Types of synapses

neuron. Figure 6–5 shows how, in a multineuronal pathway, a

Types oftosynapses
single neuron can be postsynaptic to one cell and presynaptic
another. A postsynaptic neuron may have thousands of synaptic
Presynaptic
junctions on the surface of its dendrites and cell body, so that
• from
signals Themany
anatomically specialized
presynaptic junction
neurons can affectbetween
it. two
neurons where one neuron alters the electrical and
chemical activity of another is called a synapse. Postsynaptic

• At6–1 Characteristics
a synapse of Three
between neurons, the neuron sending the Axon
Table Classes of Neurons
signal is called the presynaptic neuron.
Presynaptic
I. AFFERENT NEURONS

•A. The
Transmit information
neuron receivinginto
thethemessage
central nervous system
is called the
from receptors at their peripheral endings
postsynaptic neuron.
B. Cell body and the long peripheral process of the axon are in Presynaptic
the peripheral nervous system; only the short central process
Most synapses
of the are:the central nervous system
axon enters Postsynaptic
C. Most have no dendrites (do not receive inputs from other
• Axodendritic (from axon to dendrite),
neurons)
• Axosomatic (from axon to cell body), or
Presynaptic
II. • Axoaxonic
EFFERENT NEURONS (from axon to axon).
A. Transmit information out of the central nervous system to
effector cells, particularly muscles, glands, or other neurons
The twobody,
B. Cell types of synapses,
dendrites, they segment
and a small differ both
of thestructurally
axon are and
functionally:
in the central nervous system; most of the axon is in the
1. peripheral
Electricalnervous system
Postsynaptic
2. Chemical.
III. INTERNEURONS
A. Function as integrators and signal changers
B. Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into
reflex circuits
Figure 6–5
Electrical Synapses

• At an electrical synapse, action potentials (impulses) conduct directly between adjacent cells through
structures called gap junctions.

• Each gap junction contains a hundred or so tubular connexons, which act like tunnels to connect the cytosol of
the two cells directly.

• As ions flow from one cell to the next through the connexons, the action potential spreads from cell to cell.

• Gap junctions are common in visceral smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and the developing embryo. They also
occur in the CNS.

Electrical synapses have two main advantages:

1. Faster communication. Action potentials conduct directly through gap junctions, electrical synapses are faster
than chemical synapses.

2. Synchronization. A large number of neurons or muscle fibres can produce action potentials in unison if they
are connected by gap junctions. The value of synchronized action potentials in the heart or in visceral smooth
muscle is the coordinated contraction of these fibres to produce a heartbeat or move food through the
gastrointestinal tract.
 Adjacent
membran
Adjacent
plasma Intercellu
membranes (a)

(b)
Connexons Strands
(composed of Adhesion
membran
connexins) belt

(e) (c)

Gap between
cells

Basement
(e) Gap junction membrane
(d)
Adjacent p
membrane
Chemical Synapses

• Although the plasma membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are separated by the synaptic cleft, a
space of 20–50 nm filled with interstitial fluid.

• In response to a nerve impulse, the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that diffuses through the fluid
in the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.

• the presynaptic neuron converts an electrical signal (nerve impulse) into a chemical signal (released
neurotransmitter).

• The postsynaptic neuron receives the chemical signal and in turn generates an electrical signal (postsynaptic
potential).

• The time required for these processes at a chemical synapse, a synaptic delay of about 0.5 msec, is the reason
that chemical synapses relay signals more slowly than electrical synapses.
 signal (postsynaptic potential).

Presynaptic neuron
1
Nerve impulse

2 Ca2!

2
Ca2!
Voltage-gated Ca2!
channel
Synaptic end bulb
Cytoplasm

Synaptic vesicles

Synaptic cleft
Ca2!

3
Neurotransmitter Na!

Neurotransmitter 4
receptor Ligand-gated
5
channel open
Ligand-gated
channel closed
Postsynaptic neuron
7
6 Postsynaptic Nerve impulse
potential

Why may electrical synapses work in two directions, but chemical synapses can transmit a signal in only one direction?
• A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a presynaptic axon.

• The depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens voltage-gated Ca channels, which are present in the membrane of
synaptic end bulbs. Because calcium ions are more concentrated in the extracellular fluid, Ca2 flows inward through the
opened channels.

• An increase in the concentration of Ca inside the presynaptic neuron serves as a signal that triggers exocytosis of the
synaptic vesicles. As vesicle membranes merge with the plasma membrane, neurotransmitter molecules within the vesicles
are released into the synaptic cleft. Each synaptic vesicle contains several thousand molecules of neurotransmitter.

• The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic
neuron’s plasma membrane.

• The binding of neurotransmitter molecules to their receptors on ligand-gated channels opens the channels and allows
particular ions to flow across the membrane.

• As ions flow in, the voltage across the membrane changes. This change in membrane voltage is a postsynaptic potential.
Depending on which ions (Na, K, Cl) the channels admit, the postsynaptic potential may be a depolarization or a
hyperpolarization.

