Mechanics 1-4 Units

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y
Centre of mass frame of reference
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relative to
the laboratory frame

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spin angular
momentum
orbital angular
momentum
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(using perpendicular axes theorem)

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Unit 3: Oscillations and Waves
B. Sc. I semester (Mechanics)

Atika Fatima
Aligarh Muslim University
May 21, 2021
Atika Fatima Unit 3: Oscillations and Waves May 21, 2021 1 / 111
Outline
1 Oscillations
2 Wave Motion
3 Superposition of two Harmonic Waves
Unit III: Oscillations and Waves
Oscillations: Simple Harmonic Oscillations. Differential equation of

SHM and its solution. Kinetic energy, potential energy, total energy
and their time-average values. Transient and steady states, Damped
oscillation. Forced oscillations:, Resonance, sharpness of resonance;
power dissipation and Quality Factor.
Wave Motion: Plane and Spherical Waves. Longitudinal and
Transverse Waves. Plane Progressive (Travelling) Waves. Wave
Equation. Particle and Wave Velocities, energy density and intensity of
waves, Differential Equation of waves. Pressure of a Longitudinal
Wave.
Superposition of Two Harmonic Waves: Standing (Stationary)
Waves. Changes of wave characteristics (displacement, particle
velocity, pressure, phase, etc.) with respect to Position and Time.
Phase and Group velocities and relation between them.
Oscillations
Outline
1 Oscillations
2 Wave Motion
Oscillations
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

classified broadly into two categories viz. translational motion and
vibrational motion.
Oscillations

vibrational motion.
When the position of a body varies linearly with time, the motion
associated is translatory motion, for example, the motion of a train on
its track or the motion of ball rolling on the ground, etc.
Oscillations

vibrational motion.
A motion that repeats itself in equal interval of time is called periodic

motion, for example, the motion of the hands of a clock.
Oscillations

vibrational motion.

If a body in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path,
its motion is called vibratory or oscillatory.
Oscillations

vibrational motion.

The oscillatory motion is essential for the understanding of the various

systems including the mechanical, acoustic, electrical and atomic,
therefore, the study of oscillations is important.
Oscillations

vibrational motion.

The oscillatory motion is essential for the understanding of the various

systems including the mechanical, acoustic, electrical and atomic,
therefore, the study of oscillations is important.
One of the simplest example of oscillatory motion is the Simple

Harmonic Motion having only one degree of freedom.
Oscillations
SHM (Contd.)
Figure: Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion. LHS A pendulum oscillating in a

plane, and RHS A mass attached to the spring.
Oscillations
SHM (Contd.)

The motion of the pendulum is specified only by the angle – that the string
makes with the vertical axis.
Oscillations
SHM (Contd.)

The motion of the pendulum is specified only by the angle – that the string
makes with the vertical axis.
The motion of the mass attached to the spring is described by the
displacement Â of the spring from its mean position.
Oscillations
Differential equation of the SHM
We have seen in all of the examples of the simple harmonic oscillators that
when they are slightly disturbed from their equilibrium or rest position, will
oscillate with simple harmonic motion.
Oscillations
Consider the example of the SHM of the mass attached to a spring. Now in
order to displace the spring from its mean position, work has to be done on
the system.
Oscillations
the system.
As already mentioned, the motion a SHM is described only by one
variabble so
F = ≠kx
From Newton’s law, we know F = ma, so the above equation becomes

k
a = ≠ x (1)
m
ˆ2x k
= ≠ x (2)
ˆt2 m
Oscillations
the system.
As already mentioned, the motion a SHM is described only by one
variabble so
F = ≠kx
From Newton’s law, we know F = ma, so the above equation becomes

k
a = ≠ x (1)
m
ˆ2x k
= ≠ x (2)
ˆt2 m
This is the equation of simple harmonic motion.
Oscillations
Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)
The equation of simple harmonic motion states that

the acceleration of the system in SHM is proportional and opposite in sign
to the displacement.
Oscillations

We need to solve this equation in order to determine the type of motion
described by the equation of motion.
Oscillations

Rearranging the equation of motion for the SHM, we get
ˆ2x k
+ x = 0, (3)
ˆt2 m
ˆ2x
+ Ê2 x = 0 (4)
ˆt2
Ò
where Ê = m k
is a constant and is called as the angular frequency of the
SHM. The above equation is nothing but a homogenous equation with
constant coefficients and its solution is well known.
Oscillations

Rearranging the equation of motion for the SHM, we get
ˆ2x k
+ x = 0, (3)
ˆt2 m
ˆ2x
+ Ê2 x = 0 (4)
ˆt2
Ò
where Ê = m k
is a constant and is called as the angular frequency of the
SHM. The above equation is nothing but a homogenous equation with
constant coefficients and its solution is well known.
Since the above equation doesn’t has any real roots, therefore, the solution
of the differential equation involves only the imaginary roots.
Oscillations

Therefore, the solution of Eq. (4) is expressed as
x(t) = AÕ eiÊt + B Õ e≠iÊt , (5)
where A and B are proportionality constants.

Õ Õ
Oscillations


Õ Õ
Recall the identity
e±i◊ = cos ◊ ± i sin ◊
Using the above identity, Eq.(5) may be rewritten as
x(t) = AÕ (cos Êt + i sin Êt) + B Õ (cos Êt ≠ i sin Êt),

x(t) = (AÕ + B Õ ) cos Êt + i(AÕ ≠ B Õ ) sin Êt (6)
Oscillations


Õ Õ
Recall the identity
e±i◊ = cos ◊ ± i sin ◊
Using the above identity, Eq.(5) may be rewritten as
x(t) = AÕ (cos Êt + i sin Êt) + B Õ (cos Êt ≠ i sin Êt),

x(t) = (AÕ + B Õ ) cos Êt + i(AÕ ≠ B Õ ) sin Êt (6)
Now we redefine the constants AÕ and B Õ in terms terms of more specific

variables A (Amplitude of the SHM) and „ (initial phase)
 (AÕ + B Õ ) (AÕ ≠ B Õ )
A= AÕ 2 + B Õ 2 , cos „ =  , sin „ = i 
AÕ 2 + B Õ 2 AÕ 2 + B Õ 2
Oscillations
With these modifications, now the solution of the SHM becomes
x(t) = A cos Êt cos „ ≠ A sin Êt sin „

= A cos(Êt + „) (7)
Oscillations
Velocity and acceleration
The displacement x(t) is defined as
x(t) = A cos(Êt + „). (8)
The velocity is defined as

dx
V = = ≠AÊ sin(Êt + „) (9)
dt
and the acceleration is defined as
d2 x
a= = ≠AÊ 2 cos(Êt + „) = ≠Ê 2 x (10)
dt2
Oscillations
Displacement, velocity and acceleration as a function of time
Oscillations
Kinetic energy
Consider a system at rest at its equilibrium position.
Oscillations
Kinetic energy
In order to displace this system from its equilibrium position, we have

to perform a certain amount of work on the system, and the system
acquires potential energy.
Oscillations
Kinetic energy

When this system is released, it begins to move with a velocity v and

thus acquire kinetic energy.
Oscillations
Kinetic energy


At any instant of time, the kinetic energy of the system of mass m

executing SHM is given by
1 1
Kinetic energy (KE) = mv 2 = mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „) (11)
2 2
Oscillations
Kinetic energy


At any instant of time, the kinetic energy of the system of mass m

executing SHM is given by
1 1
Kinetic energy (KE) = mv 2 = mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „) (11)
2 2
Thus, kinetic energy of a system performing SHM varies periodically.
Oscillations
Its value is maximum, KE = 12 mÊ 2 A2 when the velocity is

maximum (v = ±ÊA) and displacement is zero.
Oscillations
Its value is maximum, KE = 12 mÊ 2 A2 when the velocity is

maximum (v = ±ÊA) and displacement is zero.
The value of KE is zero when the velocity is zero and displacement is

maximum (x = ±A).
Oscillations
Potential energy
Now, we compute the potential energy of the harmonic oscillator at a

particular time t, at which the displacement is x.
Oscillations
Potential energy

The potential energy is given by the amount of work done required to

move the system from x = 0 to x, by applying certain force.
Oscillations
Potential energy


In order to displace the system from its equilibrium position, the force
applied must be enough to oppose the restoring force, F = ≠kx.
Oscillations
Potential energy


Therefore, the applied force must be F = kx and the amount of work

done to produce an infinitesimal displacement dx is kx dx.
Oscillations
Potential energy


Therefore, the applied force must be F = kx and the amount of work

done to produce an infinitesimal displacement dx is kx dx.
Thus, the amount of work done to displace the system from x = 0 to x

or the potential energy of the SHM is
⁄ x
1 2 1
U =W = kx dx = kx = mÊ 2 A2 cos2 (Êt + „). (12)
0 2 2
Oscillations
Total energy
The total energy E of a harmonic oscillator is the sum of kinetic and

potential energies and is given as:
E = KE + U
1 ! "
= mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „) + cos2 (Êt + „)
2
1 1
= mÊ 2 A2 = kA2 . (13)
2 2
Oscillations
Total energy
The total energy E of a harmonic oscillator is the sum of kinetic and

potential energies and is given as:
E = KE + U
1 ! "
= mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „) + cos2 (Êt + „)
2
1 1
= mÊ 2 A2 = kA2 . (13)
2 2
The above expression implies that the total energy of a harmonic oscillator
is a constant.
Oscillations
Total energy (Contd.)
Oscillations
Total energy (Contd.)
Oscillations
Time average values of kinetic and potential energies
Total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a constant and the

maximum value of both potential and kinetic energies is 12 mÊ 2 A2 .
Oscillations
Time average values of kinetic and potential energies
Total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a constant and the

maximum value of both potential and kinetic energies is 12 mÊ 2 A2 .
Now, we evaluate the average potential energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator over a complete oscillation (over a whole time period T )
⁄ T
1 1
Uaverage = mÊ 2 A2 cos2 (Êt + „)dt
T 0 2
⁄
mÊ A2
2 T
= [1 + 2 cos(Êt + „)] dt
4T 0
We know that the average value of a sine or a cosine function over a

complete cycle is zero, therefore, the above expression becomes
mÊ 2 A2 T mÊ 2 A2
Uaverage = [t]0 = T
4T 4T
mÊ 2 A2 1
= = kA2 . (14)
4 4
Oscillations
1 2
Therefore, the average potential energy of a SHM is 4 kA .
Oscillations
1 2
Next, we evaluate the average kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
over a whole time period T
⁄ T
1 1
KEaverage = mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „)dt
T 0 2
⁄
mÊ 2 A2
T
= [1 ≠ 2 cos(Êt + „)] dt
4T 0
mÊ 2 A2 T mÊ 2 A2
= [t]0 = T
4T 4T
mÊ 2 A2 1
= = kA2 . (15)
4 4
Oscillations
1 2
Next, we evaluate the average kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
over a whole time period T
⁄ T
1 1
KEaverage = mÊ 2 A2 sin2 (Êt + „)dt
T 0 2
⁄
mÊ 2 A2
T
= [1 ≠ 2 cos(Êt + „)] dt
4T 0
mÊ 2 A2 T mÊ 2 A2
= [t]0 = T
4T 4T
mÊ 2 A2 1
= = kA2 . (15)
4 4
Therefore, the average potential energy of the system = average

kinetic energy of the system = 14 kA2 = half of the total energy.
Oscillations
Damped oscillator
The ideal harmonic oscillator is frictionless.

But in reality, we may not be able to omit friction.
Oscillations
Damped oscillator

In this section of damped oscillator, we will examine the effect of a
frictional force Ff ric = ≠kv.
Oscillations
Damped oscillator

This type of friction is most often encountered, so our analysis will
therefore be widely applicable. For example, in the case of oscillations in
electromagnetic circuits, the electrical resistance of the circuit is precisely
analogous to a viscous retarding force.
Oscillations
Damped oscillator

The total force acting on the system of mass m is
F = ≠kx ≠ bv
Oscillations
Damped oscillator

The total force acting on the system of mass m is
F = ≠kx ≠ bv
The equation of motion is
d2 x dx
m = ≠kx ≠ b .
dt2 dt
Oscillations
There are two forces actingon the system:

1 a restoring force, kx
2 a damping force, ≠b dx
dt where b is the coefficient of the damping force
Oscillations
The equation of motion
d2 x dx
m = ≠kx ≠ b .
dt2 dt
holds only for small displacements and small velocities, and may be
rewritten as
d2 x dx
+“ + Ê2 x = 0 (16)
dt2 dt
where “ = b/m and Ê 2 = k/m.
Oscillations
The equation of motion
d2 x dx
m = ≠kx ≠ b .
dt2 dt
holds only for small displacements and small velocities, and may be
rewritten as
d2 x dx
+“ + Ê2 x = 0 (16)
dt2 dt
where “ = b/m and Ê 2 = k/m.
The coefficient “ has the dimension same as that of frequency.
In Eq. (16), the damping is characterized by the quantity “ and the
constant Ê represents the angular frequency of the system in the absence of
damping and is called the natural frequency of the oscillator.
Oscillations
Solution of the equation of motion of Damped oscillator

In order to solve Eq. (16), we start with the exponential function and
assume that the solution is
x = Ae–t (17)
and solve for –.
Differentiating Eq. (17), we have
dx
= –Ae–t = –x (18)
dt
d2 x
= –2 Ae–t = –2 x (19)
dt2
Oscillations
Solution of the equation of motion of Damped oscillator

In order to solve Eq. (16), we start with the exponential function and
assume that the solution is
x = Ae–t (17)
and solve for –.
Differentiating Eq. (17), we have
dx
= –Ae–t = –x (18)
dt
d2 x
= –2 Ae–t = –2 x (19)
dt2
Using the above equations back in Eq. (16), we get
(–2 + “– + Ê 2 )Ae–t = 0.
The above equation holds at all values of t when the term in the bracket
vanishes,
–2 + “– + Ê 2 = 0.
Oscillations
The two roots of the quadratic equation are

“ 1 2
–1 = ≠ + “ ≠ 4Ê 2 ,
2 2
“ 1 
–2 = ≠ ≠ “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 .
2 2
Thus, the two possible solutions of Eq. (16) are
Ë È
“ 1 2
x1 = A1 e–1 t = A1 exp ≠ + “ ≠ 4Ê 2 , (20)
2 2
Ë È
“ 1 2
x2 = A2 e–2 t = A2 exp ≠ ≠ “ ≠ 4Ê 2 . (21)
2 2
Oscillations
The two roots of the quadratic equation are

“ 1 2
–1 = ≠ + “ ≠ 4Ê 2 ,
2 2
“ 1 
–2 = ≠ ≠ “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 .
2 2
Thus, the two possible solutions of Eq. (16) are
Ë È
“ 1 2
x1 = A1 e–1 t = A1 exp ≠ + “ ≠ 4Ê 2 , (20)
2 2
Ë È
“ 1 2
x2 = A2 e–2 t = A2 exp ≠ ≠ “ ≠ 4Ê 2 . (21)
2 2
Since Eq. (16) is linear, the superposition principle is applicable. Hence,

the general solution is given by the superposition of the two solutions
x = x1 + x2
Ë È Ë È
“ 1 2 “ 1 2
= A1 exp ≠ + “ ≠ 4Ê 2 + A2 exp ≠ ≠ “ ≠ 4Ê 2 (22)
2 2 2 2
Oscillations
The nature of the motion depends on the character of the roots –1 and
–2 .
The roots may be real or complex depending on whether “ > 2Ê or

“ < 2Ê respectively.
Oscillations
The nature of the motion depends on the character of the roots –1 and
–2 .
The roots may be real or complex depending on whether “ > 2Ê or

“ < 2Ê respectively.
Depending on whether “ > 2Ê, “ = 2Ê or “ < 2Ê, three kinds of motion

are possible, describing a particular kind of behaviour of the system.
Oscillations
Determination of the coefficients A1 and A2

