Lecture# 3

Potential Sources of Error

 Several potential sources of error can effect a research design
 A good research design attempts to control the various sources of error

Researcher
Error
Random
Sampling Error

Interviewer
Total Error Response Error
Error
Non Sampling
Error
Non Response Respondents
Error Error
Potential Sources of Error

1. Random Sampling Error

 It occurs because the particular sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of
interest.
 For Example:
 When a researcher select sample size of 120 from the population of 3,685 but the accurate sample
is 442 which represents the entire targeted population
Potential Sources of Error
2. Non Sampling Error

i. Non Response Error

 A type of non sampling error that occurs when some of the respondents included in the sample do
not respond. The primary cause of nonresponse are refusals and not in homes
ii. Response Error
 It is arising from respondents who do not respond, but give inaccurate answers or their answers are
misrecorded or misnalayzed
Potential Sources of Error
 Researcher Error
1. Surrogate Information Error: instead of obtaining information on consumer choice of a new
brand, the researcher obtains information on consumer preferences since the choice process
cannot be easily observed
2. Measurement Error: While seeking to measure consumer preferences, the researcher employs a
scale that measures perceptions rather than preferences
3. Population Definition Error:
4. Sampling Frame Error: Telephone Directory, wrong representation of updated or potential
customer details
5. Data Analysis Error: An inappropriate statistical procedure is used, resulting in incorrect
interpretation and findings
Potential Sources of Error
 Interviewer Errors
i. Respondent Selection Error: Researcher selected respondents other than those who are specified
in the sampling design. Different respondents from pre defined targeted audience
ii. Questioning Error: Exact wording is not used while conducting field. Much probing is not done
when more information is required
iii. Recording Error: arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting, and recording the answers given by
the respondents
iv. Cheating Error: self filling answers in the questionnaire which creates problem in the last while
cross checking the answers. Questions debt which are difficult to asked from respondents and
interviewer filled it based on self assessment
Potential Sources of Error
 Respondents Errors
i. Inability Error: it arises due to following reasons:
a. Unfamiliarity
b. Fatigue
c. Boredom
d. Faulty recall
e. Question format
ii. Unwillingness Error: it arises when respondents intentionally misreport their answers because of
a desire to information
Budgeting & Scheduling the Project
 CPM-Critical Path Method
 Management technique of dividing a research project into component activities, determining the
sequence of these components and the time each activity will require

 PERT- Program Evaluation & Review Technique

 An advanced version of CPM, which is a probability based scheduling approach that recognizes
and measures the uncertainty of the project completion times.

 GERT- Graphical Evaluation & Review Technique

 An even more advanced scheduling technique in which both the completion and probabilities and the
activity costs can be built into a network representation
Attitudes
Consumer attitudes
are a composite of a Beliefs
These components are
consumer’s (1) beliefs
viewed together since they
about, (2) feelings
are highly interdependent
about, (3) and
behavioral intentions Behavioral and together represent
forces that influence how
toward some object--
within the context of Intentions the consumer will react to
the object.
marketing research,
usually a brand or
retail store. Affect
(Feeling)
Beliefs
 A consumer may hold both positive beliefs towards an object (e.g., coffee tastes good)
as well as negative beliefs (e.g., coffee is easily leaked and stains papers).

 In addition, some beliefs may be neutral (coffee is black), and some may be differ,
depending on the person or the situation (e.g., coffee is hot and stimulates--good on a
cold morning, but not good on a hot summer evening when one wants to sleep).
Affect (Feeling)
 Consumers also hold certain feelings toward brands or other objects.

 Sometimes these feelings are based on the beliefs (e.g., a person feels
nauseated/sick/not well when thinking about a hamburger because of the tremendous
amount of fat/beef it contains), but there may also be feelings which are relatively
independent of beliefs.
 For example, an extreme environmentalist may believe that cutting down trees is morally wrong, but
may have positive affect toward Christmas trees because he or she unconsciously associates these
trees with the experience that he or she had at Christmas as a child.
Behavioral Intention
 The behavioral intention is what the consumer plans to do with respect to the object (e.g., buy
or not buy the brand).

 As with affect, this is sometimes a logical consequence of beliefs (or affect), but may
sometimes reflect other circumstances—
 e.g., although a consumer does not really like a restaurant, he or she will go there because it is a hangout
for his or her friends.
Consumers often do not behave consistently with their attitudes for several reasons:
i. Ability
ii. Competing demand for resources
iii. Social influence
Attitude Change Strategies-As per Consumer Research
Changing attitudes is generally very difficult, particularly when consumers suspect that the marketer has a self-serving agenda in
bringing about this change (e.g., to get the consumer to buy more or to switch brands).

1. Changing Affect
 One approach is to try to change affect, which may or may not involve getting consumers to
change their beliefs. One strategy uses the approach of classical conditioning try to “pair” the
product with a liked stimulus.
 For example, we “pair” a car with a beautiful woman. Alternatively, we can try to get people to like the
advertisement and hope that this liking will “spill over” into the purchase of a product.
2. Changing behavior
 People like to believe that their behavior is rational; thus, once they use our products, chances are that
they will continue unless someone is able to get them to switch.
 One way to get people to switch to our brand is to use temporary price discounts and coupons;
however, when consumers buy a product on deal, they may justify the purchase based on that deal (i.e.,
the low price) and may then switch to other brands on deal later.
Attitude Change Strategies-As per Consumer Research
3. Changing beliefs.
 Although attempting to change beliefs is the obvious way to attempt attitude change, particularly
when consumers hold unfavorable or inaccurate ones, this is often difficult to achieve because
consumers tend to resist
1. Change currently held beliefs.
2. Change the importance of beliefs.
3. Add beliefs.
4. Change ideal.
Thank You
Have A Nice Week
Ahead!