• When a depolarizing postsynaptic potential reaches the threshold, it triggers an action potential in the axon of the
postsynaptic neuron.
 If the net summation of EPSPs and IPSPs is a depolarization that reaches threshold, then an action potential
will occur at the trigger zone of a postsynaptic neuron.

Presynaptic neuron 3

Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynap6c Poten6als Cell body

Dendrites

• A neurotransmitter causes either an excitatory or an Presynaptic neuron 2 Presynaptic neuron 4

inhibitory graded potential.

Axon

• A neurotransmitter that depolarizes the postsynaptic

membrane is excitatory because it brings the Axon
terminal
membrane closer to threshold. A depolarizing Presynaptic neuron 1 Presynaptic neuron 5

postsynaptic potential is called an excitatory EPSP

Inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP). P neurotransmitter

IP
IP

SP
• A neurotransmitter that causes hyperpolarization of

EPSP

EPSP
the postsynaptic membrane is inhibitory. During Excitatory

hyperpolarization, the generation of an action neurotransmitter

Trigger zone
(net summation of EPSPs and IPSPs
potential is more difficult thus even farther from determines whether an action
potential is generated here)

reaching threshold. A hyperpolarizing postsynaptic Postsynaptic neuron

potential is termed an inhibitory postsynaptic

potential (IPSP).

? Suppose that the net summation of the EPSPs and IPSPs shown in this figure is a depolarization that brings the membrane
potential of the trigger zone of the postsynaptic neuron to !60 mV. Will an action potential occur in the postsynaptic neuron ?
 FigureJunc6on
Neuromuscular 10.13 Motor units. Two somatic motor neurons (one
purple and one green) are shown, each supplying the muscle fiber
of its motor unit.
• The nerve cells whose axons innervate skeletal muscle A motor unit consists of a somatic motor neuron
fibers are known as motor neurons plus all the muscle fibers it stimulates.

• The axon of a motor neuron divides into many branches, Neuromuscular

each branch forming a single junc<on with a muscle junction
fibre.

• A single motor neuron innervates many muscle fibres,

but each muscle fibre is controlled by a branch from only
one motor neuron.
Motor
• A motor neuron plus the muscle fibres it innervates is Spinal cord neurons
called a motor unit. Muscle fibers (cells)

• When an ac<on poten<al occurs in a motor neuron, all ? What is the effect of the size of a motor unit on its strengt
the muscle fibres in its motor unit are s<mulated to of contraction? (Assume that each muscle fiber can gener
contract. ate about the same amount of tension.)
 Motor nerve fiber
• The axon terminals of a motor neuron contain vesicles Myelin
similar to the vesicles found at synap<c junc<ons Axon terminal
between two neurons. Schwann cell
Synaptic vesicles
(containing A C h)
• The vesicles contain the neurotransmiAer acetylcholine Active zone
(ACh).

• The muscle fibre plasma membrane that lies directly

under the terminal por<on of the axon is known as the S arcolemma Synaptic
motor end plate. cleft

• The junc<on of an axon terminal with the motor end R egion of

Junctional
Nucleus of muscle fiber folds
plate is known as a neuromuscular junc8on. sarcolemma
with A C h receptors

(a) (b)

Figure 9–14
The neuromuscular junction. (a) Scanning electron micrograph showing branching of motor axons, with terminals embedded in grooves in the
muscle fiber’s surface. (b) Structure of a neuromuscular junction.
 1 Motor neuron
action potential

Acetylcholine
vesicle
2 C a 2+ enters 8 Propagated action
voltage-gated potential in muscle
channels plasma membrane

Voltage-gated
3 Acetylcholine N a + channels
rele ase
+ + + + + + + +
+
– – – – + 4 Acetylcholine binding – – – –
+ – opens ion channels 5 N a + entry – +
+
– + + + + + +
+ +
– – – – – – –
–
9 Acetylcholine 7 Muscle fiber
Acetylcholine receptor
degradation action potential
Acetylcholinesterase initiation

Motor end plate 6 Local current betwe en

depolariz ed end plate and
adjacent muscle plasma
membrane
 Mechanisms of Neurotransmi1er Release

• Ac0on poten0al is ini0ated and propagates to motor neuron axon terminals.

• Calcium enters axon terminals through voltage-gated calcium channels.

• Calcium entry triggers release of ACh from axon terminals.

• ACh diffuses from axon terminals to motor end plate in muscle fiber.

• ACh binds to nico0nic receptors on motor end plate, increasing their permeability to Na+ and K+.

• More Na+ moves into the fiber at the motor end plate than K+ moves out, depolarizing the
membrane and producing the end plate poten0al (EPP).

• Local currents depolarize the adjacent muscle cell plasma membrane to its threshold poten0al,
genera0ng an ac0on poten0al that propagates over the muscle fiber surface and into the fiber
along the T-tubules.