Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-022-00924-8

REVIEW PAPER

Review and Outlook of Self‑Sensing, Self‑Healing, Piezoelectric

Pozzolans, and Piezoelectric Fibers in “Smart” Engineered
Cementitious Composites (ECC)
Beyza Fahriye Aygun1 · Zeynep Bastan1 · Turhan Bilir1

Received: 7 February 2022 / Accepted: 4 July 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Shiraz University 2022

Abstract
This review presents a comprehensive state-of-the-art technology at ECC that summarizes and critically revises research
on PZT, self-sensing, and self-healing concrete. Concepts, methods, and applications used in cement-based sensors are
reviewed, and missing aspects and suggestions for future studies are presented. Recent studies have shown that additives are
added (e.g., lead zirconate titanate, barium zirconate titanate, nanomaterials, and fibers) to improve the piezoelectric capac-
ity of the cementitious composite. Cement-based piezoresistive sensors have significant potential to monitor the behavior of
concrete under rheology, mechanical loading, and durability. The achievement of using a structural material for this effect
is that it costs less and is more durable than integrated or embedded devices. Similarly, applications of different mineral
and bio-additive materials to induce the self-healing of cracks have received great attention. In addition, greening cement
materials resulting from the use of high volumes of industrial wastes in self-healing and self-sensing concrete have wide
potential applications in SHM. Furthermore, self-sensing and self-healing materials can help provide structural integrity and
safety, extend the life of structures, increase traffic safety and efficiency, as well as reduce resource and energy consumption.
Despite all these positive developments, there are currently a number of serious research challenges for these materials.

Keywords Smart materials · Self-Sensing · Self-Healing · Piezoelectric · Pozzolans · ECC

1 Introduction
Structures are built for residential, official, and commer-
cial activities that are effective in the socio-economic
development of societies. Since these structures are mostly
designed with traditional methods, attempts to increase the
efficient use of energy, water, and other resources, human
health and user efficiency remain at low levels. Energy is
directly consumed throughout the life cycle of the build-
ings (construction, operation, maintenance, and demoli-
tion). The indirect reflection of this energy consumed is
that the energy required to produce building components
and materials is high (Ramesh et al. 2010; Cabeza, et al.
2013; Zhou et al. 2017). The energy consumed in build-
ings is responsible for 35% of the total energy consumption
* Beyza Fahriye Aygun
beyza.aygun@ogr.iuc.edu.tr
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
İstanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, 34320 Istanbul, Turkey
and ­CO2 from the construction sector for 40% of the total
amount of ­CO2 emitted worldwide (Glass et al. 2008; Chen
et al. 2019). Therefore, it is important to develop different
designs in terms of building construction, energy consump-
tion, and environmental problems, to balance the advantages
and disadvantages of energy use in buildings, and to ensure
sustainability. At this point, building systems that reduce
the consumption of large resources such as materials, water,
and energy, which are called self-contained buildings, and
thus help to minimize the effects on the environment, come
into play. “Research on self-sustaining buildings has shown
that compared to traditionally designed and operated build-
ings, energy use, C­ O2 emission, water consumption, solid
waste amount and maintenance costs were decreased by
24–50%, 33–39%, 30–50%, 70%, and 13%, respectively.” In
this context, materials and resources used in self-sustaining
building applications consist of local and recycled materi-
als that reduce project costs and minimize damage to the
environment. Brick, resin-based composites, concrete, glass,
plastic and rubber, bitumen-based materials, metals, coat-
ing or building stones, wood, wood composites and panels,

13
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gypsum and plasterboard, roofing membrane and asphalt,
other mineral-based and recycled raw materials are among
the application materials in this class (Dong et al. 2021a).
Certainly, it is an important issue to supply these materials
and other unrecorded materials and to conduct researches.
“In addition, certification systems stating, that the materials
used as basic building elements are procured responsibly,
should be expanded” (Ramesh et al. 2010; Kholkin 2013;
Wang and Adeli 2014).
Smart structures and materials have mechanical, chemi-
cal, electrical, magnetic, pressure, electric field, thermal
change, etc., detection and response to perceived change.
Smart structures with their control mechanisms are struc-
tures that can control sensors and actuators applied to the
system or embedded in the system to react to the perceived
change, sense the change in environment and process the
obtained signal, and send the necessary control signal to
the actuator.
Today, there are two basic approaches to the development
of smart materials and structures. The first is the work of
revealing new materials with smart properties by synthesiz-
ing different materials at the atomic and molecular level, and
the second is smart structures that are formed as a result of
synthesizing parts with known properties such as sensors
or stimulators, possessing passive structure according to
the requirements of the task. Smart materials with revers-
ible properties can change shape mechanically under any
electrical field (electromechanical effect) and can produce
an electrical signal as a result of any dimensional change
(mechanoelectrical effect), which is the best example of
such materials as, piezoelectric. Sensors and exciters made
of these materials, which have a piezoelectric effect, are
either attached to the surfaces of the structures or embed-
ded in the structure. These elements can be controlled with
the help of intelligent building routers, and effects such as
unwanted vibration, noise, and deformation can be easily
and effectively eliminated. In addition, sensor networks used
to monitor the structural health status of future structural
systems can also reduce operating and maintenance costs.
Recently, usage of piezoelectric materials has increased
substantially in addition to the materials aforementioned
in developed buildings with green building certification
[5, 9–20]. Piezoelectric materials and their applications in
the construction industry have significant potential to pave
the way for a renewable and sustainable energy concept.
However, since renewable energy harvesting plants produce
kW or MW of power, macro-energy is included in the har-
vesting technology, while micro-energy harvesting technol-
ogy focuses on different options for conventional batteries
(Kojima 1987). Mechanical vibration, mechanical stress,
strain, thermal energy from furnaces, heaters and friction
sources, sunlight or room light, human body, chemical or
biological sources are technologies that generate mW or µW
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
level of power. Piezoelectric energy harvesting is in the class
of micro-energy harvesting technology, where the wireless
sensor network is called a self-contained power source
because it can convert mechanical vibration in piezoelectric
materials into electrical energy very easily (Kim et al. 2011).
The advantages of piezoelectric materials are not only lim-
ited to this. Usage of these materials can also prevent cabin
noise, which is an important problem that can be observed
in buildings, automobiles, and airplanes. Structures are
controlled in a way to reduce the sound fields emitted in a
specific area called the silent zone in the gap. It can form
the basis for producing smart and adaptable structures using
these materials. Nevertheless, it is recognized that the search
to improve the missing parts of technology is still needed. It
should be noted that since smart structures are a multidisci-
plinary subject (materials science, mechanics, electronics,
control theory, and computer science), expertise is required
in understanding and designing new solutions (Castagnetti
and Radi 2018; Fu et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2021).
Utilizing piezolecular materials to create and detect lamb
waves in structural damage systems is a sensitive issue in
engineering, which brings about the comprehensive and
numerical evaluation of future performances of the structure,
development, and implementation of damage detection strat-
egies, and development of optimum solutions against dam-
ages. However, widespread piezoelectric ceramic devices are
delicate, so researchers have developed Metal Core Piezo-
electric Fiber (MPF) transducers using the extrusion or the
hydrothermal method and overcome the fragility by making
them a system that can be easily integrated.
In this study, especially, the latest studies on self-sensing,
self-healing concrete, and PZT from smart materials, which
pozzolans and fibers were included in these materials for the
same or different studies, which tests were performed, the
findings and outputs of these studies were argued. Cement
mortars containing piezoelectric powders were also included
in the same study. The essential aim of this article is to share
current information on the use of smart materials in ECC, as
well as to give information about the numerical and experi-
mental methods used. In the result section, focusing on exist-
ing studies, suggestions were made about which deficiencies
could be highlighted, what can be changed, or what can be
added for future studies.
2 Self‑Sensing and Self‑Healing Concrete
and its Use in Cementitious Composite
Materials
Cement-based materials in concrete, which are the most
widely used building material worldwide, have been used
for centuries thanks to their reliability, abundance, and cost.
Over time, different additives have been added to concrete
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
mixes to improve certain qualities such as workability,
strength, and durability. Advances in design codes and stand-
ards, combined with the growing need for structural repairs,
have created an opportunity for researchers to explore inno-
vative materials that will benefit future engineers. One of the
emerging research areas is the study of self-sensing cementi-
tious smart materials (Mishra et al. 2018a, 2018b).
2.1 Self‑Sensing Concrete
Self-sensing concrete is defined as a self-monitoring, pie-
zoresistive, pressure-sensitive innovative concrete technol-
ogy that can sense environmental conditions such as stress,
tension, damage, temperature, and humidity within itself.
The advantage of these concretes is that there is no need to
use other external sensors or sensing materials. In addition,
it is a known fact that it is important to know many situa-
tions such as monitoring the strength gain of the concrete
used as a construction element at an early age, determining
the appropriate time for removal from the mold, or apply-
ing post-tensioning forces in pre-stressed concrete and to
know whether it is ready for service in this state. Therefore,
the development of a method that can remotely monitor
the strength gain of concrete can be rather productive and
beneficial for the evaluation and control of concrete qual-
ity. This concrete is produced by adding functional fillers
(carbon, steel fibers, carbon nanotubes, nickel powder, etc.)
to conventional concrete to increase its stress, cracking, or
strain sensing ability. Especially, Because Carbon Fiber is
of increasing popularity and short carbon fibers (CF) (5 mm
long) are known to be effective as conductive additives,
researchers are focusing on CF. Different dispersion methods
are proposed such as ultrasonic dispersion, surface modifica-
tion, mineral additives, and mixtures of carbon materials of
various sizes. The hybrid use of these techniques is carried
out to obtain a better-dispersed suspension. The researchers
emphasized that the resistivity is low and the piezoresist-
ance is strong when the fiber content is around the percola-
tion threshold, and this situation varies greatly with strain.
However, it is not suggested to use fiber volume exceeding
the percolation threshold due to its higher cost. It has been
stated that 0.5% CF content of the cement mass is effective
in cement-based materials (Li et al. 2022). These types of
materials should be functional filling materials that provide
a self-sensing feature. These materials must be evenly dis-
persed within the concrete matrix to form a highly conduc-
tive network within the concrete.
Self-sensing concrete has been applied because it is seen
as having good potential not only in the areas of structural
health monitoring (SHM) and condition assessment in con-
crete structures but also in traffic detection, rebar corrosion
monitoring, military, and border security, structural vibra-
tion control. It has been mentioned in the studies that this
concrete can provide the safety, durability, serviceability,
and sustainability of civil infrastructures such as high-rise
buildings, wide-span bridges, tunnels, high-speed railways,
offshore structures, dams, and nuclear power plants (Han
2009; Meehan et al. 2010; Azhari and Banthia 2012; Van
Tittelboom and De Belie 2013; Han et al. 2014; Pan et al.
2016; Downey et al. 2017; Monteiro et al. 2017; Mishra
et al. 2018a; Parvaneh and Khiabani 2019; Tian et al. 2019;
Deng et al. 2020; Faghih and Ayoub 2021).
Dehghani and Aslani (2020) formed composites using
shape memory alloy (SMA), steel (SFi) (0.25–1.5% fiber by
volume), and CF (0.1–0.6% fiber by volume). Their study
aimed to examine the fresh, mechanical, and electrical prop-
erties of the developed cementitious composites. In this con-
text, slump, four-point bending, toughness, compression,
tensile, and electrical conductivity tests were effectuated on
the composites. The results of the study showed that the
addition of SMA and SFi slightly reduced the relative col-
lapse, while CF dramatically reduced the fluidity of the mix-
ture. The best values for bending and tensile performances of
the composite were obtained in the range where the increase
in the content of SMA was between 1% and 1.5% by volume.
However, adding up to 1.5% SMA and SFi did not consider-
ably affect the conductivity of the composite, whereas CF
remarkably increased the conductivity of the composite even
at low content (i.e., 0.1%). In addition, optimum values were
attained in terms of electrical conductivity at 0.3% CF dos-
age in CF-reinforced cementitious composites.
Segura et al. (2019) analyzed the electrical and piezore-
sistive responses of two different recycled reinforced con-
crete containing 0–1.4% CF. The changes in voltage were
evaluated by monitoring simultaneously with piezoresist-
ance, pressure, and bending tests. The results demonstrated
that piezoresistive responses were observed in plain and CF-
reinforced concrete samples, but with the addition of CF and
increasing CF content, the electronic transfer mechanism
started to control the electrical behavior and the piezore-
sistive response increased. The presence of an advanced
signal-to-noise ratio for these samples indicates behavior
like self-sensing materials. In a similar study performed by
Wang and Aslani (2021), the effect on the piezoresistive
behavior of cementitious composites was examined by using
CF with four different weight fractions, sized and unsized,
and CF lengths of 3, 6, and 12 mm. In addition, the fresh
properties of the mixtures and the mechanical properties and
microstructures of the composites were also investigated.
To evaluate the effect of water content on electrical proper-
ties, electrical resistivity and piezoresistance tests were car-
ried out for the samples before and after drying. The results
showed that composites obtained with unsized CF were
more effective in increasing flexural strength and reducing
electrical resistance. It has been stated that this condition
is associated with stronger bonding and better dispersion
13
 Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering

