Neurophysiology: Part 2

• Neurophysiology
– Nervous System Overview
– Electrical Communication in Neurons
– Chemical Communication in Neurons
– Nervous System Pathways
 Neuron Communication
• Neurons communicate electrically through
electrical gradients and chemically through
neurotransmitters
• electrical communication: movement of ions in
an out of cell membranes
• can be small, local or travel long distances down the
branches of the cell
• chemical communication: release of
neurotransmitters (ligand) to nearby
neurotransmitter receptors (receptor) at synapses
 1) Input zone receives incoming
signals from other neurons.
Dendrites

Cell body
2) Trigger zone
initiates action 3) Conducting zone conducts
potentials. action potentials in undiminishing
Nucleus fashion, often over long distances.
Axon hillock
Axon (may be from 1mm
to more than 1 m long)

Axon
terminals
Dendrites 4) Output zone releases
neurotransmitter that
Cell body influences other cells.

Axon

Fig. 4-8, p. 98
 Synapses 1. Synapses with another neuron

Synapses are
Neuron
•
connection points Neuron

between two
2. Neuromuscular synapses
neurons or between Neuromuscular synapses

a neuron and a Neuron

muscle, gland, or
cell Skeletal
muscle

3. Neuroglandular synapses

Neuroglandular
Neuron synapses

Gland cells
 Neuron Communication
• At the connection between two neurons there is
a space (synaptic cleft) that does not allow
electrical current to flow, so a chemical signal is
required as an intermediate.
• Communication between two neurons is always:
– ELECTRICAL: action potential in 1st (pre-synaptic) cell
– CHEMICAL: neurotransmitter released to cross
synapse
– ELECTRICAL: graded or action potential in 2nd (post-
synaptic) cell
 Synapses Presynaptic neuron

Structures of a Synapse:
• Presynaptic neuron
• Synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic neuron Synapse

Postsynaptic neurons

Axon Terminal

Synaptic vesicles
Presynaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane
 Presynaptic Neuron Presynaptic neuron

• Presynaptic neuron: the

neuron that is
transmitting a signal TO
the synapse
– Synaptic Vesicles: tiny sacs
of chemicals that will be Synapse
released when the signal
reaches the axon terminal Postsynaptic neurons

– Neurotransmitters:
chemicals found in synaptic
vesicles that will excite the
postsynaptic neuron, Axon Terminal
muscle, or gland cell.
Synaptic vesicles
Presynaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane
 Synaptic Cleft Presynaptic neuron

• Synaptic Cleft: the

space between the
axon terminal and the
postsynaptic cell Synapse

• electrical signals Postsynaptic neurons

cannot directly pass

here, but chemicals
CAN Axon Terminal

Synaptic vesicles
Presynaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane
 Postsynaptic Neuron Presynaptic neuron
• Postsynaptic neuron: the
neuron that is receiving the
signal FROM the synapse
– Neurotransmitter
Receptors: proteins found in
the postsynaptic cell Synapse

membrane that bind to Postsynaptic neurons

chemical neurotransmitters
– Ion channels: proteins in the
postsynaptic cell membrane
that open to allow electrical Axon Terminal
impulses to conduct through
Synaptic vesicles
the membrane Presynaptic membrane
Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane
 Synapse
A synapse contains specialized structures to transmit electrical and
chemical signals
 Events at the Synapse
Pre-synaptic events at the axon
terminal:
1. ACTION POTENTIAL

2. Ca2+ ENTRY

3. NT RELEASE

Post-synaptic events at the dendrite:

4. NT RECEPTOR ACTIVATION
5. IONS ENTER
6. GRADED POTENTIAL
 1. Action Potential Reaches Axon Terminal
After traveling through the pre-synaptic axon, the axon potential
reaches the presynaptic axon terminal
This depends solely on electrical conduction through the axon.
1
Axon of
presynaptic
neuron
 2. Calcium enters the Axon Terminal
Voltage gated Ca2+ channels are present in the axon
terminal. When the action potential enters, voltage
gated Ca2+ channels open and calcium enters the axon
terminal

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
 3. Neurotransmitter Release
Vesicles filled with neurotransmitter, called synaptic
vesicles are in the axon terminal.
Ca2+ entry into the pre-synaptic terminal is the signal that
causes exocytosis of these vesicles and release of
neurotransmitter at the axon terminal

Synaptic
vesicle

Synaptic
vesicle
 4. Neurotransmitter Receptor Activation
Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to
neurotransmitter receptors on the post-synaptic cell membrane

Receptor for Receptor for

neurotransmitter neurotransmitter
 5. Ion Channels open on Post-Synaptic cell
Neurotransmitter binding to its receptor causes the opening of ion
channels attached to the receptor. Ions move into the post-synaptic
cell membrane

Receptor for Receptor for

neurotransmitter neurotransmitter
 6. Graded Potential at Dendrite
Influx of ions into the post-synaptic cell will cause a graded
potential at the dendrite of the post-synaptic cell.