Now, if we write “ = 1/· and put “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 = —, then the solution in
Eq. (22) may also be expressed in the form
Ë È Ë È
t t
x = A1 exp ≠ + —t + A2 exp ≠ ≠ —t (23)
2· 2·
Oscillations

Ë È Ë È
t t
x = A1 exp ≠ + —t + A2 exp ≠ ≠ —t (23)
2· 2·
At time t = 0, the displacement x be maximum, i.e., xmax = a0 and the
velocity dx
dt = 0. Using these boundary conditions in Eq. (23), we get
x(t = 0) = xmax = a0 = A1 + A2 . (24)
Oscillations

Ë È Ë È
t t
x = A1 exp ≠ + —t + A2 exp ≠ ≠ —t (23)
2· 2·
At time t = 0, the displacement x be maximum, i.e., xmax = a0 and the
velocity dx
dt = 0. Using these boundary conditions in Eq. (23), we get
x(t = 0) = xmax = a0 = A1 + A2 . (24)
Next, we evaluate the expression of velocity by differentiating Eq. (23) with

respect to time
1 2 Ë È 1 2 Ë È
dx 1 t 1 t
= ≠ + — A1 exp ≠ + —t + ≠ ≠ — A2 exp ≠ ≠ —t (25)
dt 2· 2· 2· 2·
Oscillations
Now applying the boundary condition i.e., dx

dt = 0 at t = 0 (where k = 2“)
1 2 1 2
dx 1 1
=0 = ≠ + — A1 + ≠ ≠ — A2
dt 2· 2·
 
= (≠k + k2 ≠ Ê 2 )A1 + (≠k ≠ k2 ≠ Ê 2 )A2

= ≠k(A1 + A2 ) + k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 )
or

k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 ) = k(A1 + A2 )

k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 ) = ka0
ka0
(A1 ≠ A2 ) = Ô . (26)
k2 ≠ Ê2
Oscillations
Now applying the boundary condition i.e., dx

dt = 0 at t = 0 (where k = 2“)
1 2 1 2
dx 1 1
=0 = ≠ + — A1 + ≠ ≠ — A2
dt 2· 2·
 
= (≠k + k2 ≠ Ê 2 )A1 + (≠k ≠ k2 ≠ Ê 2 )A2

= ≠k(A1 + A2 ) + k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 )
or

k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 ) = k(A1 + A2 )

k2 ≠ Ê 2 (A1 ≠ A2 ) = ka0
ka0
(A1 ≠ A2 ) = Ô . (26)
k2 ≠ Ê2
Adding Eqs. (24) and (26), we find the value of A1 , i.e.
ka0
2A1 = a0 + Ô
k2 ≠ Ê2
3 4
1 ka0
A1 = a0 + Ô
2 k2 ≠ Ê2
Oscillations
3 4
1 1
A1 = a0 1 + (27)
2 2—·
Oscillations
3 4
1 1
A1 = a0 1 + (27)
2 2—·
Similarly, the expression for A2 is obtained as

3 4 3 4
1 ka0 1 1
A2 = a0 ≠ Ô = a0 1 ≠ (28)
2 k2 ≠ Ê2 2 2—·
Oscillations
3 4
1 1
A1 = a0 1 + (27)
2 2—·
Similarly, the expression for A2 is obtained as

3 4 3 4
1 ka0 1 1
A2 = a0 ≠ Ô = a0 1 ≠ (28)
2 k2 ≠ Ê2 2 2—·
Substituting these values of A1 and A2 back in Eq. (22), ww get

53 4 Ô
1 k
e (k ≠Ê )t
2 2
x = a0 e≠kt 1+ Ô
2 k2 ≠ Ê2
3 4 Ô 6
k
e≠ (k ≠Ê )t
2 2
+ 1+ Ô (29)
k2 ≠ Ê2
53 4 3 4 6
1 1 1
= a0 e≠t/2· 1+ e—t + 1 ≠ e≠—t (30)
2 2—· 2—·
Oscillations
Case I: “ > 2Ê (Large Damping or Overdamping)
In the case when the damping term “ dominates the frequency term Ê,
the term (“ 2 /4 ≠ Ê 2 )1/2 is a positive quantity.
Oscillations
In the definition of x, both the two terms on the right hand side of
Eqs.(29) and (30) has an exponential term with a negative sign.
Oscillations
The displacement, after attaining its maximum value dies off

exponentially with time, without changing direction.
Oscillations
The displacement, after attaining its maximum value dies off

exponentially with time, without changing direction.
There is thus no oscillation and the motion is called as overdamped,

aperiodic or dead beat.
Oscillations
Case I
Oscillations
Case II: “ = 2Ê (Critical damping)

In the case of “ = 2Ê, it is clear that “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 = 0, therefore, each of the
two terms on the right hand side of Eqs. (29) and (30) becomes infinity and
the solution breaks down.
Oscillations
Case II: “ = 2Ê (Critical damping)

In the case of “ = 2Ê, it is clear that “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 = 0, therefore, each of the
two terms on the right hand side of Eqs. (29) and (30) becomes infinity and
the solution breaks down.

However, if we cosider the case when “ 2 ≠ 4Ê 2 is a very small quantity
but non-zero, say h, then the displacement can be expressed as
x = A1 e(≠k+h)t + A2 e(≠k≠h)t
= e≠kt (A1 eht + A2 e≠ht )
5 3 4 3 46
h2 t2 h2 t2
= e≠kt A1 1 + ht + + ... + A2 1 ≠ ht + + ... (31)
2! 2!
Neglecting the terms containing second and higher powers of h, we have
x = e≠kt [A1 (1 + ht) + A2 (1 ≠ ht)]

= e≠kt [(A1 + A2 ) + (A1 ≠ A2 )ht] (32)
Oscillations
Putting (A1 + A2 ) = M and (A1 ≠ A2 )ht, we have
x = e≠kt (M + N t) (33)
Oscillations
x = e≠kt (M + N t) (33)
Now, applying the boundary conditions i.e., x = xmax = a0 and dx/dt = 0

at t = 0, we get
xmax = M = a0 , (34)
dx
= ≠ke ≠kt
(M + N t) + e
≠kt
N,
dt
∆ N = kM = ka0 . (35)
Oscillations
x = e≠kt (M + N t) (33)
Now, applying the boundary conditions i.e., x = xmax = a0 and dx/dt = 0

at t = 0, we get
xmax = M = a0 , (34)
dx
= ≠ke ≠kt
(M + N t) + e
≠kt
N,
dt
∆ N = kM = ka0 . (35)
Using the value of M and N in Eq. (33), we get
x = e≠kt (a0 + ka0 t) = a0 e≠kt (1 + kt) (36)

1 2
t
= a0 e≠t/2· 1 + , (37)
2·
where we have used k = 1/2· .
Oscillations
In the last equation, the second term decays less rapidly than the first
term and the displacement of the oscillator first increases (upto certain
time t0 ) and then it returns back quickly to its equilibrium position.
Oscillations
The motion of the oscillator thus becomes aperiodic or non-oscillatory,

i.e., it just ceases to oscillate.
Oscillations

This is the case of critical damping and the motion is called as

critically damped.
Oscillations

This is the case of critical damping and the motion is called as

critically damped.
If we compare the case of overdamping and critical damping, it is

observed that the decay rate is much faster when “ = 2Ê than when
“ > 2Ê.
Oscillations
Case II
Oscillations
Case III: “ < 2Ê (Case of underdamping)
When “ < 2Ê, the damping is small and gives the most important kind of
behaviour viz. oscillatory damped harmonic motion.
Oscillations
1 21/2
“2
In this case, the quantity 4 ≠ Ê2 is an imaginary quantity, equal to

iÊ where Ê =
ı ı
Ê 2 ≠ “ 2 /4.
Oscillations
1 21/2
“2
In this case, the quantity 4 ≠ Ê2 is an imaginary quantity, equal to

iÊ where Ê =
ı ı
Ê 2 ≠ “ 2 /4.
Using the above expression in Eq. (29), the displacement vector for the
underdamped harmonic oscillator is given as
A1 e(≠“/2+iÊ )t
+ A2 e(≠“/2≠iÊ )t
ı ı
x =
= e≠“t/2 [A1 (cos Ê ı t + i sin Ê ı t) + A2 (cos Ê ı t ≠ i sin Ê ı t)]
= e≠“t/2 [(A1 + A2 ) cos Ê ı t + i(A1 ≠ A2 ) sin Ê ı t]
= e≠“t/2 (a0 sin „ cos Ê ı t + a0 cos „ sin Ê ı t),
= a0 e≠“t/2 sin(Ê ı t + „) (38)
where we have used (A1 + A2 ) = a0 sin „ and i(A1 ≠ A2 ) = a0 cos „.
Oscillations
Eq. (38) is the equation of a damped harmonicÔoscillator, with amplitude

Ê 2 ≠“ 2 /4
a0 e“t/2 (or a0 e≠t/2· ) and frequency Ê ı /2fi = 2fi .
Oscillations

Ê 2 ≠“ 2 /4
Differentiating the last equation with time, we obtain the expression for the
velocity of the oscillator
1 2
dx “
= ≠Ae≠“t/2 Ê ı cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) + sin(Ê star t ≠ „) . (39)
dt 2
This equation shows that the motion os oscillatory.
Oscillations

Ê 2 ≠“ 2 /4
1 2
dx “
dt 2

The oscillation is not simple harmonic, since its amplitude (Ae≠“t/2 ) is
not constant but decreases with time.
Oscillations

Ê 2 ≠“ 2 /4
1 2
dx “
dt 2

The motion is not even periodic, since it never repeats itself, each
swing being of smaller amplitude than the preceeding one.
Oscillations

Ê 2 ≠“ 2 /4
1 2
dx “
dt 2

The motion is not even periodic, since it never repeats itself, each
swing being of smaller amplitude than the preceeding one.
However, if “ is very small compared to Ê ı , the amplitude will remain
sensibly constant over a large number of cycles of the harmonic term
cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) in which case, the motion is nearly periodicand simple
harmonic.
Oscillations
The angular frequency of the oscillation is Ê ı , which is less than the

natural frequency of the free undamped oscillations.
Oscillations
The angular frequency of the oscillation is Ê ı , which is less than the

natural frequency of the free undamped oscillations.
The amplitude of the oscillator does not remain constant at a0 , which

represents the amplitude in the absence of damping, but decays
exponentially with time, to zero, in accordance with the term e≠kt ,
called the damping factor.
Oscillations
Displacement-time graph of the damped harmonic oscillator
Oscillations
Transient and steady states
Recall that in the case of damped oscillator, the solution of the

equation of motion is a superposition of two solutions x1 and x2 ,
Oscillations

In the case of low damping, we have seen that x2 is is given by
x2 = a0 e≠“t/2 cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) (40)

where Ê ı is the angular frequency of the free damped oscillations.
Oscillations

x2 = a0 e≠“t/2 cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) (40)

The amplitude a0 e≠“t/2 of the oscillation decays exponentially with

time. The motion corresponding to the solution x2 dies out with time.
Oscillations

x2 = a0 e≠“t/2 cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) (40)


While the motion corresponding to the solution x1 remains at all the

time.
Oscillations

x2 = a0 e≠“t/2 cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) (40)



time.
The situation is somewhat like: Suppose that the oscillator is at its

equilibrium position at time t = 0 when the external periodic force of
frequency ‹ is switched on.
Oscillations

x2 = a0 e≠“t/2 cos(Ê ı t ≠ „) (40)



time.
The situation is somewhat like: Suppose that the oscillator is at its

equilibrium position at time t = 0 when the external periodic force of
frequency ‹ is switched on.
A tussle ensues between the damping force tending to retard the

motion and the driving force tending to help the motion.
Oscillations
The damped oscillator likes to oscillate at its own frequency ‹ ı and the
driving force forces the oscillator to obey and oscillate the frequency ‹
of the driving force.
Oscillations
After a sufficiently longer time the oscillation succumbs, as it were, to

the driving force and settles down to a harmonic oscillation with the
frequency ‹ of the driving force.
Oscillations

Thus, for some time after the driving force is switched on, the motion
of the oscillator is given by the solution x1 + x2 . This is called as the
transient state.
Oscillations

transient state.
After the damped oscillations corresponding to x2 have died out, the

oscillator executes harmonic oscillations at the frequency of the driving
force. This is the steady state.
Oscillations

transient state.
After the damped oscillations corresponding to x2 have died out, the

oscillator executes harmonic oscillations at the frequency of the driving
force. This is the steady state.
Thus, the displacement x1 of the oscillator in the steady state is given

by
x1 = B cos(Êt + „) (41)
Oscillations
The complete solution is written as
x = x1 + x2 = Ae≠“t/2 cos(Ê ú t ≠ „) + B cos(Êt ≠ „). (42)
Oscillations
In the transient state, both the terms on the right hand side of the
above equation are operative, resulting in a motion that is a
superposition of two harmonic oscillations of angular frequencies Ê ı
and Ê giving rise to beats called transient beats.
Oscillations
In the transient state, both the terms on the right hand side of the
above equation are operative, resulting in a motion that is a
superposition of two harmonic oscillations of angular frequencies Ê ı
and Ê giving rise to beats called transient beats.
In steady state, only the second term in Eq. (42) contributes.
Oscillations
Forced oscillator
In this section, we are going to discuss about the behaviour of a weakly

damped harmonic oscillator, when an external time-dependent force is
applied on the system so as to maintain the amplitude of oscillations.
The problem of damped harmonic oscillator driven by an externally

applied harmonic force is of profound importance, because, generally a
system is set into oscillation by linking (or coupling) it in some way
with another oscillating system (which is called as the driver).
Oscillations
Forced oscillator
In this section, we are going to discuss about the behaviour of a weakly

damped harmonic oscillator, when an external time-dependent force is
applied on the system so as to maintain the amplitude of oscillations.
The problem of damped harmonic oscillator driven by an externally

applied harmonic force is of profound importance, because, generally a
system is set into oscillation by linking (or coupling) it in some way
with another oscillating system (which is called as the driver).
For example, in a resonance tube, the air column vibrates because it is

linked (by sound waves) to a vibrating tuning fork. The diaphragm of
a microphone vibrates because it is linked to the vibrations of a
musical instrument, etc.
A harmonic oscillator driven by an externally applied harmonic force is

said to execute forced oscillations or driven oscillations.
Oscillations
Forced oscillations of a one-dimensional damped harmonic

oscillator
If the frequency of the applied external periodic force to the oscillator

is not necessarily the same as its own natural frequency, a sort of tussle
ensues between the damping force tending to retard its motion and the
applied force tending to continue it.
Oscillations

oscillator

After some initial irregular motions, the oscillator succumbs to the

applied or the driving force and settles down to oscillating with the
applied or the driving frequency and a costant phase so long as the
applied force remains operative.
Oscillations

oscillator


An oscillator, thus compelled to oscillate with a frequency other than

its own natural frequency is called a driven harmonic oscillator and the
oscillations executed by it are, therefore, called driven or forced
oscillations.
Oscillations

oscillator


An oscillator, thus compelled to oscillate with a frequency other than

its own natural frequency is called a driven harmonic oscillator and the
oscillations executed by it are, therefore, called driven or forced
oscillations.
In the case of forced oscillations, when the frequency of the applied

force is the same as the natural frequency of the oscillator itself, the
phenomena of resonance or resonant oscillations occured.
Oscillations
Equation of motion of a driven oscillator and its solution
Suppose the periodic force which is applied to the damped harmonic

oscillator is of the form F = F0 sin pt, which is a sinusoidal force of
amplitude F0 and frequency p/2fi.
Oscillations
Equation of motion of a driven oscillator and its solution
Suppose the periodic force which is applied to the damped harmonic

oscillator is of the form F = F0 sin pt, which is a sinusoidal force of
amplitude F0 and frequency p/2fi.
Since the damping and the restoring forces acting on the oscillator are
dt and ≠kx, respectively, the equation of motion becomes
≠“ dx
d2 x dx
m = ≠“ ≠ kx + F
dt2 dt
2
d x “ dx k F0
+ + x = sin pt. (43)
dt2 m dt m m
Using m“
= 2k and m k
= Ê02 , where Ê0 is the natural angular frequency of
the oscillator. Putting Fm0 = f0 , which represents the applied force per unit
mass, we have
d2 x dx
+ 2k + Ê02 x = f0 sin pt (44)
dt2 dt
Oscillations
Solution of the equation of motion of forced oscillator
When the steady state has been achieved, i.e., after the tussle between the
damping and the applied forces has stopped, the oscillator has settled to
oscillate with the forcing frequency p/2fi and a constant amplitude A.
Oscillations
In order to solve Eq. (44), we try with some trial solution for x and check
whether it is a particular solution or not.
Oscillations
Let us try
x = A sin(pt ≠ ◊) (45)
as a particular solution of the equation of motion (Eq. 44), where ◊ is the
possible phase difference between the applied force and the displacement of
the oscillator.
Oscillations
Let us try
x = A sin(pt ≠ ◊) (45)
as a particular solution of the equation of motion (Eq. 44), where ◊ is the
possible phase difference between the applied force and the displacement of
the oscillator.
Since Eq. (45) is the solution of Eq. (44), thus we evaluate the expressions
for dx/dt and d2 x/dt2 to be
dx d2 x
= Ap cos(pt ≠ ◊), = ≠Ap2 sin(pt ≠ ◊) = ≠Ap2 x. (46)
dt dt2
Oscillations
Substituting the values of x, dx/dt and d2 x/dt2 in Eq. (44), we have
≠Ap2 sin(pt ≠ ◊) + 2kAp cos(pt ≠ ◊) + Ê02 A sin(pt ≠ ◊) = f0 sin pt