ability within the cement matrix. In terms of piezoresistive
behavior, for a given fiber length, sized CF indicated higher
sensitivity and repeatability compared to unsized CF, but
more noise values were obtained from the signals.
Figures 1 and 2 show the comparison of electrical con-
ductivity of composites used in studies and developed with
different fibers. As can be seen from the figures, the increase
in SMA and SF did not affect the conductivity as much as
CF. It is known that the electrical properties are mostly
affected by the distribution of the fiber in the cementitious
matrix and the waviness of the fibers. The goodness of fiber
distribution in the cementitious matrix will determine the
presence of fiber agglomerates. Also, the properties of fib-
ers often used in cementitious composites can affect their
waviness and thus their actual length. This will specify the
existence of a continuous fiber path and therefore the electri-
cal conductivity of the composite.
Konkanov et al. (2020) aimed to produce an environmen-
tally friendly, self-sensing concrete that provides electrical
resistance. In the study, replacement of cement, coal fly ash
(CFA), blast furnace slag (BOF), and red mud (RM) were
applied in various volume fractions (5, 10, 15, 20, 25%)
replaced by Portland cement and kept in curing conditions
at 3, 7 and 28 days. Samples were tested experimentally to
observe the effects of by-product residues on mechanical
and electrical properties (compressive strength and electrical
resistance). The inferences signalized that fly ash (FA) may
be the most suitable additive for self-sensing concrete, and
the fractional change of resistance is more stable and reliable
than other additives.

Fig. 1  Comparison of electri- 1.6

cal conductivity of composites
advanced with CF [Sources: 1.4
adapted from (Segura et al.
2019; Dehghani and Aslani
Electrical Conductivity (S/m)

2020; Wang and Aslani 2021)] 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Carbon Fibre Content (wt.%)

Fig. 2  Electrical conductivity of Shape Memory Alloy Fibre Steel Fibre

SMA fiber and SFi developed
0.0007
composites [Source: adapted
from (Dehghani and Aslani
2020)] 0.0006
Electrical Conductivity (S/m)

0.0005

0.0004

0.0003

0.0002

0.0001

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Fibre Content (%)

13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
Bashir et al. (2020) designed a self-sensing cement-based
composite to monitor the movement of traffic volume on the
roads. The mechanical and microstructural properties were
investigated by preparing the composite material with lots
of carbon black (CB) (0.5–2.5%) and they were activated
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) (5–30%).
The usage of CB and GGBFS increased the compressive
and tensile strengths thanks to the pozzolanic reaction and
filling effect. The best results were achieved with a mix-
ture of 1% of CB and 10% of GGBFS by weight of cement.
After testing, it was noted that the cement sensor filled with
2.5% CB and 30% GGBFS showed higher sensitivity to the
applied loading, so the relative change in electrical resistiv-
ity reached about 7.5% under a compression load of 15KN.
Therefore, it is concluded that CB combined with GGBFS
as a hybrid filler has great sensing ability when added to the
cement. SEM or EDS data indicated that the use of GGBFS
as a pozzolanic filler improved the microstructure of the
cement paste but somewhat slowed down the early age
hydration. In short, these results demonstrated that the self-
sensing cement composite has strong potential to be used as
an appliance in traffic monitoring on the roads.
Faghih and Ayoub (2021) evaluated the mechanical and
self-sensing properties of carbon nanofibers (CNF) concrete.
In their experiments, in addition to the control mixture, a
total of 5 different mixtures containing 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%,
and 1.0% CNF were produced. In the study, the mechani-
cal properties of the material under bending, uniaxial com-
pression, and discrete tensile forces were determined, and
the self-health monitoring of beam samples under bending
was also examined. The results showed that the 1.0% CNF
added nanofibers had the best values without improving the
bending capacity. From the point of view of self-perception,
increasing the fiber from 0.25% to 1.0% dosage reduced the
electrical charge. However, it was determined that the elec-
trical resistance of CNF-Reinforced Concrete (CNFRC)s
showed an inverse relationship with the compression stress,
that is, the resistance increased with the decrease in the
compressive stress, while the resistance decreased as the
compression stress increased.
Dong et al. (2020a) prepared functional cementitious
composites at different polypropylene fiber (PP) (mean par-
ticle size 20 nm and resistivity < 0.43 Ω cm) concentrations
ranging from 0.5% CB to 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4% by
weight. In the study, ultraviolet spectrophotometer analy-
sis, electrical resistance, mechanical properties, compres-
sive strength and bending strength, self-compacting capac-
ity were performed. The final results of the study showed
that the flexural strength increased significantly with the
increasing amount of PP fiber, but the compressive strength
decreased slightly. It is said that the improvement is achieved
by the reduced CB concentration in the cement matrix and
the tensile strength formed by the PP fibers. Under cyclic
compression, it was observed that the piezoresistance tripled
for the 0.4 wt% PP fiber-filled CB-cementitious composite,
independent of the loading rates.
Dong et al. (2021b) investigated the piezoresistive prop-
erties of smart self-sensing cementitious composites con-
taining graphene nanoplate (GNP) and graphite plate (GP).
In the study, mixtures were formed at four different con-
centrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and 3.0% GNP and GP,
based on the total weight of cement and silica fume (SF).
The results showed that cement hydration accelerated with
increasing GNP and GP amounts. The electrical resistivity
of the GNP-cemented composites was lower when compared
to GP at the same concentration. However, the optimal GNP
concentration was 1.0% to achieve maximum compressive
and flexural strengths. For GP-cementitious composites, a
minor improvement in mechanical properties was observed
at a dosage of 0.5% GP. Compressive and flexural strengths
decreased significantly with increasing GP content.
Dong et al. (2019a) analyzed the effects of conductive
rubber fiber-filled carbon black (CB)-cementitious com-
posites on conductivity and piezoresistive sensitivity. In CB
composites filled with 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and %4.0 by
weight, the amount of rubber is 20 fibers (0.32% vol), 40 fib-
ers (0.64% vol) to 80 fibers (1.27% vol). According to these
ratios, excellent workability in composites was achieved
with w/b ratios of 0.31, 0.32, 0.34, 0.4, and 0.5, respectively.
The results of the study demonstrated that composites with
a CB content of 4.0% by weight had strong compressive
strength, and in terms of conductivity and piezoresistance,
composites filled with 0.5% by weight of CB improved these
properties with increasing rubber content. The electrical
conductivity of CB/cementitious composites was enhanced
by conductive rubber fibers.
In the study conducted by Dong et al. (2019b), piezore-
sistance and electrical resistivity of CB/cement-based sen-
sors from full drying to saturation in freeze–thaw cycles
were investigated, and piezoresistive behavior of the 3%
CB cement-based sensor under different temperatures
(−20 °C–100 °C) and water contents was examined experi-
mentally with cyclic compression at a stress magnitude of
2 MPa. According to the results obtained, in addition to the
electrical resistivity increases with the increase in water con-
tent, it was determined that the piezoresistive sensitivity of
CB-cement composites first increased but then decreased
and the optimum water content was around 8%. While
freeze–thaw cycles had a limited effect on the electrical
resistivity of dry CB-cementitious composites, both electri-
cal and mechanical properties of saturated CB/cementitious
composites were greatly affected by freeze–thaw cycles,
resulting in a decrease in piezoresistive sensitivity. How-
ever, the fractional changes of CB/cement-based resistivity
sensors have varied greatly, from extreme temperature dif-
ferences between sensors and operating environments due
13

