review and editing, A.D. and F.U.; visualization, H.B.
B. and A.D.; supervision, A.D. and F.U.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the support of the Italian Ministry of
University and Research (MUR) through the Project FISR 2019: “Eco
Earth” (code 00245), and acknowledge funding by the European Union –
Next Generation EU under the Italian Ministry of University and
Research (MUR) National Innovation Ecosystem Grant ECS 00000041 –
Vitality.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Filippo Ubertini reports financial support was provided by Govern­
ment of Italy Ministry of Education University and Research.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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