= f0 sin[(pt ≠ ◊) + ◊]
= f0 [sin(pt ≠ ◊) cos ◊ + cos(pt ≠ ◊) sin ◊]
One may rewrite the above expression as
A(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) sin(pt ≠ ◊) + 2kAp cos(pt ≠ ◊)

= f0 [sin(pt ≠ ◊) cos ◊ + cos(pt ≠ ◊) sin ◊] (47)
Now for the bove solution to hold good for all values of t, the coefficients of
sin(pt ≠ ◊) and cos(pt ≠ ◊) on bith sides of the above equation must be
equal, which gives
A(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = f0 cos ◊ (48)

2kAp = f0 sin ◊. (49)
Since we are interested in the values of A and ◊, therefore, squaring and

adding the last two equations we get
Oscillations
A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02 sin2 ◊ + f02 cos2 ◊

A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02
f0
A =  (50)
2
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2
Oscillations
A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02 sin2 ◊ + f02 cos2 ◊

A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02
f0
A =  (50)
2
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2
Dividing Eq. (49) by (48), we get

2kp
tan ◊ =
(Ê02 ≠ p2 )
2kp
◊ = tan≠1 2 (51)
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )
where ◊ represents the phase difference between the driven or forced
oscillator and the applied force.
Oscillations
A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02 sin2 ◊ + f02 cos2 ◊

A2 ((Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 ) = f02
f0
A =  (50)
2
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2
Dividing Eq. (49) by (48), we get

2kp
tan ◊ =
(Ê02 ≠ p2 )
2kp
◊ = tan≠1 2 (51)
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )
where ◊ represents the phase difference between the driven or forced
oscillator and the applied force.
Substituting the values from Eqs. (50) and (51) in Eq. (45) gives
3 4
f0 2kp
x=  sin pt ≠ tan≠1 2 (52)
(Ê02 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 (Ê0 ≠ p2 )
Oscillations
The last equation represents nothing but a SHM of frequency p/2fi,

same as that of the driving force, but lagging behind it in phase by ◊.
Oscillations

The last equation doesn’t account for the effect of the applied force
and the initial irregular motions.
Oscillations

Therefore, the solution we have tried (x = A sin(pt ≠ ◊)) is not the

complete solution for the equation of motion of forced oscillator
(Eq.43).
Oscillations


(Eq.43).
Eq. (43) is an inhomogenous differential equation because of the

presence of the term f0 sin pt.
Oscillations


(Eq.43).

In roder to complete solution for the equation of motion of the forced

oscillator, we have to add a complementary function, which is a
solution to the related homogenous equation d2 x/dt2 + 2k dx/dt + Ê 2 x
= 0.
Oscillations


(Eq.43).

In roder to complete solution for the equation of motion of the forced

oscillator, we have to add a complementary function, which is a
solution to the related homogenous equation d2 x/dt2 + 2k dx/dt + Ê 2 x
= 0.
In the case of damped oscillator, we have encountered similar type of

solution i.e., x = a0 e≠kt sin(Êt + „), which
represents the oscillations of
a damped harmonic oscillator, with Ê = Ê02 ≠ k2 .
Oscillations
Thus, the complete solution of Eq. (43) is
x = a0 e≠kt sin(Êt + „) + A sin(pt ≠ ◊). (53)
Oscillations
The first term on the right hand side of the above equation represents
and initial damped oscillations of frequency Ê/2fi, with its amplitude
decaying exponentially to zero.
Oscillations
The second term represents a force or driven oscillation of the forcing

frequency p/2fi and a constant amplitude A.
Oscillations
The second term represents a force or driven oscillation of the forcing

frequency p/2fi and a constant amplitude A.
The former oscillation dies out quickly and then the later remains
effective, thus, we are left with x = A sin(pt ≠ ◊) as the equation of
motion of forced oscillator with amplitude A and phase factor ◊.
Oscillations
Maximum value of the amplitude A
The value of A (A = Ô f0
) would be maximum when the
(Ê02 ≠p2 )2 +4k2 p2
value of the expression in the denominator is minimum, which can be
obtained as
d # 2 $
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 = 0
dp
≠4p(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) + 8k2 p = 0
Ò
p = Ê02 ≠ 2k2 . (54)
Oscillations
(Ê02 ≠p2 )2 +4k2 p2
obtained as
d # 2 $
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 = 0
dp
≠4p(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) + 8k2 p = 0
Ò
p = Ê02 ≠ 2k2 . (54)
Therefore, the amplitude of the forced

oscillator will be maximum
when the driving frequency is p/2fi = (Ê02 ≠ 2k2 )/2fi, which we may
represent as pR .
Oscillations
(Ê02 ≠p2 )2 +4k2 p2
obtained as
d # 2 $
(Ê0 ≠ p2 )2 + 4k2 p2 = 0
dp
≠4p(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) + 8k2 p = 0
Ò
p = Ê02 ≠ 2k2 . (54)
Therefore, the amplitude of the forced

oscillator will be maximum
when the driving frequency is p/2fi = (Ê02 ≠ 2k2 )/2fi, which we may
represent as pR .
The phenomenon where for a particular driving frequency, the response

or the amplitude of the forced oscillator is maximum is called
amplitude resonance and the particular driving frequency is known
as the resonant frequency.
Oscillations
Now, we substitute the value of pR from Eq. (54) in Eq. (43) to obtain
the maximum value of amplitude i.e.,
f0
Amax = 2
(55)
2k(Ê0 ≠ k2 )1/2
f0
= . (56)
2k(p2 + k2 )1/2
The above equation shows that the smaller value of k gives larger value
of A.
Oscillations
Now, we substitute the value of pR from Eq. (54) in Eq. (43) to obtain
the maximum value of amplitude i.e.,
f0
Amax = 2
(55)
2k(Ê0 ≠ k2 )1/2
f0
= . (56)
2k(p2 + k2 )1/2
The above equation shows that the smaller value of k gives larger value
of A.
Now, there arises three cases:
i) In the case of low damping, p ¥ Ê0 : The maximum amplitude is given as
f0
Amax = , (57)
2kÊ0
‘which means that the amplitude becomes infinite, when the damping is
zero.
In the case of driving frequency be negligibly small or zero and the
damping is low: The maximum amplitude in this case becomes
f0 F0 /m F0
Amax = = = . (58)
Ê02 k/m C
Oscillations
The last expression implies that the amplitude in this case is controlled
neither by its mass nor any damping but only by the force constant F0 .
Oscillations
In the case of low damping and high driving frequency: the amplitude
is given by
f0
Amax = , (59)
p2
which shows that amplitude, in this case, decreases as p increases.
Oscillations
In the case of low damping and high driving frequency: the amplitude
is given by
f0
Amax = , (59)
p2
which shows that amplitude, in this case, decreases as p increases.
Thus, it is clear from the above discussion that the amplitude of the force
oscillator depends upon the relative values of p and Ê0 .
Oscillations
Relation between amplitude and the driving frequency
Oscillations
From the graph, the following points may be noted:

The peak value of amplitude, Amax = f0 /2kÊ0 occurs when
(Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = 0, or when p = Ê0 , which is the condition for amplitude
resonance.
Oscillations

resonance.
The maximum value of A is different for different cases of damping,

becoming less and less as damping increases, but always occurs at, or
very nearly at (Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = 0 provided the damping is not too large.
Oscillations

resonance.
The maximum value of A is different for different cases of damping,

becoming less and less as damping increases, but always occurs at, or
very nearly at (Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = 0 provided the damping is not too large.
The fall in the curves on either side of (Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = 0 is steeper in the

case of smaller damping than in the case of heavier damping.
Oscillations
Sharpness of resonance
From the graph, we have seen that the curves between p and A falls
more steeply on either side of the respective peak values of A when the
damping is low than when it is high.
Oscillations
In the case of high damping, the amplitude remains more or less at its
peak value over an appreciable range on either side of (Ê02 ≠ p2 ) = 0.
Oscillations
The oscillator thus respond to a number of frequencies near about Ê0

on either side of it. The resonance in this case is said to be flat.
Oscillations

In the case of low damping, the steep fall of the curve on either side of
the maximum value of A shows that the oscillator responds only to the
frequency exactly equal to its natural frequency Ê0 and to none other.
The resonance here is said to be sharp.
Oscillations

In the case of low damping, the steep fall of the curve on either side of
the maximum value of A shows that the oscillator responds only to the
frequency exactly equal to its natural frequency Ê0 and to none other.
The resonance here is said to be sharp.
Thus, the sharpness of the resonance is a measure of the rate of fall

ofthe amplitude from its maximum value at resonant frequency on
either side of it.
Oscillations
Or we may say that the sharper the fall in amplitude is, the sharper is
the resonance.
Oscillations
Or we may say that the sharper the fall in amplitude is, the sharper is
the resonance.
In terms of damping, we may say that the smaller the damping is, the
sharper is the resonance. It may be observed from the plot between
amplitude and frequency that the sharpness of the resonance is
inversely proportional to the damping constant k.
Oscillations
Power dissipation
Power is defined as the rate of change of energy.

Since the amplitude of a damped or a forced oscillator goes on falling
exponentially with time, therefore, its energy dissipates continuously
during its oscillations.
Oscillations
Power dissipation

Here we cnosider the case of a damped oscillator and calculate the
power dissipation.
The displacement of damped oscillator is given by
x = a0 e≠kt sin(Êt + „), (60)
from which the velocity at any instant of time is calculated as
dx
= a0 e≠kt [≠k sin(Êt + „) + Ê cos(Êt + „)] (61)
dt
Oscillations
Power dissipation

Here we cnosider the case of a damped oscillator and calculate the
power dissipation.
The displacement of damped oscillator is given by
x = a0 e≠kt sin(Êt + „), (60)
from which the velocity at any instant of time is calculated as
dx
= a0 e≠kt [≠k sin(Êt + „) + Ê cos(Êt + „)] (61)
dt
Thus, kinetic energy at any instant of time is calculated to be

1 22
1 dx
KE = m (62)
2 dt
Oscillations
1 2 2
1
KE = m a0 e≠kt [≠k sin(Êt + „) + Ê cos(Êt + „)]
2
1 #
= ma20 e≠2kt k2 sin2 (Êt + „) + Ê 2 cos2 (Êt + „)
2
≠ 2kÊ sin(Êt + „) cos(Êt + „)]
Oscillations
1 2 2
1
2
1 #
2
If the damping is taken to be samll, then the amplitude does not change
appreciably over time, therefore the factor e≠2kt may be treated as a
constant over this period.
Oscillations
1 2 2
1
2
1 #
2
If the damping is taken to be samll, then the amplitude does not change
appreciably over time, therefore the factor e≠2kt may be treated as a
constant over this period.
Further, since the average value over a time period of both sin2 (Êt + „) and
cos2 (Êt + „) is 1/2 and that of 2 sin(Êt + „) cos(Êt + „) = sin 2(Êt + „) = 0,
the average value of kinetic energy over one complete cycle of rotation is
obtained as
1 1 1
KE = ma20 e≠2kt ( k2 + Ê 2 )
2 2 2
1 2 2 ≠2kt
= ma0 Ê e , (63)
4
where k2 is neglected as compared to Ê 2 .
Oscillations
The potential energy of the oscillator at a given instant of time t is

1 2 1 2 2
2 Cx = 2 mÊ0 x , where Ê0 is the natural undamped angular frequency.
Oscillations
The potential energy of the oscillator at a given instant of time t is

1 2 1 2 2
2 Cx = 2 mÊ0 x , where Ê0 is the natural undamped angular frequency.
Substituting the value of x from Eq. (60), we get
Ë È 2
1
PE = mÊ02 a0 e≠kt sin(Êt + „)
2
1
= mÊ02 a20 e≠2kt sin2 (Êt + „)
2
1
= mÊ 2 a20 e≠2kt , (64)
4
where in the case of low damping Ê ¥ Ê0 .
Thus, the total average energy of the oscillator at any instant of time t is
given as
1 1
E = mÊ 2 a20 e≠2kt + mÊ 2 a20 e≠2kt
4 4
1 2 2 ≠2kt
= mÊ a0 e
2
= E0 e≠2kt , (65)
Oscillations
where E0 is the average total energy of the undamped oscillator.
Oscillations
where E0 is the average total energy of the undamped oscillator.