to drastic thermal changes. For this reason, CB/cementitious
composites are said to require a temperature compensation
circuit or other special treatment for thermal insulation.
Dong et al. (2020b) researched the physicochemical and
mechanical properties and piezoresistive behavior of multi-
walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)-reinforced smart cemen-
titious composite under heat treatment at high temperatures
of 300 °C and 600 °C. Mixing ratios of MWCNT-reinforced
cementitious composites and dosages of MWCNT used are
0.25% and 0.50% according to the weight of the binder.
Results of the study showed that the compressive strength
and elasticity modulus of MWCNT-cemented composite
after heat treatment gradually decreased after 300 °C. After
the heat treatment, there was a sudden increase in the frac-
tional resistivity change, and piezoresistance also increased
at higher temperatures. The adjustment factor increased in
samples with 0.5% MWCNT. In samples containing 0.50%
MWCNT, sensitivity increased after heat treatment at
300 °C and decreased after heat treatment at 600 °C.
In the study by Dong et al. (2021c) GNP-cementitious
composites were immersed in sulfuric acid solutions (0,
1%, 2%, and 3% concentrations) for 90 and 180 days. The
surface appearance, weight loss, mechanical properties,
piezoresistance, and microstructure were investigated and
effects such as before and after sulfuric acid immersion
were compared. Results showed that the surface degrada-
tion and mass loss increased and the compressive strength
decreased significantly after acid immersion. Visible cracks
or partial swelling occurred in corroded samples, especially
when immersed in 2% and 3% ­H2SO4 solutions. In the
GNP/cement composite, which was not exposed to these
effects, the piezoresistance exhibited excellent linearity and
repeatability. After 90 and 180 days of acid immersion, the
piezoresistance was initially sensitive to low load but later
became less sensitive to high load.
Dong et al. (2021d) studied multifunctional cementitious
composites with integrated self-sensing and hydrophobicity
capacities using conductive GNP and silicon hydrophobic
powder (SHP). Dosages of SHP between 0.5% and 1.0% and
GNP contents between 0.1% and 2.0% by weight of binder
were formed in the mixtures. In the research, mechanical
properties, permeability, water contact angle, microstructure,
and piezoresistance were investigated and compared under
different contents of GNP and SHP. The highest compressive
and flexural strengths were obtained with 1% SHP and 2%
GNP. The water absorption was significantly reduced with
SHP content but slightly affected by GNP. The water con-
tact angle first increased but then decreased with the GNP
and SHP dosages. Also, compared to conventional cement-
based sensors, these piezoresistive cement-based composites
with SHP and GNP as new cement-based sensors were less
sensitive to water content and moisture. In the last study
of the same researchers, SHP and crystalline waterproofing
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
additive (CWA) were used to improve the impermeability
of carbon black (CB)/cement-based sensors. In this study,
mechanical, electrical, and piezoresistive properties, water-
proofing, and chloride resistance of CB/cement composites
were investigated. The results showed that the addition of
CWA and SHP increased the compressive strength, but CWA
slightly decreased the tensile strength. Cement-based com-
posites containing 1% SHP showed the best water imper-
meability, while those containing CWA exhibited chloride
resistance. Cementitious composites with SHP exhibited the
highest electrical resistivity, while cementitious composites
containing CWA presented the lowest electrical resistivity.
In addition the piezoresistivity decreased continuously with
immersion time (Dong et al. 2022).
2.2 Self‑Healing Concrete
Self-healing concrete, also called bio-concrete, bacterial
concrete, is a long-known and well-known phenomenon,
adopting the principle of development and application as a
new method for longer service life in crack control in struc-
tures. In many developed countries, repairing cracks that
are not visible or present in many cases requires a complex,
costly and laborious operation (Das et al. 2019). Repairs
in infrastructure, concrete bridges, and tunnels can be very
difficult due to heavy traffic congestion. Moreover, there is a
dangerous situation in underground structures and hazardous
liquid containers. This concept not only reduces the direct
cost of maintenance and repair but also provides a reduc-
tion in indirect costs as a maintenance-free method. Cracks
may be healed after a while due to continued hydration of
clinker minerals or carbonation of Ca(OH)2. Self-healing
in cement-based materials is divided into 3 groups as inter-
nal healing, capsule-based healing, and vascular healing.
Sodium silicate, a curing agent in cementitious materials, is
encapsulated on aqueous sodium silicate droplets by interfa-
cial polymerization of the shell-forming monomer. However,
autogenous healing is limited to small cracks that are only
effective in situations where water is present and tough to
control (Van Tittelboom and De Belie 2013; Mishra et al.
2018a; Durga and Ruben 2019; Wang et al. 2021a, b).
Much research has been and continues to be done on the
incorporation of microencapsulation, fibers, bacteria, min-
eral additives, and nanomaterials into self-healing concrete
for ECC.
• The ability of the fibers to bridge cracks and bind crystal-
lization products by serving as nucleation sites,
• By adding microcapsules containing healing agents and
catalysts to the concrete, the crack surface sticks together
and limits the crack development by entering into a
chemical reaction with the matrix material that changes
the shape of the crack tip,
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
• When the bacterial cell wall is negatively charged, cal-
cium ions in the solution are attracted to it, ureolytic
bacteria decompose the urea into ammonium and inor-
ganic carbon, and if the ­CaCO3 concentration exceeds
the solubility, it precipitates on the bacterial cell wall,
which are effective ways to close cracks.
Specifically, since the ability of bacteria of Bacillus to
withstand the high alkalinity of the concrete environment
has been proven, its usage is widespread (Hizami Abdullah
et al. 2018; Kumar Jogi and Vara Lakshmi 2020; Manvith
Kumar Reddy et al. 2020; Yatish et al. 2020; Kim et al.
2021; Wang and Aslani 2021). Studies on this topic have
been done by Nguyen et al. (2019), Vashisht and Shukla
(2020). In addition, advantages such as promoting cement
hydration of nanofillers and thus improving the micro-
structure can be mentioned.
Ahn and Kishi (2010) examined the self-healing ability
of autogenously healing concrete using geo-materials. In
the research, mineral additives such as expansion agents,
geo-materials and chemical additives, and polycarboxy-
late-based superplasticizers from chemical additives were
used to compare the self-healing capability of cement-
based composite with different compositions. The conse-
quences showed that the concrete crack had significantly
healed itself up to 28 days and was almost completely
repaired in 33 days. It has been interpreted that this phe-
nomenon occurs mainly due to the swelling, expansion
effect, and recrystallization.
Maddalena et al. (2021) analyzed the self-healing abil-
ity of mortars obtained with 100% Portland cement (PC),
replaced with cement-based materials (partially 10% SF,
30% FA, and 50% GGBFS). In the study, the samples were
mechanically loaded to induce micro-cracking, then placed
in a water bath for two months to allow further hydra-
tion and crack healing. The results of the study exhibited
that each SCM (Supplementary Cementitious Materials)
healed by different mechanisms through the formation of
additional hydrated products in the pores and microstruc-
ture. This has resulted in an overall reduction in the rate
of water transport through the matrix and an improvement
in the pore size distribution. A similar study has been per-
formed by Chang et al. (2021). They tested the crack width
and water permeability of the mortar samples in this study
to gain a better understanding of the properties of different
types (FA; slag (SL); SF; metakaolin, (MK); limestone,
(LS)) and ratios of mineral admixtures (30%, 30%, 10%,
10%, and 10% by mass of cement) that affect the self-
healing performance of the cement matrix. The results of
the study showed that with the increase in healing time,
the degree of cracks healed also increased, and the water
permeability of the samples decreased. It is suggested that
a rational and optimized mineral additive composition
should be created based on the properties of each mineral
to strengthen the self-healing capacity of the matrix.
Nasim et al. (2020) studied the effect of crystalline
admixture (CA), FA, and PVA fiber on the self-healing
capacity of early age cracks in concrete. In the study,
the compressive strength of concrete, electrical resistiv-
ity recovery, and the morphology of the crack surfaces
were investigated. In the study, in addition to the control
mixture, four different mixtures were created: 0.1% PVA
fiber by volume, partial replacement of 20% cement FA,
and 2% CA of cement mixture by mass. The results were
that all additives showed a certain self-healing ability. The
results supported by SEM analysis showed that the recov-
eries of compressive strength and electrical resistance for
cracked CA concrete samples were at peak level due to
the presence of ­CaCO3 and C–S–H gel. Considering the
mechanical and durability properties compared to FA and
PVA fibers, it was determined that the usage of CA as an
additive was more helpful in closing the cracks.
In the study by Zhou et al. (2011), the effect of GGBFS
and FA on self-healing concrete was investigated, and
strength and SEM images were obtained. The self-healing
rate was measured based on the increase in compressive
strength before and after recovery. The results showed that
the self-healing ability of the concrete is best when the
GGBFS and FA are 30% and 40%, and the sand ratio is
33%. A comparative study was conducted by Ratnayake
and Nanayakkara (2018), and the effect of FA on self-
settling ability and cracking was determined in the study.
It has been emphasized that the allowable crack width
depends on the self-healing ability of concrete, which in
turn depends on the use of additional cementitious materi-
als such as FA in concrete mixes. In the study, 20%, 30%,
and 40% FA percentages were studied. Although there was
a partial decrease in flow rate at first with FA replacement,
a decrease in crack sealing time was found for 20% and
30%.
Xu and Wang (2018) aimed to develop a protective
carrier for a bacterial self-healing system based on ure-
olysis in concrete with a low alkali cementitious mate-
rial obtained from calcium sulfoaluminate cement. The
effect of nutrients and bacterial spores on the hydration of
calcium sulfoaluminate cement was investigated. Crack
healing efficiency was evaluated together with quantita-
tive image analysis, mechanical performance, and capil-
lary water absorption tests, and its compatibility with the
concrete matrix was optimized depending on the content
of carrier material and healing agents. For low alkalinity,
SF is added by mass to 0%, 20%, and 40% by mass, and
with nutrients 0%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4% by mass to cal-
cium sulfoaluminate cement. In composites formed from
calcium sulfoaluminate cement with 20%, SF successful
results have been obtained. The results showed that the
13

