 There is no anatomical connection between different neurons.
Process of Chemical Synaptic Transmission
 They are connected only functionally.
 Synapse is the functional junction between two neurons
 Synapses are where the nerve impulse passesfrom one cell to the
next via a specialized structure or junction
 They can be classified either by their anatomy or function.
Types of synapses
Anatomical classification of synapses
Depend on where the axon terminates on the other neuron :
1. Axo-dendritic : Axon to dendrite
2. Axo-somatic : Axon to cell body (soma)
3. Axo-axonic : Axon to axon
4. Dendrodendritic : Dendrite to dendrite
Physiological (functional) classification of synapses:
1. Electrical synapses via gap junctions
2. Chemical synapses involving neurotransmitters
Electrical Synapses
 Gap junctions are clusters of intercellular channels that directly connect
the interiors of two adjacent cells enabling the bidirectional passage of
electrical currents and small molecules (e.g. calcium, cAMP and inositol
1,4,5-trisphosphate).
 Gap junction channels are formed by the docking of two hexameric
connexin 'hemichannels' (also called 'connexons‘), one from each
adjacent cell
 Pre- and postsynaptic cell membranes are close to each other (~ 3.5
nm), separated only by regions of cytoplasmic continuity = gap
junctions.
1. Ions can flow through these gap junctions, providing low-resistance
pathway for ion flow between cells without leakage to the
extracellular space
2. Instantaneous, fast transfer from cell to cell ( < 0.3 msec) unlike the
delay seen with chemical synapses.
Where are electrical synapses found in the body?
 electrical synapses are widely distributed in the mammalian brain,
cardiac and many types of smooth muscles
 Also found in the retina, inferior olive and olfactory bulb
Chemical Synapses
 The vast majority of synapses in the nervous system are chemical.
 They use chemical substances called neurotransmitters (NT), to carry
information from one cell to the next.
 Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles.
 Circular synaptic vesicles contain excitatory NT elongated ones contain
inhibitory NT
 Microtubules transport vesicles to the presynaptic membrane
 Presynaptic membrane lines the synaptic knob. The inner aspect of
membrane is zone of dense cytoplasm for channeling of vesicles
 Synaptic cleft is ~ 20-40 nm wide.
 Postsynaptic process is the region of receiving neuron (e.g. dendrite)
 Postsynaptic membrane lines the postsynaptic process. It contains
receptor proteins which protrude into the synaptic cleft.
1. Release of NT
3. Removal of NT from synaptic
2. Development of excitatory postsynaptic
cleft
potential (EPSP) or inhibitory postsynaptic
4. Development of AP
potential (IPSP)
1. Release of NT
i. When AP arrives at the synaptic knob, depolarization of the presynaptic
terminal occurs.
ii. As a result of depolarization, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the
presynaptic membrane opens and increases permeability. Ca2+ from ECF
enters.
iii.The elevated Ca2+ in cytosol causes synaptic vesicles to move to the
presynaptic membrane
iv.Vesicles at the membrane release NT via exocytosis
v. Only one type of NT is released from all the terminals of a single neuron
(Dale’s phenomenon)
vi.NT diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to postsynaptic receptors. Time
lapse between arrival of AP and the effect of NT is called synaptic delay
2. Development of EPSP or IPSP
 Binding of NT to postsynaptic receptor cause opening of ion channels
 Both excitatory and inhibitory receptors exist on the postsynapticmembrane;
EPSP: Transient depolarization of postsynaptic membrane potential by
presynaptic release of excitatory NT
IPSP: Transient hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane potential
caused by presynaptic release of inhibitory NT
EPSP is produced when excitatory NT binds with a specific receptor protein
and open ligand-gated Na+ channels on a small area in the postsynaptic
membrane
 Na+ions influx and depolarize the small area of postsynaptic membrane
 As the amount of influx is small, only brief depolarization occurs followed by
a decline to resting potential
 EPSP does not transmit over the cell but it can depolarize adjacent
membrane passively.
 Development of EPSP - ionic basis
 EPSP (and IPSP) are graded responses.