Therefore the average power dissipation (P ) over a period of time t is
obtained as
dE
P = ≠
dt
= mkÊ 2 a20 e≠2kt
E 1
= 2kE = , k= . (66)
· 2·
This loss of energy is obviously due to the work done against the damping
force.
Oscillations
Quality factor
The quality factor is a factor that measures the quality of a harmonic

oscillator when damping is considered.
Oscillations
Quality factor

The quality factor, Q is defined as 2fi times the ratio of the energy

stored (total energy) to energy lost per time period,
Energy stored 2fiE
Q = 2fi = , (67)
Energy lost per period PT
where P is the average loss of energy over a period E/· .
Oscillations
Quality factor


Energy stored 2fiE
Q = 2fi = , (67)
2fi
Using the relations T = Ê and P = E/· , in Eq. (67), we get
EÊ
Q= = Ê·. (68)
E/·
Oscillations
Quality factor


Energy stored 2fiE
Q = 2fi = , (67)
2fi
Using the relations T = Ê and P = E/· , in Eq. (67), we get
EÊ
Q= = Ê·. (68)
E/·
Considering the case of low damping, i.e., Ê = Ê0 , where Ê0

corresponds to the frequency of undamped oscillator, we get Q = Ê0 · .
Oscillations
Ò
We have already learnt that Ê0 = C
m and · = “ ,
m
which gives
Ú Ô
C m Cm
Q= · = , (69)
m “ “
which implies that the lower value of damping “ gives higher value of
the quality factor Q.
Oscillations
Ò
m and · = “ ,
m
which gives
Ú Ô
C m Cm
Q= · = , (69)
m “ “
Alternatively, we may define the quality factor as: the energy of a

damped harmonic oscillator is given by E = E0 e≠t/· .
Oscillations
Ò
m and · = “ ,
m
which gives
Ú Ô
C m Cm
Q= · = , (69)
m “ “

At t = · , we have E = E0 e≠1 = E0 /e, which means that the energy of

the oscillator falls to 1/eth of its initial value in time t = · .
Oscillations
Ò
m and · = “ ,
m
which gives
Ú Ô
C m Cm
Q= · = , (69)
m “ “


In this interval of time, the oscillator executes (Ê0 /2fi)· or Q/2fi

oscillations, thus, the phase of the oscillator changes by Q.
Oscillations
Ò
m and · = “ ,
m
which gives
Ú Ô
C m Cm
Q= · = , (69)
m “ “


In this interval of time, the oscillator executes (Ê0 /2fi)· or Q/2fi

oscillations, thus, the phase of the oscillator changes by Q.
Therefore, in other words, the quality factor, Q is defined as the phase

change brought about in the oscillator in the time taken by its energy
to fall to 1/eth of its initial value.
Wave Motion
Outline
1 Oscillations
2 Wave Motion
Wave Motion
Plane and Spherical waves
A wave is defined as a disturbance or variation that travels onwards

through a medium due to the repeated periodic motion of its particles
about their mean or equilibrium position, each particle repeating the
movements of its predecessor a little later than it and handing it on to
its successor, so that there is a regular phase difference between one
particle and the next.
Wave Motion

Broadly, the wave motion is categorized as:
i) Mechanical waves: those requires a medium to propagate, e.g., water
waves, sound waves, etc.
ii) Non-mechanical waves: requires no medium for propagation, e.g.,
light waves, radio waves, etc. These waves are also known as
electromagnetic waves.
Wave Motion

A plane or a surface on which all particles of the medium are in the

same phase, is called a wave front.
Wave Motion

A plane or a surface on which all particles of the medium are in the

same phase, is called a wave front.
The wave fronts may have different shapes, but the most important
types are the plane and spherical wave fronts, and the waves
corresponding to them are known as plane and spherical waves.
Wave Motion
A plane wave is defined as a wave in which the wave amplitude is

constant over all points of a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Wave Motion

propagation.
Spherical waves are the waves in which the surfaces of common phase
are spheres and the source of waves is a central point. These are the
waves originating from the point source.
Wave Motion

propagation.
Since the common phase is spherical in nature, therefore, the radius of

the spherical wave increases as the wave propagates which, in turn,
decreases its curvature until a large distance from the source its almost
a plane wave.
Wave Motion

propagation.
Since the common phase is spherical in nature, therefore, the radius of

the spherical wave increases as the wave propagates which, in turn,
decreases its curvature until a large distance from the source its almost
a plane wave.
Thus, at large distances from the source, spherical waves can be

treated as plane waves.
Wave Motion
Longitudinal and Transverse waves
The vibrations produced in a wave are generally classified into

i) transverse,
ii) longitudinal motions.
Wave Motion

i) transverse,
In transverse wave motion, the particles of the medium oscillate up and

down about their mean positions, at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Wave Motion

i) transverse,

The transverse waves travels in the form crests and troughs, where a
crest and an adjoining trough constitute one wave or pulse and a
succession of them is called a wave train.
Wave Motion

i) transverse,

A transverse wave motion is possible in the case of solids and liquids

but not in gaseous medium.
Wave Motion

i) transverse,

A transverse wave motion is possible in the case of solids and liquids

but not in gaseous medium.
In a longitudinal wave motion, the particles of the medium oscillate to

and fro about their mean position, along the direction of propagation
of the wave.
Wave Motion
’
The longitudinal motion, thus, travels in the form of compressions and
rarefactions, i.e., the particles of medium getting closer and futher
apart, alternately.
Wave Motion
’
apart, alternately.
The longitudinal wave motion is possible in any medium viz., solids,
liquids and gases.
Wave Motion
’
apart, alternately.
liquids and gases.
In the case of longitudinal motion, one compressions and the adjoining
rarefaction constitute one wave or pulse, and the succession is known
as wave train.
Wave Motion
’
apart, alternately.
liquids and gases.
In the case of longitudinal motion, one compressions and the adjoining
rarefaction constitute one wave or pulse, and the succession is known
as wave train.
Wave Motion
Plane Progressive (Travelling) Waves
A plane progressive wave is the one which travels onwards through the
medium in a given direction with constant amplitude.
Wave Motion
A progressive wave can be transverse or longitudinal. However, in both
cases, a regular phase difference exists between any two successive
particles of the medium.
Wave Motion
Consider a wave originating at O (shown below) travels to the right
along the x-axis.
Wave Motion
Consider a wave originating at O (shown below) travels to the right
along the x-axis.
The equation of motion of this particle at point O is y = a sin Êt, where

a is the amplitude, Ê is the angular velocity and y is the displacement
of the particle.
Wave Motion
Since the successive particles to the right of O repeat its motion after
definite interval of time t, the phase difference goes on increasing as
one proceeds away from point O.
Wave Motion
For a particle P, which is x distant from O, there is a phase difference

of, say „, the equation of motion of particle at P, is given by
y = a sin(Êt ≠ „). (70)
Wave Motion

y = a sin(Êt ≠ „). (70)
If in a distace of ⁄, the phase difference increases by 2fi, therefore, in a

distance of x, the phase difference increases by 2fix/⁄, i.e., „ = 2fix/⁄.
Wave Motion

y = a sin(Êt ≠ „). (70)
If in a distace of ⁄, the phase difference increases by 2fi, therefore, in a

distance of x, the phase difference increases by 2fix/⁄, i.e., „ = 2fix/⁄.
Substituting this value of „ in Eq. (70), the expression for the

displacement y becomes
1 2
2fix
y = a sin Êt ≠ = a sin(Êt ≠ kx), (71)
⁄
where 2fi/⁄ = k is the propagation constant.
Wave Motion
Also, we know Ê = 2fi/T , where T is the time period of each particle of

the medium.
Wave Motion

the medium.
Since ‹ = n⁄ = ⁄/T and T = 1/n, where ‹ is the wave velocity and n is

the frequency of the oscillating wave, we have 1/T = ‹/⁄. Ê is defined
as Ê = 2fi/T , using the above expression of 1/T in Ê of Eq. (71), we get
1 2
2fi‹t 2fix
y = a sin ≠
⁄ ⁄
2fi
= a sin (‹t ≠ x)
⁄
= a sin k(‹t ≠ x). (72)
Wave Motion

the medium.
Since ‹ = n⁄ = ⁄/T and T = 1/n, where ‹ is the wave velocity and n is

the frequency of the oscillating wave, we have 1/T = ‹/⁄. Ê is defined
as Ê = 2fi/T , using the above expression of 1/T in Ê of Eq. (71), we get
1 2
2fi‹t 2fix
y = a sin ≠
⁄ ⁄
2fi
= a sin (‹t ≠ x)
⁄
= a sin k(‹t ≠ x). (72)
One may also rewrite the above expression as

1 2
2fi‹ x
y = a sin t≠
⁄ ‹
1 2
x
= a sin 2fin t ≠ , n = 1/T
‹
Wave Motion
1 2
2fi x
y = a sin t≠
T ‹
1 2
t x
y = a sin 2fi ≠ . (73)
T ⁄
Eq. (73) and all the equivalent equations are called as the equation of a
plane progressive wave.
Wave Motion
1 2
2fi x
y = a sin t≠
T ‹
1 2
t x
y = a sin 2fi ≠ . (73)
T ⁄
Eq. (73) and all the equivalent equations are called as the equation of a
plane progressive wave.
For a wave travelling towards the left, the expression for the displacement
of a plane progressive wave becomes
2fi
y = a sin (‹t + x). (74)
⁄
Wave Motion
Particle and Wave Velocities
The equation of a plane progressive wave is given as

2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (75)
⁄
where y is the displacement of a particle of the medium at distance x
from the origin at instant t, a is the amplitude, and ‹ is the wave
velocity (also known as phase velocity).
Wave Motion

2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (75)
⁄
The particle velocity, U may be obtained by differentiating Eq. (75)

with respect to time, i.e.,
dy 2fi‹ 2fi
U= = a cos (‹t ≠ x). (76)
dt ⁄ ⁄
Wave Motion

2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (75)
⁄
The particle velocity, U may be obtained by differentiating Eq. (75)

with respect to time, i.e.,
dy 2fi‹ 2fi
U= = a cos (‹t ≠ x). (76)
dt ⁄ ⁄
Relation between particle and wave velocity
Differentiating Eq. (75) with respect to x, we have

dy 2fi 2fi
= ≠ a cos (‹t ≠ x) (77)
dx ⁄ ⁄
Wave Motion
Using Eq. (77) in (76), we get

dy dy
U= = ≠‹ , (78)
dt dx
which means that the particle velocity at a particular point is equal to
minus times the product of wave velocity and the slope of displacement
at that point.
Wave Motion
Using Eq. (77) in (76), we get

dy dy
U= = ≠‹ , (78)
dt dx
which means that the particle velocity at a particular point is equal to
minus times the product of wave velocity and the slope of displacement
at that point.
Eq. (78) relates the particle velocity to wave velocity.
Wave Motion
Differential Equation of waves
Differentiating the expression of particle velocity (given in Eq. (76))

again with respect to time, we obtain the expression for the
acceleration of the particle to be
d2 y 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2fi 4fi 2 ‹ 2
= ≠ a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ y. (79)
dt2 ⁄2 ⁄ ⁄2
Wave Motion

d2 y 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2fi 4fi 2 ‹ 2
= ≠ a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ y. (79)
dt2 ⁄2 ⁄ ⁄2
Similarly, differentiating Eq. (77) with respect to x again, we obtain

the expression for the rate of change of compressions with distance to
be
d2 y 4fi 2 2fi 4fi 2
2
= ≠ 2 a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ 2 y. (80)
dx ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Wave Motion

d2 y 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2fi 4fi 2 ‹ 2
= ≠ a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ y. (79)
dt2 ⁄2 ⁄ ⁄2
Similarly, differentiating Eq. (77) with respect to x again, we obtain

the expression for the rate of change of compressions with distance to
be
d2 y 4fi 2 2fi 4fi 2
2
= ≠ 2 a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ 2 y. (80)
dx ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
From Eqs. (79) and (80), we find
d2 y 2
2d y
= ‹ . (81)
dt2 dx2
Wave Motion
This is referred to as the differential equation of a plane wave or one

dimensional progressive wave, in which the coefficient of d2 y/dx2 guves
the square of the wave velocity.
Wave Motion

Since d2 y/dx2 gives the curvature of the displacement curve, we may

interpret the differential equation to:
Particle acceleration at a point = (Wave velocity)2 ◊ Curvature of
displacement at that point.
Wave Motion


Eq. (81) is the general expression for the wave motion, therefore, y in
the wave equation must necessarily represent a physical displacement
of the particles.
Wave Motion


of the particles.
Therefore, we may replace this symbol y in the differential equation by

a general variable Â, referred to as the wavefunction.
Wave Motion


of the particles.
Therefore, we may replace this symbol y in the differential equation by

a general variable Â, referred to as the wavefunction.
For a one-dimensional wave, the differential equation takes the form
d2 Â 2
2d Â
= ‹ . (82)
dt2 dx2
Wave Motion
Energy density of waves
In a plane progressive wave, the energy derived from the source is

passed on from particle to particle, such that there is a regular
transmission of energy across the medium.
Wave Motion

The energy density is defined as the total energy per unit volume of
the medium through which the wave is passing.
Wave Motion

The displacement of a particle of the medium distant x from the origin
at an instant t, is given by
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x). (83)
⁄
Wave Motion

The displacement of a particle of the medium distant x from the origin
at an instant t, is given by
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x). (83)
⁄
Using the above expression, the velocity of the particle is calculated to

be
dy 2fi‹ 2fi
v= = a cos (‹t ≠ x), (84)
dt ⁄ ⁄
and acceleration to be
dv d2 y 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2fi 4fi 2 ‹ 2
= 2 =≠ a sin (‹t ≠ x) = ≠ y. (85)
dt dt ⁄2 ⁄ ⁄2
Wave Motion
Now, the kinetic energy per unit volume, KE of the medium becomes
1 v2
KE = m , (86)
2 V
where V represents the volume and m/V gives the density of the
particle fl. Therefore, the expression for KE becomes
1 2
KE = flv
2
1 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2 2fi
= fl a cos2 (‹t ≠ x)
2 ⁄2 ⁄
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2fi
= a cos2 (‹t ≠ x). (87)
⁄2 ⁄
Wave Motion
Now, the kinetic energy per unit volume, KE of the medium becomes
1 v2
KE = m , (86)
2 V
where V represents the volume and m/V gives the density of the
particle fl. Therefore, the expression for KE becomes
1 2
KE = flv
2
1 4fi 2 ‹ 2 2 2fi
= fl a cos2 (‹t ≠ x)
2 ⁄2 ⁄
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2fi
= a cos2 (‹t ≠ x). (87)
⁄2 ⁄
Next, we wish to evaluate the expression for potential energy per unit
volume of the medium, for which the amount of work done, in turn,
the amount of force per unit volume is required.
The force acting per unit volume of the medium is found to be
m d2 y
F=
V dt2
Wave Motion
4fi 2 ‹ 2 fl
F= y, (88)
⁄2
the -ve sign in the expression of acceleration is ignored, which only
indicates that the acceleration is directed opposite to the direction of
displacement.
Now, the work done in a displacement dy is given by
4fi 2 ‹ 2 fl
W = F.dy = ydy, (89)
⁄2
and the work done during the displacement from 0 to y is obtained as
⁄
4fi 2 ‹ 2 fl
y
W = ydy
0 ⁄2
4fi 2 ‹ 2 fl y 2
=
⁄2 2
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
= a sin (‹t ≠ x). (90)
⁄2 ⁄
This is the amount of work done stored in the medium in the form of
potential energy.
Wave Motion
Therefore, the expression for the potential energy per unit volume of
the medium is found to be
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
PE = a sin (‹t ≠ x). (91)
⁄2 ⁄
Wave Motion
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
PE = a sin (‹t ≠ x). (91)
⁄2 ⁄
Combining both the kinetic and potential energies to get the

expression for the total energy per unit volume of the plane progressive
wave is given as
E = KE + P E
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2fi 2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
= 2
a cos2 (‹t ≠ x) + a sin (‹t ≠ x)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
2 2
2fi ‹ fl 2
= a
⁄2
2 2 2
= 2fi n a fl, ‹/⁄ = n (92)
where n is the frequency of the wave.
Wave Motion
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
PE = a sin (‹t ≠ x). (91)
⁄2 ⁄
Combining both the kinetic and potential energies to get the

expression for the total energy per unit volume of the plane progressive
wave is given as
E = KE + P E
2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2fi 2fi 2 ‹ 2 fl 2 2 2fi
= 2
a cos2 (‹t ≠ x) + a sin (‹t ≠ x)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
2 2
2fi ‹ fl 2
= a
⁄2
2 2 2
= 2fi n a fl, ‹/⁄ = n (92)
where n is the frequency of the wave.
An important point to keep in mind is: although both the kinetic and
potential energies of the wave depend upon the values of x and t, the
total energy or the energy density is independent of them.
Wave Motion
Intensity of waves
The intensity of a wave (I) is defined as the amount of incident energy

per unit area of the wave front per unit time, viz.,
E ◊V ⁄
I = = E ◊ = E ◊‹
A◊T T
= 2fi 2 n2 a2 fl‹. (93)
Wave Motion
Intensity of waves

E ◊V ⁄
I = = E ◊ = E ◊‹
A◊T T
= 2fi 2 n2 a2 fl‹. (93)
Eq. (93) implies that the intensity of a wave is proportional to the

square of the amplitude of the wave, i.e., I Ã a2 .
Wave Motion
Intensity of waves

E ◊V ⁄
I = = E ◊ = E ◊‹
A◊T T
= 2fi 2 n2 a2 fl‹. (93)