Postsynaptic dendrite
 Summary Events at the Synapse
1. ACTION POTENTIAL PRE-SYNAPTIC: axon potential reaches
the presynaptic axon terminal
2. Ca2+ ENTRY PRE-SYNAPTIC: Voltage gated Ca2+ channels in
the axon terminal open in response to the action potential,
Ca2+ enters the axon terminal
3. NT RELEASE: Ca2+ causes release of neurotransmitter via
exocytosis at the axon terminal
4. NT RECEPTOR ACTIVATION: neurotranmitter binds to
neurotransmitter receptors on the post-synaptic membrane
5. IONS ENTER POST-SYNAPTIC: neurotransmitter receptor
activation opens ion channels in the post-synaptic
membrane
6. GRADED POTENTIAL in the post-synaptic cell dendrite (can
lead to ACTION POTENTIALS)
 Summary Events at the Synapse

1
Axon of
presynaptic
neuron

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel Synaptic knob 3
Ca 2+ (presynaptic
2 axon terminal)
Synaptic
Neuro- vesicle
transmitter
molecule 3 Synaptic
cleft
Subsynaptic 4
membrane
5
4
Chemically gated
receptor-channel
for Na+, K+, or Cl– Receptor for
neurotransmitter 5 Postsynaptic neuron

Fig. 4-15, p. 108

 EPSPs and IPSPs
The graded potential in the post-synaptic cell caused by synaptic
transmission is called a post-synaptic potential (PSP).
– EPSP: excitatory post-synaptic potential
• If the ion channel opens and positive ions flow IN to the post-synaptic
membrane (ex: Na+), it is excitatory (EPSP) to the cell
• used to increase depolarization, can lead to action potentials
– IPSP: inhibitory post-synaptic potential
• If negative ions flow IN to the post-synaptic membrane (ex: Cl-), it is
inhibitory (IPSP) to the cell
• used to hyperpolarize and reduce the number of action potentials
• The type of ion channel (Na+, Cl-, etc) activated by the
neurotransmitter will depend both on the neurotransmitter and the
neurotransmitter receptor type.
 +30
Membrane potential (mV)
in postsynaptic neuron

Activation of synapse
Threshold
–50
potential
EPSP
–70

5 15 25 35 45
Time (msec)
(a) Excitatory synapse
Fig. 4-16a, p. 110
Membrane potential (mV)
in postsynaptic neuron +30

Activation of synapse
Threshold
–50
potential
–70
IPSP

5 15 25 35 45
Time (msec)
(b) Inhibitory synapse Fig. 4-16b, p. 110
 Reaching Threshold (post-synaptic)
There are many inputs to Dendrites Synaptic inputs
(presynaptic axon terminals)
one neuron. EPSPs and
IPSPs will enter from
multiple synapses, their
combination of activity
will determine whether a
cell will reach threshold
for an action potential
– Resting potential = -70mV
– Threshold = -50 to -55 mV Cell body of Axon Myelinated
– Graded potentials (EPSPs postsynaptic neuron hillock axon
and IPSPs)
 Summation
• A single EPSP cannot induce an
action potential but they can be
summed
• The axon hillock keeps score of all
graded potentials received at the
dendrites
 Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs
Graded potentials (EPSPs, IPSPs) are not subject to
refractory periods and can add up to create action
potentials. There are two main ways this can happen:
1. Temporal Summation: one pre-synaptic cell can
cause EPSPs very close in time, it will add up to
threshold
2. Spatial Summation: two different pre-synaptic cells
at different locations can cause EPSPs at the same
time, they will add up to threshold.
* note IPSPs can also combine, but they will reduce the
likelihood of reaching threshold
 Temporal Summation
• Temporal summation –
one presynaptic neuron
increases the frequency
of impulses and more
neurotransmitters are
released in quick
succession
• same location,
stimulation increases
timing
 Spatial Summation
• Spatial summation – postsynaptic neuron is stimulated
by multiple presynaptic neurons at the same time
• same timing, stimulation increases locations
– IPSPs and EPSPs can also be summed and cancel each other out
 Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs

Excitatory
presynaptic inputs

Postsynaptic membrane potential (mV)

(a) No (b) Temporal (c) Spatial (d) EPSP-IPSP
summation summation summation cancellation

+30
Membrane
potential 0
recorded

Threshold
–50
Postsynaptic potential
cell –70 Resting
potential

Inhibitory
Time (msec)
presynaptic input

Fig. 4-17, p. 111

 Neurotransmitters
There are many types of neurotransmitters in the Nervous System. In
general, one neuron type releases one type of neurotransmitter. But,
any given neuron can respond to several types of neurotransmitters.
Some common examples:
– Acetylcholine
• found at neuromuscular synapses, autonomic nervous system
– Glutamate
• the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
– GABA
• the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
– Norepinephrine
• autonomic nervous system, learning, emotion, behavioral pathways
– Dopamine
• learning, emotion, behavioral pathways
– Serotonin
• learning, emotion, behavioral pathways”
 Classification by Neurotransmitter Function
• Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) cause
depolarization of post-synaptic neurons
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA and glycine) cause
hyperpolarization of post-synaptic neurons
• Some neurotransmitters can have BOTH excitatory and
inhibitory effects
– Determined by the receptor type of the postsynaptic
neuron
– Example: acetylcholine
• Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions with skeletal muscle
(nicotinic receptor)
• Inhibitory in cardiac muscle (muscarinic receptor)
 Neurotransmitter Receptor Mechanisms

• Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion channels

– Promote rapid responses “fast synapses”
– Examples: ACh and amino acids
 Neurotransmitter Receptor Mechanisms
• Indirect: neurotransmitters that act through second messengers
– Promote long-lasting effects, “slow synapses”
– Examples: biogenic amines, peptides, and dissolved gases
 Effects of Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitter receptors mediate changes in
membrane potential according to:
– The amount of neurotransmitter released
– The amount of time the neurotransmitter is bound to
receptors
• Neurotransmitters will affect the membrane potential as
long as they are bound so they must be deactivated
 Deactivation of Neurotransmitter Effects
Graded potentials will continue as long as the neurotransmitter is
bound to its receptor. So, the neurotransmitter must be
inactivated or removed in order to stop the graded potential.
1) Active Transport: neurotransmitter will be actively pumped
back into the pre-synaptic cell or nearby neuroglia
2) Enzymes: enzymes are present in the synaptic cleft that will
breakdown the neurotransmitter to quickly stop the signal
• ex: acetylcholinesterase

3) Diffusion: the neurotransmitter diffuses enough away from

the synaptic cleft to reduce its signal
Deactivation of Neurotransmitters
 Acetylcholine Related Enzymes
• Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme found in the synaptic
cleft that degrades acetylcholine.
• Chemical Reaction:
AchE
acetylcholine → acetate + choline

• Choline is then actively transported back into the

presynaptic terminal and used to reform acetylcholine
with the help of the enzyme ChAT (choline acetyl
transferase)
Tetanus Toxin: prevents release of GABA from inhibitory neurons at neuromuscular
synapses, causes uncontrolled muscle spasms (too much excitation) and lock jaw.
 Convergent Pathways
A single cell is influenced by thousands of other cells, this is input converging
on one cell, and is a Convergent Pathway.

Postsynaptic
neuron

Presynaptic
inputs

Convergence of input
(one cell is influenced
by many others)
Fig. 4-19, p. 116
 Divergent Pathways
A single cell can also branch to thousands of other cells, this is input
expanding from one cell to many and is a Divergent Pathway.

Presynaptic
inputs

Postsynaptic
neurons

Divergence of output
(one cell influences
many others)
Fig. 4-19, p. 116
 Information Coding in Neural Circuits
Ultimately, the information conveyed within a neural circuit is found within
the pattern of electrical stimulation
Graded Potential Patterns: subthreshold electrical EPSPs and IPSPs
• increase amplitude and frequency of EPSPs and IPSPs signals that more
activation has occurred
Action Potential Patterns: All or None electrical propogation
• CANNOT change the shape or amplitude of the AP
• increased frequency or change in pattern of AP’s is used as the “coding”
signal that activation has changed
The End