 They do not follow the All or None law
 They show temporal and spatial summation
Process of Chemical Synaptic Transmission
 Development of IPSP
 IPSP is produced when inhibitory NT opens either K+ or Cl- channels in the
postsynaptic membrane
 K+ ions efflux and Clions influx and hyperpolarize the postsynaptic
membrane
3. Removal of NT from synaptic cleft
NT released in synaptic cleft can be inactivated via:
i. diffusion of NT out of the cleft
ii. enzymatic degradation of the NT (e.g. dissociation of Ach by
Acetylcholinesterase)
iii. active transport back into the presynaptic terminal or reuptake (e.g.
norepinephrine at sympathetic postganglionic nerve endings)
 Synthesis of new NT is continuous in the synaptic knob
 Why is it important to inactivate the NT?
 4. Development of AP Concept of excitatory & inhibitory NT
The development of AP from EPSP:  Some NT can cause excitation while others cause inhibition of postsynaptic
i. synaptic integration neurons
ii. generation of the initial segment spike  Physiologically NT can be divided into:
iii. generation of propagated signals 1. Excitatory NT
2. Inhibitory NT
The development of AP from EPSP:
i. synaptic integration Excitatory NT
 Is the phenomena of summation (temporal and spatial), of both IPSP 1. Excitatory NT can cause:
and EPSP produced at the postsynaptic membrane.  an AP if the target cell is a neuron
 the net algebraic summated potential which determines whether or not  a muscle contraction if the target cell is a muscle
AP will occur.  secretion if the target cell is a gland
The development of AP from EPSP:  Excitatory NT produce a depolarization of the postsynaptic
i. synaptic integration membrane called EPSP
 e.g. 5 presynaptic neurons produce;  The most common excitatory NT within the CNS is glutamate.
 3 EPSPs (+8mV each) and 2 IPSPs (-2mV each)  Others include acetylcholine and aspartic acid.
 Summated potential will be (+8x3) + (-2x2) = +20mV
 So AP will be generated Inhibitory NT
 if One EPSP (+8mV) and 4 IPSP (-2mV each)  Inhibitory NT reduce or block the activity of the postsynaptic cell
 Summated potential will be (+8) + (-2x4) = 0mV  Inhibitory NT produce a hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic
 So No AP will be generated membrane called IPSP
 after giving out summated output (synaptic integration), the  The most common excitatory NT within the CNS is glycine or gamma-
entire soma-dendritic tree is quickly resorted to its resting aminobutyric acid (GABA)
potential by the soma-dendritic spike, i.e. AP that travels  Others include dopamine
retrogradely over the soma and dendrites. It allows fresh
summation of EPSP and IPSP
ii. generation of the initial segment spike
 The summated potential EPSP and IPSP produced by the
excitatory and inhibitory NT spread passively to the initial
segment of the neuron.
 If the summated potential is large enough to depolarize, the
initial segment of neuron (threshold 6-7 mV), a spike potential
called the initial spike is generated
 The magnitude of the initial spike is 30-40mV from the
threshold level.
iii. generation of propagated signals
 The initial spike requires a low degree of depolarization for its own
production (because of low threshold value of the initial segment, i.e. 6-
7mV).
 however, once it is initiated, it produces a further depolarization of 30-
40mV by opening the many voltage-gated Na+ channels on the axon
hillock.
 So the initial spike triggers the generation of AP. At the axon hillock the
AP travels in both directions. Backward moving AP is called soma-
dendritic spike
Functional interaction between chemical and electrical synapses
-“Although chemical synapses are perceived to be structurally
more complex and functionally dynamic than electrical
synapses, emerging evidence indicates that electrical synapses
might be similarly complex, functionally diverse and highly
modifiable.”

-“Far from functioning independently and serving unrelated

functions, these two modalities of synaptic transmission closely
interact. Rather than conceiving synaptic transmission as either
chemical or electrical, this article emphasizes the notion that
synaptic transmission is both chemical and electrical, and that
interactions between these two forms of interneuronal
communication are required for normal brain development and
function.”