In a medium of no or little resistance, a plane wave travels without

attenuation, i.e., the amplitude remains unchanged, the intensity of
the wave remains the same throughout.
Wave Motion
Intensity of waves

E ◊V ⁄
I = = E ◊ = E ◊‹
A◊T T
= 2fi 2 n2 a2 fl‹. (93)

In a medium of no or little resistance, a plane wave travels without

attenuation, i.e., the amplitude remains unchanged, the intensity of
the wave remains the same throughout.
However, in the case of spherical waves, the wave fronts are spherical
shells of increasing radii, therefore, the intensity obeys the inverse
square law viz. the intensity keeps on decreasing with increasing radii,
I Ã 1/r2 .
Wave Motion
From Eq. (93), we know that I Ã a2 , therefore, we have a2 Ã 1/r2 or

a Ã 1/r, which implies that in the case of spherical waves, the
amplitude keeps on decreasing progressively with increasing distance
from the source.
Wave Motion
From Eq. (93), we know that I Ã a2 , therefore, we have a2 Ã 1/r2 or

a Ã 1/r, which implies that in the case of spherical waves, the
amplitude keeps on decreasing progressively with increasing distance
from the source.
Therefore, the expression for the displacement of a spherical wave is

given as
a 2fi
y = sin (‹t ≠ x). (94)
r ⁄
Wave Motion
Pressure of a Longitudinal Wave
Only the longitudinal wave motion is possible in a gaseous medium,

where the particles executing the simple harmonic motion along the
direction of propagation of the wave, thus, the wave travels in the form
of rarefactions and compressions, so that there is a continuous
variation of pressure all along its direction of propagation.
Wave Motion

To calculate the change in pressure, we first calculate the velocity of

such a wave in a gaseous medium.
Wave Motion


Suppose the wave is travelling from left to right along the x-axis
through a uniform cylindrical tube of area of cross section –, and its
axis coinciding with the x-axis.
Wave Motion


Assume A and B be the two right plane sections of the tube whose
position before the passage of the wave are at distances x and x + ”x,
respectively, from the origin.
Wave Motion


Assume A and B be the two right plane sections of the tube whose
position before the passage of the wave are at distances x and x + ”x,
respectively, from the origin.
The points A and B lie ”x apart, therefore, the volume of the

cylindrical slab enclosed between A and B is ”x.–.
Wave Motion
On the pasage of the wave, let the two plane sections get displaced to
positions AÕ and B Õ , respectively.
Wave Motion
Now, if the displacement of the section A be y, ı.e., AAÕ = y, the

displacement of the section B, i.e., BB Õ = y + (dy/dx)”x, where ”x is
the rate of change of displacement with distance.
Wave Motion

Therefore the two right sections get displaced further apart and the
increase in the distance between them is
y + (dy/dx)”x ≠ y = (dy/dx)”x.
Wave Motion

Now, the volume of the cylindrical slab between the points AÕ and B Õ
increases to (dy/dx)”x.–.
Wave Motion

Now, the volume of the cylindrical slab between the points AÕ and B Õ
increases to (dy/dx)”x.–.
Defining the volume strain as the ratio of increase in volume to the

original volume, we have
increase in volume (dy/dx)”x.– dy
volume strain = = = . (95)
original volume ”x.– dx
Wave Motion
If at section A, the volume elasticity of the gas is represented by K and

the excess pressure by p, then at AÕ , we have
p
K =≠ . (96)
dy/dx
Wave Motion

p
K =≠ . (96)
dy/dx
The negative sign in the above relation shows the excess pressure and
the change in volume have opposite signs.
Wave Motion

p
K =≠ . (96)
dy/dx
The excess pressure at AÕ is given by

dy
p = ≠K . (97)
dx
Wave Motion

p
K =≠ . (96)
dy/dx
The excess pressure at AÕ is given by

dy
p = ≠K . (97)
dx
If the pressure gradient or the rate of change of pressure with distance,

along the x axis be dx
dp
, then at section B Õ is p + dx
dp
”x, viz.,
1 2
dp d dy d2 y
p+ ”x = p + ≠K ”x = p ≠ K 2 ”x. (98)
dx dx dx dx
Wave Motion
Now, the resultant pressure on the slice of the gas enclosed between AÕ
d2 y d2 y
and B Õ is p ≠ K dx 2 ”x ≠ p = ≠K dx2 ”x.
Wave Motion
d2 y d2 y
In the above relation, the negative sign indicates that it is directed

from B Õ to AÕ , opposite to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Wave Motion
d2 y d2 y
In the above relation, the negative sign indicates that it is directed

from B Õ to AÕ , opposite to the direction of propagation of the wave.
The velocity of the longitudinal wave through the gas is given by

Ú
K
‹= , (99)
fl
where fl is the density of the gas.
Superposition of two Harmonic Waves
Outline
1 Oscillations
2 Wave Motion
Superposition of waves
All types of waves, both mechanical and electromagnetic are subject to

the principle of superposition, which states that: if two or more
independent waves are propagated through a medium or space, all at
the same time, the resultant physical quantity (i.e., displacement,
phase, etc.,) at any point is the vector sum of the quantities due to
each individual wave, i.e.,
= Â1 + Â2 + Â3 + ... (100)

= Â1 + Â2 + Â3 + ... (100)
In the case of plane waves, the quantity that describes the wave motion
is displacement, therefore, the resultant displacement at any point is
the linear sum of the displacements due to the individual waves, viz.,
y = y1 + y2 + y3 + .... (101)

= Â1 + Â2 + Â3 + ... (100)
In the case of plane waves, the quantity that describes the wave motion
is displacement, therefore, the resultant displacement at any point is
the linear sum of the displacements due to the individual waves, viz.,
y = y1 + y2 + y3 + .... (101)
The importance of the principle of superposition lies in the fact that in

the case where it holds good, it is possible to analyze a complicated
wave motion into a set of simple waves.
Standing (Stationary) Waves
A standing wave is a wave which oscillates in time but whose peak

amplitude does not move in space.

The peak amplitude of the wave oscillations at any point in space is

constant with time, and the oscillations at different points throughout
the wave are in phase.


Consider the case of a string of length l fixed rigidly at both ends. For
a monochromatic wave, i.e., for a wave of only one angular frequency Ê
and amplitude a travelling in the positive x direction, the wave
equation is written as
y1 = aei(Êt≠kx) , (102)
2fi
where k = ⁄ = ‹.
Ê


Consider the case of a string of length l fixed rigidly at both ends. For
a monochromatic wave, i.e., for a wave of only one angular frequency Ê
and amplitude a travelling in the positive x direction, the wave
equation is written as
y1 = aei(Êt≠kx) , (102)
2fi
where k = ⁄ = ‹.
Ê
Suppose when this wave gets reflected back from the fixed end with
amplitude b travelling along the negative x axis, then the equation of
the reflected wave is given by
y2 = bei(Êt+kx) . (103)
The displacement of a point on the string due to both these waves is

given by
y = y1 + y2 = aei(Êt≠kx) + bei(Êt+kx) . (104)

given by
In order to solve Eq. (99), the following boundary conditions are to be

satisfied at all times
i) At x = 0, the displacement y = 0,
ii) At x = l, y = 0.

given by

ii) At x = l, y = 0.
Applying boundary condition (i) to Eq. (99), we gets
0 = aeiÊt + beiÊt ∆ a = ≠b. (105)

given by

ii) At x = l, y = 0.
Applying boundary condition (i) to Eq. (99), we gets
0 = aeiÊt + beiÊt ∆ a = ≠b. (105)
This means that the amplitudes for the forward and backward
directions are the same, which implies that the wave is completely
reflected at either ends.
Substituting Eq. (100) in Eq. (99), we gets

Ë È
y = aeiÊt e≠ikx ≠ eikx
e≠ikx ≠ eikx
= (≠2i)aeiÊt
≠2i
= ≠2iaeiÊt sin kx. (106)

Ë È
e≠ikx ≠ eikx
= (≠2i)aeiÊt
≠2i
Using boundary condition (ii) in Eq. (101), we get
0 = ≠2iae≠Êt sin kl
Ê
sin kl = sin l = 0
‹
Êl
= mfi, (107)
‹
where m is an integer.

Ë È
e≠ikx ≠ eikx
= (≠2i)aeiÊt
≠2i
Using boundary condition (ii) in Eq. (101), we get
0 = ≠2iae≠Êt sin kl
Ê
sin kl = sin l = 0
‹
Êl
= mfi, (107)
‹
where m is an integer.
Eq. (102) limits the value of allowed frequencies.
Corresponding to the different values of n, Ê can take up different

values, so denoting the value of Ê corresponding to the integer m by
Êm , we have
Êm l
= mfi
‹
2fi‹m mfi
= , Ê = 2fi‹
‹ l
m‹
‹m = . (108)
2l

Êm , we have
Êm l
= mfi
‹
2fi‹m mfi
= , Ê = 2fi‹
‹ l
m‹
‹m = . (108)
2l
If ⁄m is the corresponding wavelength, then

‹ 2l
⁄m = ‹T = = ,
‹m m
m⁄m
l = . (109)
2

Êm , we have
Êm l
= mfi
‹
2fi‹m mfi
= , Ê = 2fi‹
‹ l
m‹
‹m = . (108)
2l
If ⁄m is the corresponding wavelength, then

‹ 2l
⁄m = ‹T = = ,
‹m m
m⁄m
l = . (109)
2
From Eq. (104), we find that the allowed frequencies define the length
of the string as an exact number of half wavelength.
Normal frequencies; Nodes and antinodes
The frequencies given by Eq. (103) fro various integral values of m are
called as the normal frequencies or normal modes of vibrations.
The lowest frequency corresponding to m = 1 is called the fundamental
frequency and those corresponding to m > 1 are known as harmonics.
The total displacement is the summation of all the displacements due
to different allowed frequencies.
Using Eq. (103), we may write

Êm x mfi
sin kx = sin = sin x. (110)
‹ l
Using Eq. (103), we may write

Êm x mfi
sin kx = sin = sin x. (110)
‹ l
From the above relation, we find that, other than the value of m = 1,
there are a number of positions along the string which are always at
rest, given by
Êm x mfi
sin = sin x = 0,
‹ l
nfix
= rfi, r = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (111)
l
The position of the two fixed ends is given by r = 0 and r = n, because

r = 0 gives x = 0 and r = n gives x = l.

Between these two positions, there are n ≠ 1 positions for the nth
harmonics, which are equally spaced along the string where the
displacement is zero.

These positions are known as nodes or nodal points and give the
position of zero motion in a system of standing waves.

These standing waves are produced by the superposition of the

incident and the reflected waves travelling in the opposite directions.


The nodal points exist if the reflection is complete so that the

amplitude of the incident and reflected waves are equal and opposite.


The nodal points exist if the reflection is complete so that the

amplitude of the incident and reflected waves are equal and opposite.
In between two consecutive and equally spaced nodes, there are

positions having maximum displacement, known as antinodes.
Equation of standing waves
Eq. (101) represents the equation of standing waves for a fixed angular
frequency Ê. For the mth harmonic, the equation of standing waves is
expressed as
Êm
ym = ≠2iaeiÊm t sin x
‹
Êm
= 2a(≠i) [cos Êm t + i sin Êm t] sin x
‹
Êm
= (Am cos Êm t + Bm sin Êm t) sin x, (112)
‹
where Am = ≠2ai and Bm = 2a.
Equation of standing waves
Eq. (101) represents the equation of standing waves for a fixed angular
frequency Ê. For the mth harmonic, the equation of standing waves is
expressed as
Êm
ym = ≠2iaeiÊm t sin x
‹
Êm
= 2a(≠i) [cos Êm t + i sin Êm t] sin x
‹
Êm
= (Am cos Êm t + Bm sin Êm t) sin x, (112)
‹
where Am = ≠2ai and Bm = 2a.
Eq. (107) gives the equation of standing waves.
Changes of wave characteristics (displacement, particle

velocity, phase, etc.) with respect to Position and Time
Here, we are going to discuss two cases:

i) when the boundary of the medium is fixed or rigid, and
ii) when the boundary is free.


In the first case where the boundary is fixed, the particles at the ends
are not free to move hence the displacement, y, of the particle at the
ends will be zero at all times.


Also, dy
dt must be simultaneously be zero or else it means thats the
displacement at all points of the medium b zero and hence there won’t
be any wave at all.


Also, dy
dt must be simultaneously be zero or else it means thats the
displacement at all points of the medium b zero and hence there won’t
be any wave at all.
Though the displacement at the fixed boundary be zero, the strain

( dx
dy
) and the pressure variation (≠K dx
dy
) are not zero as well.
This means that the displacement of the particle at fixed boundary is

exactly cancelled by an equal and opposite displacement due to
reflection.

reflection.
The displacement and the particle velocity undergoes a phase change

of fi, while the strain and the pressure variation do not undergo any
such phase change.

reflection.

such phase change.
In the second case (when the boundary is free), there is no opposing force
or resistance, therefore:
the strain and the pressure variation becomes zero, i.e., the phase of
pressure variation undergoes a phase change of fi.

reflection.

such phase change.
Obviously, the displacement y is not zero, else the displacement will be

zero everywhere and there will be no wave at all.

reflection.

such phase change.
Obviously, the displacement y is not zero, else the displacement will be

zero everywhere and there will be no wave at all.
This means that the particles of the medium continue to have their
displacements, and their particle velocities in the same direction as
before with no phase change and only the direction of pressure
variation gets reversed.
Case I: When reflection occurs at a fixed or rigid boundary
Consider the equation of a simple harmonic wave of amplitude a,

wavelength ⁄, travelling along the positive direction of the x-axis be
y1 = a sin 2fi
⁄ (‹t ≠ x), with ‹ being the velocity of the wave.

y1 = a sin 2fi
Now, the equation of the reflected wave ia given by

y2 = ≠a sin 2fi
⁄ (‹t + x).

y1 = a sin 2fi
Now, the equation of the reflected wave ia given by

y2 = ≠a sin 2fi
⁄ (‹t + x).
Now the equation of the resultant stationary wave is given as

2fi 2fi
y = y1 + y2 = a sin (‹t ≠ x) ≠ a sin (‹t + x)
⁄
Ë È⁄
2fi 2fi
= a sin (‹t ≠ x) ≠ sin (‹t + x)
⁄ ⁄
2fi‹t 2fix
= ≠2a cos sin
⁄ ⁄
2fix
= ≠2a sin cos Êt, (113)
⁄
where ‹
⁄ = n and 2fin = Ê.
The resulting wave is also a simple harmonic wave of the same

time-period and wavelength as the two constituent waves but with an
amplitude = ≠2a sin 2fix
⁄ .

⁄ .
Using Eq. (113), the expressions for the particle velocity (U ),

strain ( dx
dy
) and excess pressure (p) is calculated to be
dy 4fi‹ 2fix
U= = a sin sin Êt (114)
dt ⁄ ⁄
dy 4fi 2fix
= ≠ a cos cos Êt (115)
dx ⁄ ⁄
dy 4fi 2fix
p = ≠K = K a cos cos Êt
dx ⁄ ⁄
4fi 2fix
= ‹ 2 fl a cos cos Êt, (116)
⁄ ⁄

as ‹ = K/fl.