compressive strength and water tightness were better when
compared to plain mortar, and crack closure was achieved
at 28 days.
Chen et al. (2021) determined flexural behavior and ultra-
sonic transmission ability in composites formed with ECC
and SMA fibers. In the study, unlike normal concrete, there
is a high rate of water-reducing admixture based on mineral
powder, FA, Silica sand, PVA fibers, and Polycarboxylate
in the mixtures containing ECC and ECC-SMA, and the
w/b was 0.25 and the sand-binder (s/b) ratio was 0.4. The
results were that ECC-SMA reduced the number and width
of cracks, higher bending. Ductility were observed in ECC
and ECC-SMA when compared to normal concrete. These
findings were in line with the ultrasonic transmission rate.
Dong et al. (2021e) developed multifunctional cementi-
tious composites with integrated self-sensing and self-heal-
ing properties using microencapsulation of nano-carbon
black (NCB) for the preservation of hydrated lime (SL). In
this way, it was observed that the crack healing efficiency
increased strongly. The self-sensing capacity of the NCB-
cemented composite with SL was found to exhibit higher
and more stable piezoresistance before or after self-healing,
as well as protecting the SL from initial hydration.
Apart from these techniques, microbial mineral precipita-
tion is also promising in self-healing concrete applications.
The use of pure culture resulted in more pronounced effects
in the studies. The metabolic activities of some specific
microorganisms in concrete are responsible for improving
the overall behavior of concrete. Since precipitation occurs
as a by-product of common metabolic processes such as pho-
tosynthesis, sulfate reduction and urea hydrolysis, it has been
hypothesized that almost all bacteria are capable of produc-
ing ­CaCO3. It has proven to be a beneficial improvement in
the influence of bacteria on various parameters (compressive
strength, permeability, water absorption, chloride ingress) in
concrete. Another recent method is that non-ureolytic bacte-
ria have a self-healing state. No harmful ammonium emis-
sions are released in this process, avoiding environmental
concerns, exacerbation of steel corrosion and high deposits
that can inhibit the necessary bacterial activity. Also, non-
ureolytic bacteria can produce larger, mixed organic or inor-
ganic crystals, i.e., larger volumes of C
­ aCO3 precipitate can
be produced for the same amount of calcium consumed. In
addition, it can provide a significant advantage for industrial
applications where soluble calcium is only present in limited
quantities in the cement matrix. Non-ureolytic bacterial mix-
tures can perform simultaneous metabolic activities that are
not possible with pure bacterial cultures. Moreover, experi-
mental studies on this topic are scarce, and most self-healing
analyzes have been performed without considering the effect
of fluctuating field conditions. More field trials are required
involving different bacterial carriers, temperatures, humid-
ity conditions, bacterial strains and cementitious composite
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
formulations (Siddique and Chahal 2011; Justo-Reinoso
et al. 2021; Fahimizadeh et al. 2022; Zhao et al.2022).
Additionally, these materials in ECC, new research con-
tinues to be added to the literature on the usage of nanoma-
terials such as nano alumina, nano-silica, carbon nanotube,
polycarboxylates, nano kaolin, nano clay, nano iron, nanosil-
ver in self-healing concretes, which have gained momen-
tum in recent years. It is worth mentioning that cementitious
composites obtained with nanomaterial additives have the
advantage of high strength and durability as well as sustain-
ability (Huseien et al. 2019).
3 Piezoelectric Materials and Atomic
Structures
Piezoelectric materials are divided into two main groups.
The first are natural piezometric materials that are found in
nature and show piezoelectric properties on their own, and
the second artificial piezometric materials consist of ceram-
ics and polymers produced for commercial or technological
purposes. In particular, basic studies on electro-optical and
piezoelectric properties have been made. The reason for this
is that the perovskite ceramic merit figure is not very attrac-
tive compared to its competitors, so its commercialization
did not accelerate at the beginning.
Natural piezoelectric materials are quartz, tourmaline,
sodium potassium tartrate, and rosewood salts. Ceramic
piezoelectrics are sintered mixtures of PZT (Pb (Zr, Ti)
­O3), PT (­ PbTiO3), PLZT (Pb, La) (Zr, Ti)O3, and oxygen
octahedral type ferroelectric powders. Polymer piezoelectric
materials are PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride). In other pie-
zoelectric materials, there is an expansion when exposed to
an electric field. PVDF has a negative d­ 33 value, so there is
a physical compression or vice versa. “Piezoelectric ceram-
ics and polymers, which are formed by piezo-composite,
have been defined as promising materials with their prin-
ciples, applications, and adaptability. By considering hot
rolled composites made of PZT powder and PVDF, infor-
mation about their piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties
was gathered. Although similar flexibility to PVDF was
seen, higher piezoelectric performance was obtained from
PVDF. For two-phase composites, geometry is divided into
10 classes according to the connectivity of each phase (1, 2,
or 3 dimensional). These; It is 0–0, 0–1, 0–2, 0–3, 1–1, 1–2,
1–3, 2–2, 2–3, and 3–3. In particular, 1–3 piezo-composites
or PZT-bar/polymer-matrix composites are considered as the
most practical, because this composite offers several advan-
tages such as high coupling factors, low acoustic impedance,
good compatibility with water or human tissue, mechani-
cal flexibility, wide bandwidth with a low mechanical qual-
ity factor, and forming bare arrays by modeling electrode
(Gowdhaman et al. 2016).”
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
Most piezoelectric materials are in the crystalline solids
class. Crystal structures are very smooth structures and the
unit cells form by the atoms that make up their structures,
progressing in a fixed order throughout the material. Unit
cells of piezoelectric materials are in the asymmetric per-
ovskite structure. The reason for the asymmetry is that the
positively and negatively charged elements in the structure
interact with each other. Atoms of different charges in the
material form electrical dipoles by dispersing. When the
crystal structures are subjected to a mechanical effect, the
positions of the atoms in the structure and their distance
to each other change. The change in the positions of the
atoms causes a change in their distance in the charge form-
ing the dipoles in the crystal. The change in the electric
dipole distribution affects the polarization between the crys-
tal surfaces. This effect allows a net electrical potential to be
observed on the structure. This phenomenon creates a direct
piezoelectric effect. If the electric dipoles in the piezoelec-
tric material are exposed to an electric field, the electric
charges forming the dipole in the material move away or
approach each other thanks to the electric forces caused by
the electric field. Because of this movement of the dipoles,
a shape change occurs in the material geometry, which is
called the inverse piezoelectric effect (Odegard 2004; Rujija-
nagul et al. 2008; Ponnamma et al. 2017; Sunar 2018; Tofel
et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2021a, b).
3.1 Piezoelectric Effect
The first step in piezoelectric, whose discovery dates back
to the 1800s, was realized by two French scientists’ broth-
ers Jacques and Pierre Curie when they realized that the
pressure applied to quartz or some crystals creates an elec-
tric charge in a particular material, and then they called the
phenomenon that developed randomly and scientifically
evaluated the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric prop-
erty is gained by the electrical field or the electrical potential
of the material as a result of the mechanical compression
applied to these materials. In short, it creates an electrome-
chanical interaction against the electrical and mechanical
effects applied to them. While converting mechanical energy
into electrical energy (direct), they also convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy (inverse). Since electricity
is produced directly in the piezoelectric, it behaves like a
miniature battery. It finds application directly in piezo-
electric property sensors and transducers, i.e., generators.
Research on piezoelectric materials has been found to have
direct effects as well as reversible. Briefly, it is the phenom-
enon of piezoelectric material converting electrical energy
into mechanical motion. An example of this effect is given
in actuators, namely motors (Meng and Yan 2012; Vijaya
2013).
Considering the applications of the piezoelectric effect,
the study by Aslan (2016), it was aimed to convert the
mechanical pressure applied by the vehicles into electrical
energy by creating an experimental setup with piezoelec-
tric materials to be laid under the asphalt layer, taking into
account the applications of the piezoelectric effect. In the
experimental setup, the lowest layer was formed from a fine
aggregate material called plant-mix base (PMT). On this
layer, the plywood plate and above it the electrical parts
consisting of piezoelectric ceramics were placed. By placing
cardboard on the piezoceramics and bituminous mixtures on
the top layer, different pressures were applied and voltage
readings were made. The LED bulbs in the system were acti-
vated by using the electric currents generated in the capaci-
tor. In the working principles of piezoelectric materials, the
instantaneous (instantaneous) and serial loads provide high
voltage values (voltage) formed in ceramics. Applications
to be made in the traffic and vehicle mobility environment
where sudden and continuous loads are inherent can pro-
vide the highest efficiency for electricity generation with the
piezoelectric effect. In the study created by Prof. Saafi et al.
it was observed that energy can be produced by adding root
vegetable wastes such as carrots to cement. Prof. Saafi and
his team reported that when pressure is applied to cement
using carrots as a root vegetable, they can generate electric-
ity that can power a small LED light or electronic device.
It has been discovered that by adding carrot nanoplates to
cement, concrete generating electricity can be produced
(Saafi 2021). Although the studies on electricity generation
by piezoelectric effect in concrete are quite limited, there are
many studies in which the current or potential difference is
measured over concrete.
3.2 Flexoelectric Effect
Thanks to advances in nanotechnology, large strain gradients
achievable at small length scales have ushered in a new era
in flexoelectricity as a size-dependent phenomenon. In flexo-
electric materials, electrical polarization is linearly related
to the gradient of mechanical tension, while in piezoelectric
materials there is a linear relationship between electrical
polarization and mechanical tension. While the flexoelectric
effect is somewhat negligible for bulk crystals, unlike piezo-
electricity, it is possible for all dielectrics, including those
with symmetrical crystal structures, and has a more general
electromechanical coupling mechanism. Although the flexo-
electric effect is universal, it is negligible at macroscopic
scales compared to piezoelectricity and only manifests itself
prominently at the nanoscale. Until now, limited numeri-
cal contributions have been made on flexoelectric mode-
ling, because the quantitative determination of flexoelectric
parameters is difficult in terms of experimental research.
Due to the difficulty of measuring at a reduced size, not all
13