⁄ .
Using Eq. (113), the expressions for the particle velocity (U ),

strain ( dx
dy
) and excess pressure (p) is calculated to be
dy 4fi‹ 2fix
U= = a sin sin Êt (114)
dt ⁄ ⁄
dy 4fi 2fix
= ≠ a cos cos Êt (115)
dx ⁄ ⁄
dy 4fi 2fix
p = ≠K = K a cos cos Êt
dx ⁄ ⁄
4fi 2fix
= ‹ 2 fl a cos cos Êt, (116)
⁄ ⁄

as ‹ = K/fl.
Next, we consider the changes that occurs to the above mentioned

variable (a) with respect to the position of the particle, (b) with
respect to time.
(a) Changes with respect to position
i) Displacement:
We have already discuss in detail about the displacement of a particle in
a medium in the case of standing waves.
The displacement of a particle of the medium varies simple harmonically
with time.
i) Displacement:
with time.
The displacement is zero at points distant 0, ⁄/2, 3⁄/2, ... from the fixed
boundary, irrespective of time, which are called as nodes, ⁄/2 distance
apart.
i) Displacement:
with time.
apart.
The displacement is maximum at points distant ⁄/4, 3⁄/4, 5⁄/4, ... from
the fixed boundary, irrespective of time, known as antinodes.
i) Displacement:
with time.
apart.
The displacement at antinodes also varies simple harmonically with time
but is always the maximum there at any given instant relative to that at
all other points, where the displacement lies between the two extremes,
decreasing from the maximum at an antinodes to zero at the preceeding
or succeeding nodes.
i) Displacement:
with time.
apart.
The displacement at antinodes also varies simple harmonically with time
but is always the maximum there at any given instant relative to that at
all other points, where the displacement lies between the two extremes,
decreasing from the maximum at an antinodes to zero at the preceeding
or succeeding nodes.
No two nodes can exist without an antinode in between and vice versa,
such that the distance between a node and a succeeding or preceeding
antinode is ⁄/4.
ii) Particle velocity:

At nodes, since sin 2fix
⁄
= 0, the particle velocity is zero at all times.
Thus, these points permanently remain at rest throughout the passage
of the wave.

⁄
of the wave.
At antinodes, sin 2fix
⁄
= ±1, therefore, the particle velocity is maximum
irrespective of time.

⁄
of the wave.
⁄
The particle velocity also varies simple harmonically with time.

⁄
of the wave.
⁄
iii) Strain:
At nodes, the value of sin 2fix
⁄
is zero, therefore cos 2fix
⁄
= ±1. Thus, at
nodes the value of strain is maximum at all times, because of the
compressions and rarefactions of the oppositely travelling waves coming
each other.

⁄
of the wave.
⁄
iii) Strain:
At nodes, the value of sin 2fix
⁄
is zero, therefore cos 2fix
⁄
= ±1. Thus, at
nodes the value of strain is maximum at all times, because of the
compressions and rarefactions of the oppositely travelling waves coming
each other.
However, at antinodes, cos 2fix
⁄
= 0. Therefore, the strain at antinodes is
zero at all times.
iv) Pressure variation:

As we have already defined in Eq. (116), p = K dx dy
, therefore, the
pressure variation shows similar trend as strain.

, therefore, the
At antinodes, there is no excess pressure, which means that there is no
change of pressure or denisty at these points and remains normal
throughout.

, therefore, the
throughout.
At nodes, the excess presure is maximum, which means that the
pressure or density changes are maximum at these points, higher and
lower than normal alternately.

, therefore, the
throughout.
The pressure at all points of the medium varies simple harmonically
with time.

, therefore, the
throughout.
with time.
v) Phase:
Consider two points at distance x1 and x2 , where the displacement is
defined as y1 = ≠2a sin 2fix
⁄
1
cos Êt and y2 = ≠2a sin 2fix
⁄
2
cos Êt,
respectively.

, therefore, the
throughout.
with time.
v) Phase:
Consider two points at distance x1 and x2 , where the displacement is
defined as y1 = ≠2a sin 2fix
⁄
1
cos Êt and y2 = ≠2a sin 2fix
⁄
2
cos Êt,
respectively.
We may rewrite y1 and y2 as
y1 = A1 cos Êt, y2 = A2 cos Êt, (117)
2fix1 2fix2
where A1 = ≠2a sin ⁄
and A2 = ≠2a sin ⁄
are the amplitudes at x1
and x2 , respectively.
Thus, the amplitudes of the two particles are different but their phases
are the same, which implies that the phase of a particle is independent
of its position.
Thus, the amplitudes of the two particles are different but their phases
are the same, which implies that the phase of a particle is independent
of its position.
This means that all particles attain their respective maximum
displacement simultaneously. Also, all the particles pass through their
mean positions simultaneously, with different velocities.
(b) Changes with respect to time
From Eqs. (113)–(116), it is clear that when cos Êt = 0, displacement is

zero, particle velocity is maximum (this maximum is different for
different points), strain is zero and therefore excess pressure is also
zero.

zero.
This happens when t = T /4, 3T /4, 5T /4, ...., half a period apart from oe
another.

zero.
another.
Therefore, at t = T /4, 3T /4, 5T /4, ...., all particles pass through their
mean position, with their maximum velocities. Also, the strain
everywhere, inn turn, the excess pressure at these instants is zero.

zero.
another.
Therefore, at t = T /4, 3T /4, 5T /4, ...., all particles pass through their
mean position, with their maximum velocities. Also, the strain
everywhere, inn turn, the excess pressure at these instants is zero.
On the other hand, at cos Êt = ±1, the displacement is maximum,

particle velocity is zero, strain is maximum and therefore pressure
variation is maximum. This occurs at t = 0, T /2, T, 3T /2, ...
Phase and Group velocities and relation between them
We have already discussed that the equation of a plane a progressive

wave is given as
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (118)
⁄
where ‹ = T is the wave velocity.
⁄

wave is given as
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (118)
⁄
⁄
We have also discussed that rearranging Eq. (118) gives

y = a sin(Êt ≠ kx) (119)
which shows that the constant phase (Êt ≠ kx) of the wave travels alog
the positive x direction with velocity dx/dt, which is nothing but the
wave velocity.

wave is given as
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (118)
⁄
⁄

y = a sin(Êt ≠ kx) (119)
wave velocity.
(Êt ≠ kx) being a constant, we have
dx Ê 2fin ⁄
= = = n⁄ = . (120)
dt k 2fi/⁄ T

wave is given as
2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x), (118)
⁄
⁄

y = a sin(Êt ≠ kx) (119)
wave velocity.
(Êt ≠ kx) being a constant, we have
dx Ê 2fin ⁄
= = = n⁄ = . (120)
dt k 2fi/⁄ T
Thus, for a wave in a medium, phase velocity = wave velocity = ‹ =

Ê/k.
Now consider the case of two wave trains, of slightly different

wavelengths, ⁄ and ⁄ + d⁄, travelling simultaneously along the same
path in a given medium, and for simplicity, assume their amplitudes to
be the same.
If the velocities of these waves in the medium does not depend upon the
wavelength, both the waves travel with same wave or phase velocity ‹.
Since both the waves are travelling along the same path and in the
same direction, the get superposed, one over the other.
Now, for the points of the medium where the positive or negative
maximum displacement of the two waves come across each other, they
get reinforced and we obtain the maxima of displacement of the
resulting wave.
resulting wave.
And, for the points where the positive maximum displacement of one
wave come across the negative maximum displacement of the other, we
obtain the zero or minimum displacement of the resulting wave.
resulting wave.
In between these two extremes, the displacement in the resulting wave

has intermediate values.
resulting wave.
In between these two extremes, the displacement in the resulting wave

has intermediate values.
The resulting wave thus consists of group of waves, shown by the

dashed line in the figure, each group consisting of a number of waves,
with the maximum displacement at the center of the group, with
others gradually decreasing to zero on either side.
The velocity with which the maxima of these groups of waves travel is
called as the group velocity (u) of the resultant wave.
In the case of a non-dispersive medium, where the two waves are

travelling with same velocities, the resultant wave also travels with the
same velocity of constituent waves.

Thus, in the case of a non-dispersive medium, the group velocity u is

equal to the phase velocity ‹ of each wave.


However, for the case of a dispersive medium, with the two waves of
wavelengths ⁄ and (⁄ + d⁄) travels with velocities ‹ and (‹ + d‹),
respectively. The wave equation of these waves are
2fi 2fi
y1 = a sin (‹t≠x), and y2 = a sin ((‹ +d‹)t≠x).
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
(121)


However, for the case of a dispersive medium, with the two waves of
wavelengths ⁄ and (⁄ + d⁄) travels with velocities ‹ and (‹ + d‹),
respectively. The wave equation of these waves are
2fi 2fi
y1 = a sin (‹t≠x), and y2 = a sin ((‹ +d‹)t≠x).
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
(121)
The equation of the resultant wave is thus given by

2fi 2fi
y = y1 + y2 = a sin (‹t ≠ x) + a sin ((‹ + d‹)t ≠ x) (122)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Using the trigonometric relation sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A in Eq. (122), we

have
Ë È
2fi 2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x) + sin ((‹ + d‹)t ≠ x)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Ë1 2 1 2È
‹ ‹ + d‹ 1 1
= 2a sin fi + t≠x +
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Ë1 2 1 2È
‹ ‹ + d‹ 1 1
◊ cos fi ≠ t≠x ≠ . (123)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Using the trigonometric relation sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A in Eq. (122), we

have
Ë È
2fi 2fi
y = a sin (‹t ≠ x) + sin ((‹ + d‹)t ≠ x)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Ë1 2 1 2È
‹ ‹ + d‹ 1 1
= 2a sin fi + t≠x +
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Ë1 2 1 2È
‹ ‹ + d‹ 1 1
◊ cos fi ≠ t≠x ≠ . (123)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄ ⁄ + d⁄
Now, evaluating the above expression by neglecting very small terms,

‹ ‹ + d‹ ‹⁄ + ‹d⁄ + ‹⁄ + d‹⁄ 2‹⁄ 2‹
+ = = 2 = , (124)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄(⁄ + d⁄) ⁄ ⁄
‹ ‹ + d‹ ‹⁄ + ‹d⁄ ≠ ‹⁄ ≠ d‹⁄ ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹
≠ = = , (125)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄(⁄ + d⁄) ⁄2
1 1 ⁄ + d⁄ + ⁄ 2⁄ 2
+ = = 2 = , (126)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄(⁄ + d⁄) ⁄ ⁄
1 1 ⁄ + d⁄ ≠ ⁄ d⁄
≠ = . (127)
⁄ ⁄ + d⁄ ⁄(⁄ + d⁄) ⁄2
Using Eqs. (124)–(127) in Eq. (123), we have

1 2 Ë1 2 È
2‹t 2x ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹ xd⁄
y = 2a sin pi ≠ cos fi t≠ 2
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
1Ë È 2
2pi 2pi d‹
= 2a sin (‹t ≠ x) cos 2 ‹ ≠⁄ t≠x (128)
⁄ 2⁄ /d⁄ d⁄

1 2 Ë1 2 È
2‹t 2x ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹ xd⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
1Ë È 2
2pi 2pi d‹
= 2a sin (‹t ≠ x) cos 2 ‹ ≠⁄ t≠x (128)
⁄ 2⁄ /d⁄ d⁄
2⁄2
! "
Substituting 2a sin 2fi
⁄ (‹t ≠ x) = a ,
Õ
d⁄ = ⁄Õ and ‹ ≠ ⁄ d⁄
d‹
= u, we
may rewrite Eq. (128) as
2fi
y = aÕ cos (ut ≠ x). (129)
⁄Õ

1 2 Ë1 2 È
2‹t 2x ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹ xd⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
1Ë È 2
2pi 2pi d‹
= 2a sin (‹t ≠ x) cos 2 ‹ ≠⁄ t≠x (128)
⁄ 2⁄ /d⁄ d⁄
2⁄2
! "
⁄ (‹t ≠ x) = a ,
Õ
d⁄ = ⁄Õ and ‹ ≠ ⁄ d⁄
d‹
= u, we
2fi
y = aÕ cos (ut ≠ x). (129)
⁄Õ
Eq. (129) is nothing but the equation of a wave having an amplitude
2⁄2
! "
aÕ = 2a sin 2fi
⁄ (‹t ≠ x), wavelength ⁄ = d⁄ and velocity u = ‹ ≠ ⁄ d⁄ .
Õ d‹

1 2 Ë1 2 È
2‹t 2x ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹ xd⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
1Ë È 2
2pi 2pi d‹
= 2a sin (‹t ≠ x) cos 2 ‹ ≠⁄ t≠x (128)
⁄ 2⁄ /d⁄ d⁄
2⁄2
! "
⁄ (‹t ≠ x) = a ,
Õ
d⁄ = ⁄Õ and ‹ ≠ ⁄ d⁄
d‹
= u, we
2fi
y = aÕ cos (ut ≠ x). (129)
⁄Õ
2⁄2
! "
aÕ = 2a sin 2fi
Õ d‹
This means that the resultant wave (shown by the dotted line in
figure) is divided uo into groups, with each group consisting of waves
represented by the equation y = aÕ sin 2fi
⁄Õ (ut ≠ x).

1 2 Ë1 2 È
2‹t 2x ‹d⁄ ≠ ⁄d‹ xd⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄2 ⁄
1Ë È 2
2pi 2pi d‹
= 2a sin (‹t ≠ x) cos 2 ‹ ≠⁄ t≠x (128)
⁄ 2⁄ /d⁄ d⁄
2⁄2
! "
⁄ (‹t ≠ x) = a ,
Õ
d⁄ = ⁄Õ and ‹ ≠ ⁄ d⁄
d‹
= u, we
2fi
y = aÕ cos (ut ≠ x). (129)
⁄Õ
2⁄2
! "
aÕ = 2a sin 2fi
Õ d‹
This means that the resultant wave (shown by the dotted line in
figure) is divided uo into groups, with each group consisting of waves
represented by the equation y = aÕ sin 2fi
⁄Õ (ut ≠ x).
Thus, in the case of a dispersive medium, the group velocity (u) is

equal to the wave velocity (v) ≠ d⁄
d‹
.
In the case of a dispersive medium, since there is no change in velocity

with wavelength ( d⁄
d‹
= 0), therefore, group velocity is equal to the
wave velocity.
In the case of a dispersive medium, since there is no change in velocity

with wavelength ( d⁄
d‹
= 0), therefore, group velocity is equal to the
wave velocity.
However, in the case of a dispersive medium, the velocity increases

with wavelength, therefore, d⁄
d‹
is a positive quantity and, thus, the
group velocity is less than the wave velocity.
Lorentz contraction Relativistic velocities Variation of mass with velocity Mass-energy Equivalence Relativistic ener
B. Sc. I semester (Mechanics)

Unit-IV: Special Theory of Relativity
Atika Fatima
Aligarh Muslim University
June 3, 2021
Atika Fatima Unit-IV: Special Theory of Relativity June 3, 2021 1 / 47

Michelson-Morley Experiment and its outcome.

Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity.
Lorentz transformations.
Simultaneity and order of events.
Lorentz-contraction.
Time-dilation.
Relativistic transformation of velocity, frequency and wave number.
Relativistic addition of velocities.
Variation of mass with velocity.
Massless Particles.
Mass-energy Equivalence.
Relativistic Doppler effect.
Relativistics energy and momentum transformation.

Michelson-Morley Experiment and its outcome

Postulates
Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity
The two basic postulates on which the special theory of relativity underlie
are:
1 The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.

Postulates
are:
This postulate follows from the absence of a universal frame of
reference.

Postulates
are:
reference.
If the laws of physics were different for different observers in relative
motion, the observers could find from these differences which of them
were stationary in space and which were moving.

Postulates
are:
reference.
But such a distinction does not exist, and the principle of relativity
expresses this fact.

Postulates
are:
reference.
2 The speed of light in free space has the same value (c = 2.998 ◊ 108
m/s) in all inertial frames of reference.

Postulates
are:
reference.
2 The speed of light in free space has the same value (c = 2.998 ◊ 108
m/s) in all inertial frames of reference.
This postulate is clearly a statement of the result of the
Michelson-Morley experiment and many other experiments.
Postulates
Velocity is not an invariant to Galilean transformation, it follows that

if c is the velocity of light in frame S, then in frame S Õ , moving relative
to S with velocity v, must be cÕ = c ≠ v.

Postulates

However, in accordance with the second postulate of the special theory

of relativity, we have cÕ = c, since c must always have the same value
irrespective of the state of motion of the frames of reference.

Postulates


This new postulate is thus clearly at variance with Galilean

transformations.

Postulates


This new postulate is thus clearly at variance with Galilean

transformations.
We, thus, look for a new transformation which is consistent with this
concept of special theory of relativity.

Lorentz transformations
Let us assume that there is a flash of light be emitted as the two

observers just cross each other in the two frames of reference, as shown
in figure.

Now, the equation of the wavefront, as seen by the observer in S frame,

is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t2 . (1)


is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t2 . (1)
The equation of the wavefront, as seen by the observer in the S Õ frame,

is
2 2 2 2
xÕ + y Õ + z Õ = c2 tÕ , (2)
where c is the velocity of light, which is the same in both the frames of
reference.


is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t2 . (1)

is
2 2 2 2
xÕ + y Õ + z Õ = c2 tÕ , (2)
reference.
Now the Galilean transformation gives

xÕ = x ≠ vt, y Õ = y, z Õ = z, tÕ = t. (3)


is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t2 . (1)

is
2 2 2 2
xÕ + y Õ + z Õ = c2 tÕ , (2)
reference.
Now the Galilean transformation gives

xÕ = x ≠ vt, y Õ = y, z Õ = z, tÕ = t. (3)
Using Eq. (3) in Eq. (2), we get
x2 ≠ 2xvt + v 2 t2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t2 , (4)
which is not the same relation as Eq. (1), and shows that the Galilean
transformation fails if the constancy of the velocity of light is assumed.
This means that in the new transformations which we are looking for,
the relation xÕ = x ≠ vt no longer holds good.

Though this relation is in accordance with the classical mechanics,
therefore, the new transformation must be such that the x-coordinate,
should also reduce itself to this value, when the relative velocity v is
small compared with c.

Thus, the simplest relation for the x-coordinate, in accordance with the
new transformation, can be
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt), (5)
where “ is independent of the coordinates x or t, but may vary with v.

xÕ = “(x ≠ vt), (5)
Eq. (5) is a linear equation in x and t, which simply means that the
equation will give one value of xÕ for a given value of x, without
imposing any further conditions.

xÕ = “(x ≠ vt), (5)
Eq. (5) is a linear equation in x and t, which simply means that the
equation will give one value of xÕ for a given value of x, without
imposing any further conditions.
Consider the inverse transformation, which connects the measurement
in frame S with those in frame S Õ . For such transformation, we only
have to reverse the sign of v, viz.,
x = “(xÕ + vtÕ ). (6)
The constant of proportionality “ remains the same in both cases,

since the first postulate of the theory rules out any preferred frame of
reference.


reference.
The reltive motion of S and S Õ is confined to x-direction, therefore, we

have y Õ = y and z Õ = z.


reference.

From Eqs. (5) and (6), it may be noted that tÕ can no longer be taken
as t, therfore, next we relate tÕ to t using Eqs. (5) and (6).


reference.

From Eqs. (5) and (6), it may be noted that tÕ can no longer be taken
as t, therfore, next we relate tÕ to t using Eqs. (5) and (6).
Now, substitute the value of xÕ given in Eq. (5), in Eq. (6), we have
# $
x = “ “(x ≠ vt) + vtÕ
= “ 2 (x ≠ vt) + “vtÕ , (7)
which may be rewritten as
“vtÕ = x ≠ “ 2 (x ≠ vt)
= “ 2 vt + x(1 ≠ “ 2 ),
3 4
1 ≠ “2
t Õ
= = “t + x . (8)
“v

Next, we wish to determine the value of “.

We know that the reference frame S Õ moves with relative velocity v in

the positive x-direction with respect to S.


The flash of light is emitted when the two observers O and OÕ are
opposite to each other, i.e., at the time the flash is emitted, x = xÕ = 0
and t = tÕ = 0.


and t = tÕ = 0.
Since the velocity of light is the same in the two frames of reference, we
have
x = ct, xÕ = ctÕ . (9)


and t = tÕ = 0.
Since the velocity of light is the same in the two frames of reference, we
have
x = ct, xÕ = ctÕ . (9)
In xÕ = ctÕ , substituting the value of xÕ and tÕ from Eqs. (5) and (8),
respectively, we have
3 4
1 ≠ “2
“(x ≠ vt) = c“t + cx ,
“v
5 6
1 + v/c
x = ct (10)
1 ≠ (c/v)(1/“ 2 ≠ 1)

From Eq. (9), we have x = ct, using this in Eq. (10), we have
5 6
1 + v/c
ct = ct
1 ≠ (c/v)(1/“ 2 ≠ 1)
3 4
v c 1
1+ = 1≠ ≠1
c v “2
which when solved for “ gives
1 1
“=Ò = , (11)
2
1 ≠ vc2 1 ≠ —2
where — = v/c is the general representation.

From Eq. (9), we have x = ct, using this in Eq. (10), we have
5 6
1 + v/c
ct = ct
1 ≠ (c/v)(1/“ 2 ≠ 1)
3 4
v c 1
1+ = 1≠ ≠1
c v “2
which when solved for “ gives
1 1
“=Ò = , (11)
2
1 ≠ vc2 1 ≠ —2
where — = v/c is the general representation.

Substituting the value of “ from Eq. (11), in the expressions of xÕ and
tÕ , we get
x ≠ vt
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt) = Ò (12)
2
1 ≠ vc2
3 4 1 2
1 ≠ “2 vx t ≠ vx/c2
tÕ = “t + x = “ t≠ = Ò . (13)
“v c2 2
1 ≠ vc2

Eqs. (12) and (13) along with the transformations y Õ = y and z Õ = z are
known as the Lorentz transformations, which are given as
x ≠ vt
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt) = Ò
2
1 ≠ vc2
yÕ = y
zÕ = z
1 2 t ≠ vx/c2
vx
tÕ = “ t≠ = Ò .
c2 2
1 ≠ vc2

x ≠ vt
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt) = Ò
2
1 ≠ vc2
yÕ = y
zÕ = z
1 2 t ≠ vx/c2
vx
tÕ = “ t≠ = Ò .
c2 2
1 ≠ vc2
Lorentz transformations are relativistic in nature, relativistic means

the velocity of the particle is comparable to the speed of light (v ≥ c).

x ≠ vt
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt) = Ò
2
1 ≠ vc2
yÕ = y
zÕ = z
1 2 t ≠ vx/c2
vx
tÕ = “ t≠ = Ò .
c2 2
1 ≠ vc2

While the Galilean transformations are non-relativistic in nature,

non-relativistic means the velocity of the particle is much smaller than
the speec of light (v π c).

x ≠ vt
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt) = Ò
2
1 ≠ vc2
yÕ = y
zÕ = z
1 2 t ≠ vx/c2
vx
tÕ = “ t≠ = Ò .
c2 2
1 ≠ vc2

While the Galilean transformations are non-relativistic in nature,

non-relativistic means the velocity of the particle is much smaller than
the speec of light (v π c).
In the limit v π c, Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean

transformation.
Inverse Lorentz transformations
For the Lorentz transformations, we have assumed the frame S Õ to be

moving with velocity v in the positive x direction to S frame.


From the frame S Õ , frame S appears to be moving in the negative x

direction with velocity ≠v.


From the frame S Õ , frame S appears to be moving in the negative x

direction with velocity ≠v.
The inverse Lorentz transformations convert the measurements made

in the frame S Õ to those in frame S simply by changing the velocity
from v to ≠v in the Lorentz transformations, i.e.,
xÕ + vtÕ
x = “(xÕ + vtÕ ) = Ò
2
1 ≠ vc2
y = yÕ
z = z Õ3 4
vxÕ tÕ + vxÕ /c2
t = “ t + 2Õ
= Ò .
c 2
1 ≠ vc2

Simultaneity
Simultaneity and order of events
Simultaneity of two events means their occurence at exactly the same

time at different or same location.

Simultaneity

To demostrate the concept of simultaneity, consider a fixed frame of

reference S, in which the two points A and B are at a distance of x1
and x2 , respectively, from the origin O and P be the mid-point of AB.

Simultaneity


Now, if a light signal is emitted at P, it will arrive at A and B exactly

at the same time, as the velocity of light is the same in all directions.

Simultaneity



Therefore, we say that the arrival of the light signal at A and B occur
simultaneously at time t, say t = · .

Simultaneity



Therefore, we say that the arrival of the light signal at A and B occur
simultaneously at time t, say t = · .
Next, let us see whether the two events appear to be simultaneous to

an observer in the frame of reference S Õ , which is moving relative to S
with velocity v along the positive x direction.

Simultaneity
For an observer in frame S Õ , the corresponding values of time for the

two events x1 and x2 , according to the Lorentz transformation, be
given as
1 2 1 2
vx vx
tÕ1 = “ t ≠ 21 , and tÕ2 = “ t ≠ 22 (14)
c c

Simultaneity

given as
1 2 1 2
vx vx
tÕ1 = “ t ≠ 21 , and tÕ2 = “ t ≠ 22 (14)
c c
The time interval between these two events, as observed in the S Õ

frame will be
x ≠x
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 = “v 2 2 1 ”= 0. (15)
c

Simultaneity

given as
1 2 1 2
vx vx
tÕ1 = “ t ≠ 21 , and tÕ2 = “ t ≠ 22 (14)
c c
The time interval between these two events, as observed in the S Õ

frame will be
x ≠x
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 = “v 2 2 1 ”= 0. (15)
c
The above relation implies that the two events at A and B, which
appears simultaneous to the observer in S, do not appear simultaneous
to the observer in S Õ .
Simultaneity
In the S Õ frame, the observer observes the two events at a time

difference tÕ (Eq. 15), the magnitude of which depends upon both the
distance between the two events and the velocity with which the frame
S Õ is moving relative to S.

Simultaneity

Similarly, one may show that the two events that appear simultaneous
to an observer in S Õ frame do not appear to simultaneous to an
observer in the S frame.

Simultaneity

This difference arises because of the simultaneity of the event which is

a relative concept, not an absolute one.

Simultaneity


The simultaneity of event is there in each frame of reference separately

but there is no agreement between the simultaneity in one frame with
that in another frame in relative motion with it.

Simultaneity


The simultaneity of event is there in each frame of reference separately

but there is no agreement between the simultaneity in one frame with
that in another frame in relative motion with it.
Thus, simultaneity is a local concept of each individual frame of

reference, whether at rest or in motion.

Postulates
Simultaneity
1 Lorentz contraction
Time-dilation
2 Relativistic velocities
3 Variation of mass with velocity
4 Mass-energy Equivalence
5 Relativistic energy and momentum transformation
6 Massless Particles
7 Relativistic transformation of velocity, frequency and wave number
8 Relativistic Doppler effect

Lorentz (length) contraction
We have learnt that the measurement of an event for different

observers in different frame is different.


Therefore, if we measure the length of a rod in the rest frame of

reference and if an observer in a moving frame measures the length of
the same rod, then two observations would be different.



The length of a rod measured in the stationary frame with respect to

the observer, is called its proper length and it would be the same in all
frames which are at rest.




To see how this length varies when an observer in a frame moving with
velocity v measures the length, consider a rod laid along the x-axis in a
frame S, which is at rest with respect to the observer and let x1 and x2
be the coordinates of its two ends.




To see how this length varies when an observer in a frame moving with
velocity v measures the length, consider a rod laid along the x-axis in a
frame S, which is at rest with respect to the observer and let x1 and x2
be the coordinates of its two ends.
The proper length of the rod, represented by L0 is
L0 = x2 ≠ x1 (16)

Assume an observer in the S Õ frame moving with velocity v with

respect to the rest frame measures the length of this rod.


Let xÕ1 and xÕ2 be the coordinates of the rod in the S Õ frame, measured
simultaneously at the time tÕ , then the length of the rod measure in
the S Õ frame is
L = xÕ2 ≠ xÕ1 . (17)


Let xÕ1 and xÕ2 be the coordinates of the rod in the S Õ frame, measured
simultaneously at the time tÕ , then the length of the rod measure in
the S Õ frame is
L = xÕ2 ≠ xÕ1 . (17)
In order to find a relationship between L and L0 , apply the inverse

Lorentz transformations in Eq. (16), i.e.,
xÕ + vtÕ xÕ + vtÕ
L0 = x2 ≠ x1 =  2 ≠ 1
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
xÕ2 ≠ xÕ1 L
=  =
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 1 ≠ v 2 /c2

L = L0 1 ≠ v 2 /c2 . (18)
The above relation implies that the length L measured in the S Õ frame
is shorter than L0 .
Also, from Eq. (18) it may be noted that the higher value of v, which
means the faster motion of the rod with respect to the observer, gives
the shorter length of the rod.

Eq. (18) also means that at v = 0, i.e., when the rod is at rest with
respect to the observer, the length of the rod is the largest, L0 .

This contraction in the length of the object along its direction of

motion is known as Lorentz contraction or length contraction.


This contraction in length of the object work both ways , i.e., if one
assumes the rod to be kept in the moving frame S Õ with proper length,
L0 = xÕ2 ≠ xÕ1 and the observer be in the rest frame S, then using the
Lorentz transformation one may also get Eq. (18).


This contraction in length of the object work both ways , i.e., if one
assumes the rod to be kept in the moving frame S Õ with proper length,
L0 = xÕ2 ≠ xÕ1 and the observer be in the rest frame S, then using the
Lorentz transformation one may also get Eq. (18).
This may be concluded as: with relative motion between an object and
observer, the length of the object, as measured by the observer, always
comes out to be shorter than its proper length.

Time-dilation
Time-dilation
Just like the length, time intervals are also affected by the relative
motion.

Time-dilation
Time-dilation
motion.
Thus, to an observer ,a clock appears to run slower when in motion,

than when at rest with respect to him.

Time-dilation
Time-dilation
motion.

Therefore, the time interval bewteen two events ocurring at a given

point in space ina frame of reference, moving with respect to the
observer, appears to be greater as measured on a clock at rest with
respect to him than on an identical clock in the moving frame itself.

Time-dilation
Time-dilation
motion.


This is known as time dilation. Let us obtain this mathematically

using the Lorentz transformations.

Time-dilation
Time-dilation
motion.


This is known as time dilation. Let us obtain this mathematically

using the Lorentz transformations.
It two events occur at any given point xÕ in frame S Õ , at times tÕ1 and
tÕ2 , as noted on the clock by the same same frame, and at times t1 and
t2 , as noted on the clock carried by the S frame.

Time-dilation
The time interval between two events noted on the clock in the moving
frame S Õ is given by
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 . (19)

Time-dilation
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 . (19)
And the time interval between the same event as note on the clock in
the rest frame is given by
t = t 2 ≠ t1 . (20)

Time-dilation
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 . (19)
t = t 2 ≠ t1 . (20)
Using the Lorentz transformations in Eq. (19), we have

1 2 1 2
vx vx
tÕ = (tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 ) = “ t2 ≠ ≠ “ t1 ≠ 2
c2 c
= “(t2 ≠ t1 )
t Õ
= “ t. (21)

Time-dilation
tÕ = tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 . (19)
t = t 2 ≠ t1 . (20)
Using the Lorentz transformations in Eq. (19), we have

1 2 1 2
vx vx
tÕ = (tÕ2 ≠ tÕ1 ) = “ t2 ≠ ≠ “ t1 ≠ 2
c2 c
= “(t2 ≠ t1 )
t Õ
= “ t. (21)
Since the “ is greater than 1, therefore, tÕ > t.

Time-dilation
The time interval tÕ between two events occurring at a given point in

the moving frame S Õ appears to be longer by a factor “ to the observer
in the stationary frame S.

Time-dilation

The same will happen if S Õ is at rest and S is in motion. Thus, like

length contraction, time dilation also works both ways and is
independent of the direction of velocity and depends only on its
magnitude.