components of the flexoelectric tensor (parameters that relate
the stress gradient to polarization) can be directly ejected in
experiments. Therefore, simulations are important for under-
standing flexoelectricity. Another challenge is the need for
continuity when solving the weak form of flexoelectricity.
A mathematical framework and some simple solutions are
proposed for the basic equations of flexoelectricity. At the
same time, an understanding of the multidimensionality of
the problem is important for an accurate assessment of the
flexoelectric effect that is underestimated or overestimated in
simplified models (Sharma et al. 2007; Ghasemi et al. 2017,
2018, 2020; Hamdia et al. 2018; Yan et al. 2021).
Figure 3 consists of a comparison of the results of current
and analytical methods for piezoelectric and non-piezoelec-
tric materials. This graph exhibits the correlation between
normalized beam thickness and open circuit condition.
According to Fig. 3, as the thickness of the beam decreased,
its electromechanical response increased. The increase in
electromechanical response at small length scales has also
been observed for non-piezoelectric materials. However,
for larger beam thicknesses, the flexoelectric effect was
eliminated.
3.3 Piezoelectric Coefficient
Piezoelectric coefficients describe the quality, precision,
mechanical, electrical, and electronic capability of piezo-
electric materials. Piezoelectric coefficients, properties, and
electrical–mechanical properties of the material are exam-
ined to select the materials suitable for the working con-
ditions and depending on the purpose of the piezoelectric
materials. Piezoelectric materials are expressed by the ten-
sors used depending on the polarization direction. The direc-
tions of the piezoelectric element are defined by three axes
X, Y, Z. Piezoelectric coefficients are defined with subscales
shown as i, and j. The 'i' symbol defines the direction of the
electric field associated with the applied voltage or electrical
Fig. 3  Sensitivity analysis results for flexoelectric structures (Gha-
semi et al. 2017)
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
displacement, while the 'j' index defines the direction of the
mechanical stress or strain.
Expressions showing the relationships between input
and output parameters in cases of the piezoelectric effect
and inverse piezoelectric effect are called piezoelectric
coefficients.
Important constant coefficients of piezoelectric materials
are as follows:
• Piezoelectric load coefficient (piezoelectric strain coef-
ficient) ­(dij),
• Piezoelectric voltage coefficient ­(gij),
• Electromechanical coupling coefficient (piezoelectric
cohesion factor) ­(kij, kt, kp)
• Dielectric constant (K) and Dielectric permeability (ɛ)
• Elastic compatibility constant (sij), stiffness constant
coefficient must be known (Vijaya 2013).
3.3.1 Piezoelectric Strain (Load) Coefficient (dij)
The piezoelectric charge constant is defined as the mechani-
cal stress applied to the piezoelectric material or the mechan-
ical stress caused by the polarization of the unit electric field
applied to the material. The good piezoelectric load coef-
ficient means that the piezoelectric material can be suitable
for use in sensors or actuator applications (Sun et al. 2004;
Meng and Yan 2012; Vijaya 2013).
3.3.2 Piezoelectric Voltage Coefficient (gij)
The electric field is produced when one unit of mechanical
stress is applied to a piezoelectric material. In the reverse
piezoelectric event, the mechanical strain corresponding to
the unit electrical displacement applied to the piezoelectric
material is called as piezoelectric voltage coefficient. The
voltage coefficient, expressed as the g factor, is important in
energy harvesting applications. When the applied mechani-
cal forces are increased, more voltage and signal are gener-
ated (Sun et al. 2004; Meng and Yan 2012; Vijaya 2013).
3.3.3 Electromechanical Coupling Coefficient
(k) (Piezoelectric Coupling Coefficient)
and Electromechanical Efficiency
The piezoelectric coupling-efficiency coefficient defines the
measure of the effectiveness and efficiency of piezoelectric
materials. It is a measure of how much of the electrical
energy applied to the piezoelectric material is converted into
mechanical energy or how much of the applied mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy (Sun et al. 2004;
Meng and Yan 2012; Vijaya 2013).
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
3.3.4 Dielectric Constant (K)
The ability of materials to store electrical charge or become
polarized is called a dielectric constant (Erdağ 2004). Piezo-
electric materials are within dielectric materials, but not all-
dielectric materials pose piezoelectric properties (Sun et al.
2004; Meng and Yan 2012; Vijaya 2013).
4 Cement‑Based Piezoelectric Smart
Composite Materials
PZT, one of the ceramic piezoelectric materials, can exhibit
excellent piezoelectric properties thanks to its centripetal
crystal structure. They are considered smart materials in var-
ious applications such as sensors. PZTs are mostly produced
by calcining lead titanate and lead zirconate at about 800 °C.
In recent years, its inclusion in cement to create composites
that can be used in construction has attracted worldwide
attention. Cement-based piezoelectric ceramic composites
can exhibit pursuant piezoelectric properties if they are in
a good way polarized by an external electric field. At the
same time, it has been reported that the electrical response
of these composites is very large and can be easily deter-
mined by voltmeter (Xing et al. 2009; Hunpratub et al. 2014;
Zhou et al. 2015; Eltouby et al. 2021). There have been many
studies investigating the piezoelectric properties of different
forms of PZT and cement-based piezoelectric composite.
PZT powders have been used to increase the piezoelec-
tric property of PC. In the study performed by Dong and
Li (2005), cement-based composites were prepared using
different types but the same volume (20%) of ceramic pow-
ders. The variation of d­ 33 and d­ 33 values of composites with
the number of ceramic powders was investigated. Different
piezoceramic types prepared under the same polarization
Fig. 4  Comparison of the
relative dielectric constants of
composites with different PZT
contents [Sources: adapted from
(Li et al. 2004, 2005, 2009;
Relative Dielectric Constant
Dong and Li 2005; Xing et al.
2009)]
conditions (polarization voltage: 43 kV/ cm, Polarization
time: 10 min) markedly changed the piezoelectric proper-
ties of composites. Rianyoi et al. (2011, 2016) analyzed
the effect of powder volume on dielectric and piezoelectric
properties by using barium titanate (BT) as ceramic powder.
Similar to the study of Dong and Li (2005), the increase in
the amount of ceramic powder was effective in improving
the dielectric and piezoelectric properties of cement-based
composites. However, dielectric and piezoelectric properties
were not as high as lead-based cement-based composites.
In addition to these studies, the relative dielectric constant
values found by different researchers and created with aver-
age values are given in Fig. 4.
In studies on the piezoelectricity of hardened cement
paste, cement paste has been accepted as a type of piezo-
electric material. It has been observed in researches that
when the compressive force is applied, a certain degree of
electric current can be produced in the cement. In the study
by Sun et al. (2004), CEM I 42.5 PC and 40* 40*40 mm
samples with a w/c ratio of 0.25 were produced, and electric
current was observed during repeated compression loading
into the hardened cement paste. It has been observed that
the source of this piezoelectric effect is related to the trans-
port of mobile ions by water under pressure and the water
content. To prove this situation, the effect of water concen-
tration on the piezoelectric property has been researched.
Piezoelectric properties were least exhibited when samples
were dried. When the hardened cement paste was left in a
humid environment, it showed more electric current under
the same pressure, and the electric current increased as the
water absorption increased. Although piezoelectricity is
observed in the hardened cement paste for this and similar
studies, this effect is not potent sufficient, given that cement
paste is not a completely crystalline material. Therefore, the
piezoelectric properties of cement-based materials are tried
700
600
500
400
300 Experimental Values
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-100
PZT Content (%)
13

to be improved with additives (Chen et al. 2019). In stud-
ies to enhance the piezoelectric properties of cement-based
materials by using additives, composites were generally
formed in the form of disks with a thickness of 1.5–2 mm.
80 MPa pre-compression pressure was applied to the com-
posites formed (Huang et al. 2006; Gong et al. 2009; Pan
et al. 2013; Pan and Chiang 2014).
Generally, average particle size distribution has been used
in studies with piezoelectric ceramic powders. The PZT par-
ticle size used in the study by Huang et al. (2004) was an
average of 166.5 μm in diameter. In the work conducted by
Li et al. (2004) for the first time in the field of piezoelec-
tric materials, cement-based 0–3 piezoelectric composites
produced by normal mixing and spreading method have
been examined. In their study, two sizes of PZT ceramic
particles (PZT I (4.9 μm) and PZT II (83.5 μm)), Portland
white cement and superplasticizer were used, and the w/c
ratio of a matrix was taken as 0.53. The results of the study
showed that the optimal PZT powder content by volume
for the acoustic impedance matching between cement-based
piezoelectric composites and concrete is 40–50%. However,
following the applied fabrication methods, it is said that 65%
by volume for PZT I and 70% by volume for PZT II can be
added to the cement matrix. Cement-based 0–3 piezoelec-
tric composites were found to have a relatively greater d­ jj,
­gjj, and kt than those of 0–3 PZT/polymer composites with
PZT particle content.
Chaipanich (2007b) used PZT particles of 3.8–148.8 and
620 μm diameter to manufacture composites, investigating
the effect of PZT particle size on dielectric and piezoelec-
tric properties of composites. It has been observed that the
dielectric and piezoelectric properties of the piezoelectric
ceramic powders increase as the particle size increases
for the composites produced under the same conditions.
The increase in dielectric and piezoelectric properties has
benefited surfaces with little coupling between the cement
matrix and the piezoceramic powders. In addition, dielectric
and piezoelectric coefficient (­ d33) of PZT-OPC composites
produced by using 40%, 50%, and 60% PZT by volume
increased as the PZT content was increased. The amount of
PZT had a great effect on the piezoelectric property of the
composite. Besides, the ­d33 value of PZT-Cement compos-
ites can be increased depending on the polarization age and
temperature. In some studies, it was found that piezoelectric
properties were gained at the optimum 45th minute and the
optimum polarization temperature was 120–130°.
Chaipanich and Jaitanang (2008) observed that PZT-PC
composites produced using 50% PZT were polarized at opti-
mum polarization time and temperature and reached maxi-
mum ­d33 (28 pC/N) and Kt (19.87%) values. As a result of
the studies conducted by Huang et al. (2006) It was observed
that the optimum polarization time of PZT-cement compos-
ites was 45 min, and the optimum temperature was 120 °C.
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
After polarization, piezoelectric ceramics and polymers are
known to have lower piezoelectric properties as they get
older. In the study performed by Chaipanich et al. (2014),
the ­d33 values of PZT-cement composites increased sig-
nificantly in the first ten days after polarization, but there
was a slight decrease on the 60th and 90th days, and similar
values were observed in 1 year afterward. The research-
ers discovered that the d-value of the composite increased
10 days after polarization to reach a saturation level. Li et al.
(2005) researched the effect of aging after polarization on
piezoelectric properties of 50% PZT- Cement composites by
volume and Huang et al. (2006) sulfoaluminate cement com-
posites containing 60–85% piezoelectric ceramic (PMN). In
both studies, the highest piezoelectric load coefficient (d)
was provided on the 10th day, while the ­d33 increase rates
showed different trends after the 10th day. To improve the
polarization level and increase piezoelectric properties, poz-
zolanic mineral additives such as SF, FA, GGBFS, which are
also used in concrete and fibers, have been added to com-
posites as a third phase. Some studies are investigating the
effect of FA, SF, GGBFS substitution on the piezoelectric
properties of composites (Jaitanong et al. 2018). When the
common findings in the studies are examined, it is seen that
the amount of pozzolanic material is important for piezoe-
lectric properties. In the literature, the composites created to
examine the piezoelectric effects of pozzolana, PZT, or BZT
were kept constant at 50% by volume in the composite and
certain volumes of cement were replaced with pozzolanic
materials (Pan et al. 2013; Pan and Chiang 2014; Chaipanich
et al. 2007; Chomyen et al. 2018). Based on these studies,
the ­d33, ­g33, and Kt values of piezoelectric materials used in
cement-based composites are given in Table 1.
Several modeling approaches are available in related
studies to predict the electromechanical properties of pie-
zoelectric composites. To acquire the general properties
of piezoelectric fiber composites, there are also micro- or
macro-mechanical methods along with experimental stud-
ies. Micromechanical methods show the general behavior of
piezoelectric fiber composites. The advantage of this method
is that both the global properties of the composites can be
calculated and various defects such as damage initiation and
progression, crack growth, etc., can be attained through anal-
ysis. This method makes up the analysis of the components
fiber and matrix through analysis of the volume element or
the unit cell model (Berger et al. 2005a; Berger et al. 2005b;
Berger et al. 2006; Ray 2006; Kumar and Chakraborty 2009;
Qin et al. 2019; Jia et al. 2021; Ma et al. 2021; Maity and
Mandal 2021). In the micromechanical approach, the hetero-
geneous structure of the composite is replaced by a homoge-
neous medium with anisotropic properties (Guinovart-Díaz
et al. 2001; Tan and Tong 2001; Levin et al. 2008; Tang and
Yu 2008; Fakri and Azrar 2010; Zhu and He 2011; Zhang
et al. 2018; Yang and Qian 2020).
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering

Table 1  Piezoelectric materials used in cement-based composites sensitive to mesh density (Nanthakumar et al. 2014, 2016;
d33 (pC/N) g33 (Vm/N) Kt (%) Refs.
Su et al. 2019, 2020).
In the study carried out by Lam and Chan (2008), PZT
PZT fibers produced by the slurry method were embedded in a
470 24 72 Pan and Chiang (2014) cement matrix to form PZT/cement 1–3 composites and
650 19.3 49 Gong et al. (2009) composites with low PZT volume fractions varying from
374 24.8 60 Wang et al. (2012) 0.05 to 0.22. It was concluded that composites 1–3 have
198 – – Chaipanich et al. (2014) strong piezoelectric properties that are in good agreement
513 15.9 67 Li et al. (2004) with the theoretical modeling. It has been determined that
PZT-Cement the Kt of PZT is ~ 0.5 even with the low volume fraction
7.3–53.7 – 10.1–18.1 Li et al. (2009) of PZT, and the acoustic impedance of the composites
22–42 – Chaipanich et al. (2007) approaches that of concrete in the ceramic volume fraction
28 19.87 Chaipanich and Jaitanong of ~ 0.15. In this way, it is possible to use composites as sen-
(2008)
sors in civil building health monitoring systems.
2–16 – Huang et al. (2006)
5–75 14.5–21.5 Chaipanich et al. (2014)
2.5–55 – Li et al. (2005)
5 Supplementary Cementitious Materials
7–17 9.47 Gong et al. (2009)
Used in PZT
15–45 20–30 – Pan and Chiang (2014)
18–50 18–30 13.11 Pan and Chiang (2014)
When the literature is examined, some studies are inves-
17–18 – – Chaipanich et al. (2007)
tigating the feasibility of cement paste blended with addi-
12–25 21–26 13.27 Pan et al. (2013)
tional cementitious materials in piezoelectric-based sensors.
PZT-Cement/Fly ash
Information about these studies and the data obtained are
15–53 10–65 – Pan and Chiang (2014)
presented below;
15–53 17–47 13.4–14.5 Pan and Chiang (2014)
Ghafari et al. (2018) intended to explore the possibil-
14–25 21–29 13.58 Pan et al. (2013)
ity of using piezoelectric-based sensors to characterize the
PZT-Cement/Silica fume
compressive strength acquisition process of cement paste
15–55 15–45 13.24–13.29 Pan and Chiang (2014)
blended with SMA. The w/b ratio was taken as 0.30 in three
18–20 – – Chaipanich (2007a, 2007b)
different mixtures (including control) prepared by adding FA
17–34 19–25 12.41 Pan et al. (2013)
and SF at the ratio of 10% by weight replacement of cement.
PZT-Cement/Slag
In the study, in which the electronic impedance technique
13–28 19–23 13.58 Pan et al. (2013)
was used, two different mean square deviations (RMSD)
PZT-Cement/Carbon black
and correlation coefficient (CC) indexes were determined
2.5–48 1.4–17 10.51–12.16 Gong et al. (2009)
to establish a quantitative correlation between the conduc-
PZT-Cement/CNT
tivity signature obtained with PZT sensors and compressive
35–62 29.45 Gong et al. (2011)
strengths of cement paste (3, 7, 14 and 28 days). RMSD was
PZT-Cement/PVDF
found to be more effective than CC index in predicting the
16–24 12–15 – Jaitanong et al. (2014)
compressive strength of cement paste over time.
BZT-Cement/Fly ash
In FA substitution studies where piezoelectric ceram-
11–16.5 – – Chomyen et al. (2018)
ics were used as PZT, the effects of time after polarization
(aging), curing time, polarization area, and amount of FA on
piezoelectric properties were investigated. Pan and Chiang
Examining the geometry, material properties, phase num- (2014) perused the piezoelectric properties of FA-substi-
ber, and dimension parameters in the piezoelectric compos- tuted composites by keeping them in a 150 °C silicon oil
ite, numerical methods such as the finite element method are bath for 30 min during polarization. In these studies, curing
seen as a very correct attitude to define the behavior of these days were kept as 7, 28, and 56 days. In both studies, d­ 33 and
materials. In studies based on the ANSYS, piezoelectric ­g33 values support each other in the same curing time and
effect coefficients were calculated by the numerical model 1.5 kV polarization area. According to Fig. 5 formed with
in the finite element program and compared with analytical average values, it was observed that the curing time did not
methods. There is also the use of a standard package such have a remarkable effect on the ­d33 and ­gjj of the FA com-
as ANSYS by interfacing with corresponding FORTRAN posites. Also, it has been found that the ­d33 and the ­gjj tend to
routines in another work. However, it is also true that finding decrease after a certain volume of FA. For 50% PZT-PC/FA
suitable meshes can be difficult, as finite element results are composites, the addition of 20% FA by cement volume was