Time-dilation

The same will happen if S Õ is at rest and S is in motion. Thus, like

length contraction, time dilation also works both ways and is
independent of the direction of velocity and depends only on its
magnitude.
This interval of time tÕ between two events occurring at the same

point in space, measured on the clock moving with the frame S Õ in
which the event occur, and hence at rest with respect to it, is called as
the proper time interval or the proper time, denoted by the symbol · .

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Relativistic addition of velocities
Assume a particle is moving with a velocity u in a frame of reference S

at rest, such that its components along the three coordinate axes are
ux = dx
dt , uy = dt and uz = dt .
dy dz


ux = dx
dy dz
An observer in a frame of reference S Õ moving with velocity v with rest

to the frame S along the positive x-axis, observes this particle to be
Õ dy Õ dz Õ
moving with velocity uÕ where uÕx = dx
dtÕ , uy = dtÕ and uz = dtÕ be its
Õ Õ
components along the three axes.


ux = dx
dy dz

Õ dy Õ dz Õ
Õ Õ

Now, let us see how these velocity components in the two frame are
related to one another.


ux = dx
dy dz

Õ dy Õ dz Õ
Õ Õ

From the Lorentz transformations, we know
1 2
vx
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt); y Õ = y; z Õ = z, tÕ = “ t ≠
c2


ux = dx
dy dz

Õ dy Õ dz Õ
Õ Õ

From the Lorentz transformations, we know
1 2
vx
xÕ = “(x ≠ vt); y Õ = y; z Õ = z, tÕ = “ t ≠
c2
One may write the derivatives of the Lorentz transformations as:

1 2
vdx
dxÕ = “(dx ≠ vdt); dy Õ = dy; dz Õ = dz, dtÕ = “ dt ≠
c2
Now, one may obtain the relation between the components uÕx and ux
as
dxÕ “(dx ≠ vdt) (dx ≠ vdt)
uÕx = = = (22)
dtÕ “(dt ≠ vdx/c2 ) (dt ≠ vdx/c2 )
Now, dividing the numerator and denominator of the rightmost
relation in Eq.(22) by dt, we have
dxÕ dx/dt ≠ v
uÕx = =! "
dtÕ 1 ≠ cv2 dx
dt
ux ≠ v
= . (23)
1 ≠ vux /c2

Now, one may obtain the relation between the components uÕx and ux
as
dxÕ “(dx ≠ vdt) (dx ≠ vdt)
uÕx = = = (22)
dtÕ “(dt ≠ vdx/c2 ) (dt ≠ vdx/c2 )
Now, dividing the numerator and denominator of the rightmost
relation in Eq.(22) by dt, we have
dxÕ dx/dt ≠ v
uÕx = =! "
dtÕ 1 ≠ cv2 dx
dt
ux ≠ v
= . (23)
1 ≠ vux /c2
Next, we obtain the relation between uÕy and uy as

dy Õ dy
uÕy = = . (24)
dtÕ “(dt ≠ vdx/c2 )
Dividing the numerator and denominator by dt, we have
dy Õ dy/dt uy
uÕy = = ! "= . (25)
dtÕ “ 1 ≠ c2 dt
v dx “(1 ≠ vux /c2 )

Similarly, for uÕz transformation, we get

uz
uÕz = . (26)
“(1 ≠ vux /c2 )
Eqs. (23), (25) and (26) are the transformation relations for the
velocity components measure in the two reference frames.


uz
uÕz = . (26)
“(1 ≠ vux /c2 )
However, in the case velocity u is along the x-axis, the components uy

and uz in the S frame, and hence uÕy and uÕz in the S Õ frame are zero,
then we have
u≠v
uÕ = , (27)
1 ≠ uv/c2
where v is the velocity of the moving frame.


uz
uÕz = . (26)
“(1 ≠ vux /c2 )

then we have
u≠v
uÕ = , (27)
1 ≠ uv/c2
Thus, just like the Galilean transformations, the velocity is not

invariant in the two frames of reference.


uz
uÕz = . (26)
“(1 ≠ vux /c2 )

then we have
u≠v
uÕ = , (27)
1 ≠ uv/c2
Thus, just like the Galilean transformations, the velocity is not

invariant in the two frames of reference.
By inverse Lorentz transformations (changing v to ≠v), we get the

velocity component transformation as
uÕx + v uÕy uÕz
ux = ; uy = ; uz = .
1 + vuÕx /c2 “(1 + vuÕx /c2 ) “(1 + vuÕx /c2 )
The velocity u of a particle in frame S may be regarded as the

resultant of its velocity u in frame S Õ and the velocity v of the frame S Õ
relative to frame S.


Thus the above relations give us a method for the addition of

relativistic velocities and constitute a law for the addition of
relativistic velocities.



From the velocity transformations, the law of relativistic velocities

state that:
If a particle moves with velocity uÕ in a frame S Õ and if S Õ has
a velocity v relative to a frame S, the velocity of the particle
uÕ +v
relative to S is given by 1+u Õ v/c2 .




state that:
uÕ +v
This law has the following consequences:

i) If uÕx π c, such that uÕx /c æ 0, the expressions for the velocity
transformations reduce to those obtained in the Galilean
transformations, i.e., ux = uÕx + v, uy = uÕy and uz = uÕz .




state that:
uÕ +v
This law has the following consequences:

i) If uÕx π c, such that uÕx /c æ 0, the expressions for the velocity
transformations reduce to those obtained in the Galilean
transformations, i.e., ux = uÕx + v, uy = uÕy and uz = uÕz .
ii) For higher values of uÕx , the denominator in the expression for ux
becomes greater than 1, thus, the resultant velocity ux is smaller than
(uÕx + v), the value given by Galilean transformation.
iii) If uÕx = c, i.e., the velocity of the particle along the x-axis in S Õ frame is
equal to the velocity of light, then we have ux = 1+cv/cc+v
2 = (c+v)/c = c,
c+v
i.e., the particle has the same velocity c in S frame.

2 = (c+v)/c = c,
c+v
The velocity c is invariant in the two frames of reference irrespective of

their relative velocity v, which is only a consequences of the second
postulate of the special thoery of relativity.

2 = (c+v)/c = c,
c+v
The velocity c is invariant in the two frames of reference irrespective of

their relative velocity v, which is only a consequences of the second
postulate of the special thoery of relativity.
Another interesting result that emerges under Lorentz transformations

is, no two velocities can add up to more than the value of c, which is
not true in the case of Galilean transformations.

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Variation of mass with velocity
The mass of a body, just like length and time, is dependent on the
motion of the body. Therefore, as a consequence of time dilation, it
varies with velocity.

We know that for all inertial frames in relative motion along the x-axis,
the displacements y and z of a particle along the y and z axes
remains unaffected irrespective of the value of the relative velocity.

The time taken by the particle to traverse the displacements y, and
hence its velocity component along the y-axis will depend upon the
frame of reference.

frame of reference.
However, the proper time · to cover the displacement y will be the
same in either reference frame, and therefore, the quantity y/ · be.

frame of reference.
However, the proper time · to cover the displacement y will be the
same in either reference frame, and therefore, the quantity y/ · be.
Thus, if we take y/ · to be the velocity component of the particle
along the y axis in the moving frame and m0 be its rest mass (or the
proper mass), then we have y component of the momentum of the
particle in the moving frame i.e.,
py = m0 y/ · . (28)
Now, if t be the time taken to cover the displacement y, as oted on

an identical clock by an observer in the rest frame, we have from the
t 1
= . (29)
· 1 ≠ v 2 /c2


t 1
= . (29)
· 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
Thus, y-component of the particle, as measured in the rest frame is

vy = yt , and y-component of the momentum of particle in the rest
frame is py = mvy , where m is the mass of the moving particle as taken
by the observer in the rest frame.


t 1
= . (29)
· 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
Thus, y-component of the particle, as measured in the rest frame is

vy = yt , and y-component of the momentum of particle in the rest
frame is py = mvy , where m is the mass of the moving particle as taken
by the observer in the rest frame.
Since the basic laws of physics in all frames of reference must have the
same mathematical form, therefore, the law of conservation of
momentum must hold good in both frames, which then leads to
y y t t
py = mvy = m0 = m0 = m 0 vy
· t · ·
t
m = m0 . (30)
·
Substituting the value of t

· from Eq. (29) in Eq. (30), we have
m0
m=  . (31)
1 ≠ v 2 /c2


m0
m=  . (31)
1 ≠ v 2 /c2

Since 1 ≠ v 2 /c2 is always greater than 1, therefore, m > m0 , which
means that the mass of a particle in a moving frame, as taken by an
observer in the rest frame, is always greater that its proper (or rest)
mass.


m0
m=  . (31)
1 ≠ v 2 /c2

Since 1 ≠ v 2 /c2 is always greater than 1, therefore, m > m0 , which
means that the mass of a particle in a moving frame, as taken by an
observer in the rest frame, is always greater that its proper (or rest)
mass.
The reciprocity effect holds for the case mass variation as well, thus,
for an observer moving with the particle of mass m0 , measures the
mass of an identical particle in the stationary frame as
m0
m=  . (32)
1 ≠ v 2 /c2

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Mass-energy Equivalence
The corrct way to state the second law of motion, related to the special
theory of relativity, is to define force as the rate of change of
momentum, i.e., F = dt d
(mv).

(mv).
This is obviously not the same definition as F = ma, as

d dv dm dm
(mv) = m + v = ma + v , (33)
dt dt dt dt
and dm
dt ”= 0, if v varies with time.

(mv).

d dv dm dm
(mv) = m + v = ma + v , (33)
dt dt dt dt
and dm
The kinetic energy of a moving body at a given velocity v is equal to

the work done in making the body move from rest and attain this
velocity.

(mv).

d dv dm dm
(mv) = m + v = ma + v , (33)
dt dt dt dt
and dm
The kinetic energy of a moving body at a given velocity v is equal to

the work done in making the body move from rest and attain this
velocity.
If F be the component of force applied to a body in the direction of

displacement, the work done or kinetic energy imparted to the body
when it is displaced through a distance dS, i.e., dEk = F.dS.

Therefore, the work done or kinetic energy imparted to it during the

whole displacement S, until it acquires the velocity v is given by
⁄ ⁄ S
Ek = dEk = F.dS
0
⁄ S
d
= (mv)dS. (34)
0 dt
Now,
d dS
(mv)dS = d(mv) = vd(mv). (35)
dt dt

Therefore, the work done or kinetic energy imparted to it during the

whole displacement S, until it acquires the velocity v is given by
⁄ ⁄ S
Ek = dEk = F.dS
0
⁄ S
d
= (mv)dS. (34)
0 dt
Now,
d dS
(mv)dS = d(mv) = vd(mv). (35)
dt dt
Since the particle starts from rest (i.e., v = 0) and finally acquire
velocity c, we have
⁄ ⁄ A B
v c
m0 v
KE = Ek = vd(mv) = vd  . (36)
0 0 1 ≠ v 2 /c2

s s
Integrating by parts ( xdy = xy ≠ ydx), we have
⁄
m0 c2
c
vdv
Ek =  ≠ m0 
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
Ë Èc
m0 c2
=  ≠ m0 c2 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0
2 2 2
= mc ≠ m0 c = (m ≠ m0 )c
= mc2 , (37)
where m is the relativistic increase in mass with increase in velocity.

s s
⁄
m0 c2
c
vdv
Ek =  ≠ m0 
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
Ë Èc
m0 c2
=  ≠ m0 c2 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0
2 2 2
= mc ≠ m0 c = (m ≠ m0 )c
= mc2 , (37)
Thus, the kinetic energy of the body is the product of the increase in
its mass and c2 .

s s
⁄
m0 c2
c
vdv
Ek =  ≠ m0 
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
Ë Èc
m0 c2
=  ≠ m0 c2 1 ≠ v 2 /c2
1 ≠ v 2 /c2 0
2 2 2
= mc ≠ m0 c = (m ≠ m0 )c
= mc2 , (37)
Thus, the kinetic energy of the body is the product of the increase in
its mass and c2 .
Rewriting Eq. (37), we have
m c2
mc2 = m0 c2 + Ek =  0
1 ≠ v 2 /c2
= “m0 c2 . (38)
In Eq. (38), m0 c2 is the energy due to the rest mass of the body, i.e.,
its energy when at rest with respect to the observer, is called its rest
energy or proper energy E0 and mc2 is the total energy E possessed by
the body.

the body.
Thus,
total energy E (= mc2 ) = rest energy (m0 c2 ) + kinetic energy
(Ek = “m0 c2 ).

the body.
Thus,
total energy E (= mc2 ) = rest energy (m0 c2 ) + kinetic energy
(Ek = “m0 c2 ).
This relation may also be obtained by the binomial expansion of the

mass-velocity relation for values of v/c æ 0. Thus,
m0
m =  = m0 (1 ≠ v 2 /c2 )≠1/2
1 ≠ v 2 /c2
3 4
1 v2
= m0 1 + ≠ ... , (39)
2 c2
which in the lowest order term may be written as

1
m = m0 + m0 v 2 /c2
2
1
mc2 = m0 c2 + mv 2 (40)
2
mc2 = m0 c2 + Ek . (41)
Therefore, kinetic energy is given by the relation
Ek = (m ≠ m0 )c2 = mc2 . (42)

1
m = m0 + m0 v 2 /c2
2
1
mc2 = m0 c2 + mv 2 (40)
2
mc2 = m0 c2 + Ek . (41)
Therefore, kinetic energy is given by the relation
Ek = (m ≠ m0 )c2 = mc2 . (42)
This relativistic expression for kinetic energy, or the mass-energy

relation, is known as the Einstein’s mass-energy relation.

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Relativistic energy and momentum transformation

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Massless Particles

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Relativistic transformation of velocity, frequency and wave

number

Postulates
Simultaneity
Time-dilation

Relativistic Doppler effect

Mechanics 1-4 Units

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16-03-2021

the laboratory frame

(using perpendicular axes theorem)

B. Sc. I semester (Mechanics)

May 21, 2021

3 Superposition of two Harmonic Waves

Unit III: Oscillations and Waves

Oscillations: Simple Harmonic Oscillations. Differential equation of

3 Superposition of two Harmonic Waves

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

A motion that repeats itself in equal interval of time is called periodic

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

A motion that repeats itself in equal interval of time is called periodic

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

A motion that repeats itself in equal interval of time is called periodic

The oscillatory motion is essential for the understanding of the various

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

In physics, we encounter various types of motion, which can be

A motion that repeats itself in equal interval of time is called periodic

The oscillatory motion is essential for the understanding of the various

One of the simplest example of oscillatory motion is the Simple

Figure: Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion. LHS A pendulum oscillating in a

Figure: Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion. LHS A pendulum oscillating in a

Figure: Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion. LHS A pendulum oscillating in a

Differential equation of the SHM

Differential equation of the SHM

Differential equation of the SHM

From Newton’s law, we know F = ma, so the above equation becomes

Differential equation of the SHM

From Newton’s law, we know F = ma, so the above equation becomes

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

The equation of simple harmonic motion states that

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

The equation of simple harmonic motion states that

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

The equation of simple harmonic motion states that

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

The equation of simple harmonic motion states that

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

x(t) = AÕ eiÊt + B Õ e≠iÊt , (5)

where A and B are proportionality constants.

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

x(t) = AÕ eiÊt + B Õ e≠iÊt , (5)

where A and B are proportionality constants.

Recall the identity

e±i◊ = cos ◊ ± i sin ◊

Using the above identity, Eq.(5) may be rewritten as

x(t) = AÕ (cos Êt + i sin Êt) + B Õ (cos Êt ≠ i sin Êt),

Differential equation of the SHM (Contd.)

x(t) = AÕ eiÊt + B Õ e≠iÊt , (5)

where A and B are proportionality constants.

Recall the identity

e±i◊ = cos ◊ ± i sin ◊

Using the above identity, Eq.(5) may be rewritten as

x(t) = AÕ (cos Êt + i sin Êt) + B Õ (cos Êt ≠ i sin Êt),

Now we redefine the constants AÕ and B Õ in terms terms of more specific