13
 Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
Fig. 5  Relationship of 40–50%
40BZT-PC/FA (εr)
BZT-PC/FA with a dielectric
constant and piezoelectric 50BZT-PC/FA (εr)
coefficient [Sources: adapted
from (Pan and Chiang 2014; PZT-PC/FA (0.5 kV-εr)
Dielectric constant (K)
Chomyen et al. 2018)]
PZT-PC/FA (1 kV-εr)
PZT-PC/FA (1.5 kV-εr)
40BZT-PC/FA (d33)
50BZT-PC/FA (d33)
PZT-PC/FA (0.5 kV-d33)
PZT-PC/FA (1 kV-d33)
PZT-PC/FA (0.5 kV-d33)
optimum. To investigate the effect of the polarization field,
which is another factor affecting the piezoelectric properties,
Pan and Chiang (2014) studied polarized composites with
3 polarization fields, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 kV. It is concluded that
the increase in the polarization area increases the ­d33 and the
­gjj while decreasing the dielectric constant. They kept the
polarization field constant at 1.5 kV for their study, and it
was determined that the ­d33 and ­g33 factors had very similar
values with the other work done in this polarization field.
Chomyen et al. (2018) investigated the effect of FA on
the piezoelectric properties of composites by substituting
FA to cement-based composites containing barium zirco-
nate titanate (BZT) as piezoelectric ceramics. In the study,
PC-Type I, FA, and BZT ceramic particles were used at a
ratio of 40% and 50% by volume. BZT ceramic particles
were then mixed with PC and FA to obtain composite ratios
of 40:60 and 50:50 (BZT: FA–PC). FA was used at 10%,
30%, and 50% by volume as a PC replacement and pressed
to produce the composite disk. Dielectric and piezoelectric
measurements were made after the curing process was fin-
ished by coating the upper and lower surfaces of the sam-
ples with high purity silver paint. Composites were polarized
for piezoelectric measurement in silicon oil at 60 °C under
an electric field of 0.5 kV /mm for 45 min, and dielectric
constants were measured and ­d33 measurements were made
24 h later. It can be understood from Fig. 5 that the dielec-
tric constant of the composites decreases with the increase
in the amount of FA, whereas the dielectric loss rises. The
increase in dielectric loss is due to the porous microstructure
of the PC/FA. However, piezoelectric charge constant val-
ues showed similar trends in 40BZT-PC/FA and 50BZT-PC/
FA composites. Also, the d­ 33 value for BZT-PC composites
containing 10% FA by volume was found to be close to that
of BZT-PC composites.
Chaipanich et al. (2007), after curing 50–60% PZT-PC/SF
composites for 3 days, polarized them for 45 min at 130 °C
13
1400 60
Piezoelectric coefficient (d33)
1200
50
1000
40
800
30
600
20
400
10
200
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fly ash (%)
in 2 kV/mm polarization field for piezoelectric measurement
in silicon oil and measured the piezoelectric properties after
24 h. It was determined that the dielectric constant of the
composites increased with the substitution of SF, while the
d33 changed little in the first year with the addition of SF
(Fig. 6).
Hanjitsuwan et al. (2011) surveyed the electrical con-
ductivity and dielectric properties of FA geopolymer pastes
in the frequency range of 100–10 MHz. The effects of the
liquid alkali solution on the ash ratios (L/A) were analyzed.
In the study, 10 mol sodium hydroxide solution and sodium
silicate-sodium hydroxide ratio 1.0 were used to prepare
sodium silicate solution, FA ratios (L/A) of liquid alkali
solution were 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7, respectively. In addi-
tion, mineralogical compositions and microstructures of FA
geopolymer materials were examined by using X-ray Dif-
fraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
The results are that the electrical conductivity and dielectric
constant depend on the frequency range and L/A ratios. At
low frequency, the conductivity of FA geopolymer pastes
with an L/A ratio of 0.6 was found to be significantly higher
than other L/A ratio pastes. The researchers attributed this to
the result of the microstructure, which shows that the paste
with a L/A ratio of 0.6 contains the lowest degree of crystal-
linity, providing high conductivity at low frequency. Also,
the conductivity increased with increasing frequency, but the
dielectric constant decreased.
In the study of Pan et al. (2013), the change of piezo-
electric properties of pozzolan composites with aging after
polarization and the effect of pozzolans on the piezoelectric
properties were investigated. The study included a mixture
of cement-based matrix 50% cement or a mixture of 40%
cement and 10% pozzolanic materials by volume. Three poz-
zolanic materials were chosen, including SF, GGBFS, and
FA. Before polarization, the samples were coated with silver
paint as in different studies after 7 days of curing at 90 °C
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
Fig. 6  Relationship of PZT-SFC
with dielectric constant and pie-
zoelectric coefficient [Sources:
adapted from (Chaipanich
2007b; Pan et al. 2013)]
Dielectric constant (K)
PZT-SFC (εr)
PZT-SFC (εr)
PZT-SFC (d33)
for 7 days and polarizing voltage was applied at 1.5 kV/mm
in a 150 °C silicone oil bath for 45 min. It is known that
aging of the same volume of pozzolanic material substituted
composites affects the piezoelectric properties. In studies
where piezoelectric properties were measured just one day
after polarization, values very close to the reference sam-
ple were observed (Chaipanich et al. 2014). In this study,
piezoelectric properties were measured up to 21 days of age
and the effects did not change much after 14 days. For SF,
GGBFS, and FA displaced by cement by 20% by volume, the
same curing time, and under the same polarization condi-
tions, composites containing SF for 21 days after polariza-
tion always have the highest coefficient of ­d33 compared to
PZT-PC composites. After SF, GGBFS was effective for d­ 33,
while composites containing FA did not affect d­ 33. It was
concluded that the most effective pozzolan used to improve
εr or K (dielectric constant) is SF. On the other hand, the g­ jj
decreased with the usage of SF and GGBFS. The ­g33 value
of Fa-containing composites is close to the g­ 33 value of PZT
piezoelectric ceramics, which is 24.10–3 V-m/N. In addition,
time is needed for the successful polarization of the formed
composites. For composites containing different pozzolans,
the trigger time to reach the bias area to be reached in the
experiment is also different. In the study, while this time is
about 10 min for FA and cement samples, but 82 min for
SF. This is due to the risk of rupture when excessive volt-
age surges are applied to composites containing SF. The
use of SF in cementitious composites is a disadvantage due
to its high trigger time. In different studies, measurements
of piezoelectric properties were made for long days. It was
specified that the piezoelectric properties developed more
rapidly than the first 14–15 days in 60-day measurements,
and optimum properties were gained despite the slowdown
in the recovery on the 50th day after polarization. The
200 35
180
30
Piezoelectriccoefficient (d33)
160
140 25
120
20
100
15
80
60 10
40
5
20
0 0
0 5 10
Silica fume (%)
constant piezoelectric properties remained constant in the
measurements up to the age of 120 (Pan and Chiang 2014).
According to these studies, it can be assumed that the ideal
age for measuring piezoelectric properties is 60.
Pan et al. (2020) surveyed the effect on piezoelectric
properties of 0–3 type cement-based composites contain-
ing 30% to 70% PZT at w/c ratios ranging from 0 to 20%.
Polarization was kept at 1.5 kV/mm. The results of the study
indicated higher porosity and dielectric loss values in com-
posites containing higher w/c. It has been determined that
piezoelectric cement with a suitable w/c improves proper-
ties. To obtain the highest piezoelectric strain factor d33
and relative dielectric constant values, the optimum w/c of
the composites for 50% PZT and 70% PZT were found to
be 5% and 10%, respectively. It was also found that Kt was
strongly dependent on w/c and the effect of temperature
treatment on Kt became evident with the increase in w/c. It
was found that higher temperature treatment on the samples
resulted in lower resistivity and dielectric loss values, which
increased the polarization efficiency relative to d33 and the
relative dielectric constant. It has been said that this implies
that water molecules in the cement matrix are one of the
dominant factors.
6 Usage of Steel and Carbon Fiber in PZT
Studies on the utilization of short CF in concrete have
become the focus of attention by some researchers to
improve the piezoelectric properties of cement-based
composites.
Smooth cement paste and carbon fiber-reinforced con-
crete (CFRC) provide piezoelectric properties thanks to the
transport of ions in the double layer under pressure. Since the
13

addition of CF increases the conductivity, it has been found
that the permeation of loads in the CFRC is faster than that
of plain cement paste. However, it has been observed that the
ion transport rate increases with the increase in the loading
speed, and the charge leakage is relatively slow, causing the
generated voltage to reach higher values (Sun et al. 2000).
In a study investigating the utility of CFs in cement, it has
been suggested that using cement CFs below 1% in cement
paste can cause a decrease in piezoelectric properties. A
study investigating such CFs shows that using CFs (15 μm
diameter) over 1% can markedly increase the piezoelectric
effect. At the same time, the effect of CF, carbon filament
(3%) (0.1 μm diameter), and SFi (0.18%) (8 μm diameter)
on piezoelectric properties in cement-based composites have
been investigated (Wen and Chung 2002a). The carbon fila-
ments and SF used to have larger interfaces because of their
smaller diameter. This is because the relative dielectric con-
stant of carbon filament and SFis is large. In another study
like study, the effect of adding SFi to cement-based compos-
ites on piezoelectric properties was investigated. The fiber
diameter used in the study was 8 µm and the fiber length was
6 mm, and the SFi content used in the cement was 0.18%
by volume. In addition, the fibers contained 47% polyvinyl
alcohol by volume, which facilitated their dispersion in mix-
ing and casting. As a result of the study, it was found that
the relative dielectric constant of composites containing SFi
under compressive loads increased significantly under stress
compared to cement paste (Wen and Chung 2002b). The
dielectric constants of steel and CFRCs are given in Table 2.
Luo et al. (2018) produced PZT and 0–3 type PZT/
Chrysotile fiber (CSF)/Cement composite (PZTCC)
wafers after mixing PZT synthesized by sol–gel method
with strontium carbonate (0.5% of PZT amount). Crystal
structure (XRD), microstructure (SEM) and piezoelectric
properties, and polarization of PZT and PZTCC wafers
were investigated after surface silver penetration. The
results showed that the inclusion of a mixture of CSF
and cement weakened the perovskite crystalline peak of
PZTCC and lowered its d­ 33. However, since the microhard-
ness corresponding to PZTCC is close to that of concrete,
Table 2  The effect of different Refs
fibers on the dielectric constant
Wen and Chung (2002a)
Wen and Chung (2002b)
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
it has been determined that it narrows the gap in toughness
between PZTCC and concrete. Although good linear and
fast electrical response, relative sensitivities, linearity, and
repeatability of PZTCC to pulsed or cyclic loading have
been achieved, it is noted that the d­ 33 value of the PZTCC
sensor is not exactly high in activating the on-site monitor-
ing application. However, the study highlighted both the
possible use of PZTCC as an internal piezoelectric sensor
to detect responses and durability, as well as its use with
real-time health monitoring in ductile concrete structures.
Shoude et al. (2007) inspected the piezodielectric effect
mechanism by producing carbon fiber-sulfoaluminate
cement composites (CFSC) with compression technology.
The results showed that the relative dielectric constant
increases were linear when the stress was in the range of
5–60 MPa, but decreased significantly when these values
were exceeded. In addition, it is emphasized that CFSC
with 0.5% CF content has a good piezodielectric effect for
real-time, dynamic, and health monitoring, for the appli-
cation of bridges, dams, and similar important buildings.
In the study carried out by Zhang et al. (2019), basalt
fibers (BF) that increase local stress were used in 0–3
cement-based piezoelectric composites (0–3 CPC). The
effect of BF content ranging from 0% to 0.23% by volume
on the mechanical, piezoelectric, and dielectric properties
of 0–3 CPCs and the output voltage of 0–3 CPC sensors
was investigated. The results showed that the 0–3 CPC
sensor with a BF of 0.12% by volume has a 60% higher
voltage value than that of the 0–3 CPC sensor without
fiber. It was emphasized that the stress transfer improve-
ment in the composites was thanks to the good interface
connection between the BF and the cement matrix and
CPCs. It was found that splitting tensile strength and ­g33
of the composites first increased and then decreased, while
the εr and tanδ first decreased and then increased. It has
been found that this system provides a good new way
to develop a mechanical–electrical system. However, it
has also been mentioned that the effect of piezoelectric
properties is detrimental due to the low conductivity of
BF, which can effectively increase the local stress applied
Cement paste/Composites/PZT Dielectric constant (K)
Cement paste 33
Steel fiber and PVA 2500
PZT 1000
Cement paste 33 ± 4
Carbon fiber cement paste 55 ± 5
Carbon filament cement paste 98 ± 8
Steel fiber cement paste 2500 ± 200
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
to the piezoelectric ceramic particles in piezoelectric
composites.
Given the trigger time, GGBFS replacement is a good
opinion in composites. Ceramic particles are difficult to
polarize in an insulating cement matrix. The third conduc-
tive phase is made by adding carbon black and graphite to
increment the conductivity of the matrix and provide easier
polarization (Rujijanagul et al. 2008; Gong et al. 2009).
Although the addition of carbon to the composites can
improve the K and ­d33 of PZT-cement composites, it has
been observed that the dielectric loss increases due to the
increase in conductive materials (Fig. 7). Therefore, PVDF
is used as an insulating phase to improve the polarization of
piezoelectric composites (Jaitanong et al. 2014). In the study
using 50% PZT and 1, 5, 10, 20% PVDF by volume, results
were obtained that particularly the addition of 5% PVDF
increased the ­g33 and ­d33 coefficients. The polarization time
and dielectric loss decreased remarkably with the increase
in PVDF addition.
The studies of Gong et al. (2011) determined that the pie-
zoelectric properties increased drastically with the addition
of carbon nanotubes (CNT)s to PZT cement-based compos-
ites in their study. In the studies, the change of piezoelectric
properties with aging and polarization area was investigated
by adding carbon black and CNT in some proportions of the
cement volume of composites containing 70% PZT. Piezoe-
lectric strain and piezoelectric voltage factors increased with
an increase in CNT content up to 0.3%, but a deterioration
in piezoelectric properties was observed for CNT content
above this ratio. In the study, it was found that the ­d33 and ­g33
values increased up to 1% with the addition of carbon black,
but the addition of more carbon black caused a decrease
in the piezoelectric properties (Fig. 8). The optimum value
found for carbon black is 1%. The application of carbon as a
conductive phase facilitated the polarization process for both
Fig. 7  Relationship of PZT-
PVDF with dielectric constant
and piezoelectric coeffi-
cient [Source: adapted from
(Jaitanong et al. 2014)
Dielectric constant (K)
PZT-PVDF (εr)
PZT-PVDF (d33)
studies. The dielectric constant results from the polarization
in the composite and indicates the polarization efficiency.
The increase in the K also indicates the increase in the
polarization efficiency. For this study, the dielectric constant
increased due to increasing CNT and carbon black content.
However, the use of larger amounts of carbon resulted in
the decreased piezoelectric activity of the composites due
to excessive electrical conductivity.
7 Cement Mortars Incorporating
Cementitious Materials and Piezoelectric
Powders
Wang et al. (2016) inquired into the correlation between the
impedance properties of cement mortar and its mechanical
behavior in different electric fields and environments. In the
research, recycled materials were used as the replacement of
cement at the ratio of 10%, 20%, and 30% (FA, GGBFS, and
waste glass powder (WGP)) and PZT replacement of fine
aggregate in the same ratios. Flow, compressive strength,
water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and resis-
tivity 50 V and 100 V tests were applied to both groups.
Recycled materials were better for the added samples than
for the flow control samples, but the flow was reduced when
PZT was added. While compressive strengths were better
than control in cement mortars with 30% GGBFS and 20%
WGP, it was lower with the use of FA. The resistance of the
control in the dry saturated state is higher than in the PZT
group and lower in the dry state. Because PZT is sintered,
it has sufficient compaction, low dielectric loss, excellent
conductivity, and no water transmission path, thus help-
ing PZT create a capacitance in the cement mortar when
it receives electrical energy. Another result related to the
research is that the resistivity of the electric field medium at
160 30
140
25
Piezoelectric coefficient (d33)
120
20
100
80 15
60
10
40
5
20
0 0
0 2 5 10 20
PVDF (%)
13
 Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering

Fig. 8  Relationship of the εr d33

dielectric constant and piezo-
electric coefficient of the carbon 160 70
black/PZT/cement composites
on the carbon content [Sources: 140

Piezoelectric coefficient (d33)

60
adapted from (Gong et al. 2009,
2011) 120
50

Dielectric constant (K)

100
40
80
30
60

20
40

20 10

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Carbon content (vol %)

50 V is higher than at 100 V (Fig. 9.). The reason for this is
explained by the improvement in the internal conductivity
of the sample with the increase in voltage. A similar study
has been conducted by Kuo et al. (2013). In their study,
10%, 20%, and 30% of GGBFS were replaced with cement
and 5% of PZT fine aggregate was replaced with piezoelec-
tric powder to form cement mortar. The same experiments
were conducted as the work of Wang et al. (2016). When
the results were compared, congener findings were obtained
with the study and supported by the literature (Fig. 10).
Wang and Chung (1998) found that epoxy-containing
10% by volume CF and applied directly to cement mortar
as a coating (0.2 mm thick) has an effective piezoresis-
tive strain for tensile and compressive stress. However,
when these limits are exceeded, it has been stated that a
high degree of damage to the coating occurs. It has been
said that the resistance of the sensor is almost completely
reversible when the voltage is negative and only par-
tially reversed when it is positive. The electromechanical
behavior of the coated composite was found to be con-
sistent with that of the bulk form composite. Because of
its piezoresistance, the same researchers attained a single
CF in epoxy, CF epoxy-matrix composite (5.5% by vol-
ume), CF cement-matrix composite (0.2–0.5% by volume).

Fig. 9  Resistance values SSD 250

and OD conditions of cement
mortar with recycled materials
at 50–100 V voltages (28 days) 200
Resistivity percent (%)

[Source: adapted from (Wang

et al. 2016)]
150

100

50

0
Glass

GGBFS
Glass

GGBFS
Fly ash
Fly ash
GGBFS
Glass

GGBFS
Glass

GGBFS
Fly ash

RM0

Glass
GGBFS
Glass

Fly ash

RM0
GGBFS
Glass

Fly ash

Fly ash

RM0
GGBFS
Glass

Fly ash

RM0
Fly ash

RM0

RM0
RM0
RM0

Control PZT Control PZT Control PZT Control PZT

Recycled Materials Content (%)
0% 10% 20% 30%

13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
Fig. 10  Resistance values SSD 6000
(SSD: Saturated Surface Dry)
and OD (OD: Dried (Oven) 5000
State) conditions of cement
mortar with GGBFS and PZT
at 50–100 V voltages [Source: 4000
Resistivity (Ω)
adapted from (Kuo et al. 2013)]
3000
2000
1000
0
1 7 28 56 1 7 28 56
Control PZT
However, single bare CF was found to be resistive, not
piezoresistive.
8 Microstructure of CPCs
SEM images in the work of Zhang et al. (2019) showed that
the BF, cement, and PZT particles were rough and tightly
bound, which improved their reaction with cement. It has
been stated that this situation contributes to the stress trans-
fer and reduces the stress buffer applied to the piezoelectric
ceramic particles in 0–3 CPCs while increasing the local
stress. In Wang and Aslani's (2020) study, SEM images
of samples with different GGBFS/cement (G) ratios were
taken. Unreacted cement grains were observed in the plain
cement mortar and hydration products such as C–S–H and
CH were also observed due to the hydration of the cement.
In samples containing GGBFS, on the other hand, although
there is less CH product by pozzolanic reaction, CH can
react with S­ iO2 to form C–S–H. However, as it is known,
with the increase in the G ratio, the cement concentration
decreases and it cannot form a sufficient amount of CH for
the pozzolanic reaction. Causing poor secondary hydration
and results in less C–S–H. Therefore, more porous structures
and more microcracks were found for samples with a high
G ratio. In the study by Mao et al. (2016), it was observed
that the PZT particles were homogeneously dispersed and
combined well with the asphalt matrix, which formed the
gap between the PZT particles. However, in this study, car-
bon black particles could not be identified in the images
owing to their electrical conductivity. In the study by Han-
jitsuwan et al. (2011), SEM images of FA geopolymer paste
were taken at 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 L/A ratios. Geopolymer paste
matrices were found to be similar to unreacted FA particles
embedded in the matrix. Whereas the matrix of the paste
7 28 56 7 28 56 7 28 56 7 28 56 7 28 56 7 28 56
Control PZT Control PZT Control PZT
GGBFS content (%)
0% 10% 20% 30%
with a L/A ratio of 0.6 appears very dense, unreacted FA
particles can be observed at a high L/A ratio of 0.7 or high
Na content, manifested by the formation of a highly porous
structure.
9 Conclusions and Discussions
Due to both natural and man-made disasters and the aging
of the infrastructure, the attitude that engineers will adopt
towards future infrastructure design has a significant place
in SHM. In our age, engineers can visually observe defects
such as cracking and swelling in concrete on site. Although
these defects are not serious for the whole structure, they
can lead to the onset of many critical problems if not han-
dled properly. Optical sensors and electrical resistive strain
gauges are among the other methods, but there are many
methods to monitor these faults. These methods have the
advantage of evaluating internal stresses as they do not
require contact. With the advancement of technology,
researchers have focused on developing a quantitative model
that can predict the internal stresses on a self-sensing cemen-
titious material by leveraging their strong knowledge of elec-
trically reinforced cement to sense an electrical response.
Since the created design codes are constantly updated, it
has been mentioned that self-sensing materials may become
widespread in future designs. In this way, measuring the
damage of cement-based materials by only determining the
electrical response provides an important opportunity to
affect all infrastructure sectors.
Since cement-based composites contain many min-
eral additives (e.g., fly ash, slag, silica fume, etc.) and
fiber reinforcements, they increase tensile ductility and
micro-cracking behavior. The incorporation of SCM into
13

self-sensing concrete further enhances its ability to detect
stress, cracking, or strain.
Thanks to the autogenous self-healing feature of
cement-based materials, crack width control can be made
by using bacteria and mineral additives and specially
designed fiber-reinforced composites.
Piezoelectric materials and their applications are more
sustainable and renewable systems are promising for the
future. Construction materials such as cement and ceram-
ics can form composites with materials that will further
improve their piezoelectric properties. Researchers have
conducted many studies on this subject by discovering the
existence of piezoelectricity in hardened cement paste,
although it is not strong enough to pass the test. Some
researchers have discovered the piezoelectric property of
some pozzolanic materials used replacement of cement
and included studies on this subject in their research.
However, there are not many studies in the literature on
the use of piezoelectric materials in concrete. How much
energy can be produced by using which type of piezoelec-
tric materials in concrete is still a matter of debate, and
detailed studies are needed in this regard.
Innovations in building materials technology can be
decisive in increasing the service life. In addition, a good
investment prospect can be achieved in terms of lower life
cycle costs and less carbon footprint. However, there is a
situation where real-life structures are often subjected to
multiaxial stress conditions. In this circumstance, the cost-
effective use of self-sensing materials is a serious chal-
lenge for researchers. It can be focused on the solutions
to the shortcomings of the aforementioned smart materi-
als, such as the inability to detect the early stage of dam-
age in self-sensing concretes and the inability to utilize
PZT in static measurements. Many options can be made
applicable, such as accelerating technologies related to
the application of smart materials in smart structures and
incorporating artificial intelligence (automation, robot-
ics, and 3-D printing) in smart materials. Creating smart
cement-based materials in such technologies is currently
a major research challenge and subject of active research.
Microstructure and piezoelectric performance are
essential in experimental methods, as the imperfect sur-
face and mismatch in mechanical properties between the
matrix and the functional phase will significantly affect
the piezoelectric performance. Studies on the mechanical
parameters of the composite after polarization can help to
understand the development and mechanism of simulation.
Although smart materials can be effective in creat-
ing economical, environmentally friendly, and efficient
building components, supply–demand is expected to
increase as high-cost criteria complicate research stud-
ies. Especially, cost and added value gaps in the usage of
13
Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering
new nanomaterials and specially designed microfibers in
cement-based composites should be filled.
Acknowledgements This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sector.
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