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Essentials of
Marketing
Research
Part 2: Designing the
Marketing Research Project

Chapter 5: Descriptive and

Causal Research Designs

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 Value of Descriptive and Causal Survey Research Designs

Some research problems require primary data gathered only by obtaining

information from a large number of target respondents.
• Chapter 4 covered qualitative methods based on smaller samples.
• This chapter discusses quantitative methods of collecting primary data.
• Data generally involving much larger samples.
• Including survey designs used in descriptive and causal research.

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 Descriptive Research Designs

Selection of a descriptive research design is based on three factors.

• The nature of the initial problem or opportunity.
• The research questions.
• The research objectives.

A descriptive design is appropriate in the following situations.

• When the research problem/opportunity is either to describe
characteristics of existing market situations or to evaluate current
marketing mix strategies.
• If research questions include a who, what, where, when, and how for
target populations or marketing strategies.
• If the task is to identify relationships between variables or determine
whether difference exist between groups.

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 Descriptive Research Surveys

There are two general approaches used to

collect data for descriptive research.
• Asking questions.
• Observation. The main goal of
quantitative survey
research methods is to
Survey research methods collect provide facts and
estimates from a large,
quantitative data from large groups of
representative sample of
people through a question/answer process.
respondents.
Quantitative studies are descriptive in the
sense they use numbers and statistics to
summarize.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Survey
Research Designs

Can accommodate large sample

sizes so results can be generalized
to the target population.
Produce precise enough estimates
to identify even small differences.
Easy to administer and record
answers to structured questions.
Facilitate advance statistical
analysis.
Concepts and relationships not
directly measurable can be studied.
Questions that accurately
measure respondent attitudes
and behavior can be challenging
to develop.
In-depth data difficult to obtain.
Low response rates can be a
problem.

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 Types of Errors in Surveys

Sampling error is the difference between the findings based on the

sample and the true values for a population.
• It can be reduced by increasing sample size and using appropriate
sampling methods.

Nonsampling errors have these

Errors occurring in survey design not
characteristics.
related to sampling are called
nonsampling errors – four sources. • They create “systematic
variation” or bias in the data.
• Respondent error.
• They are controllable.
• Measurement/questionnaire
design errors. • They cannot be measured
directly.
• Incorrect problem definition.
• They can create other
• Project administration errors.
nonsampling errors.

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 Respondent Errors

Respondent errors occur when

respondents cannot be reached,
are unwilling to participate, or
respond untruthfully. Human memory is a source of
Nonresponse error occurs then a response error – faulty recall.
sufficient number of preselected • Selective perception.
respondents do not participate.
• Time compression.
• Multiple callbacks.
• Use of averaging to overcome
• Follow-up mailings. memory retrieval problems.
• Incentives. • Using a socially desirable
• Enhancing sponsor credibility. manner and introducing bias.
• Indicating length of time
needed to complete.
• Shorter questionnaires.

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 Types of Survey Methods – Person-Administered Surveys

Person-administered survey methods use trained interviewers.

Advantages.
• Adaptability – interviewers quickly adapt
to respondents’ differences.
Disadvantages.
• Rapport – interviewers establish a
• Possible recording error.
“comfort zone” for respondents.
• Interviewer – respondent
• Feedback – interviewers explain
interaction error.
instructions and answer any questions
while noting verbal and nonverbal cues. • High expense.
• Quality of responses – interviewers
screen respondents for target population
and face-to-face interactions elicit truth.

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 Person-Administered Surveys – In-Home Interviews

An in-home interview is a face-to-face structured question and answer

exchange conducted in the respondent’s home or office.

Advantages.
Disadvantages.
• Interviewers can explain confusing or
complex questions and use visual aids. • Unsupervised
interviewers may skip
• Respondents can try new products or
homes or fabricate
watch potential ad campaigns and interviews.
evaluate them.
• Time-consuming and
• Respondents are in a familiar
expensive.
environment and more likely to answer
the survey’s questions.

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 Person-Administered Surveys – Mall-Intercept Interviews

A mall-intercept interview is a face-to-face interview, shoppers are

stopped and asked to complete a survey.

The disadvantages are similar to those of

Mall-intercept interviews in-home interviews but interviewer’s travel
share the advantages of time is reduced.
in-home interviews, but
Mall patrons are not likely to be
the environment is not as
representative of the target population,
familiar.
even if screened.
They are less expensive
Mall-intercept interviews typically use
and more convenient for
nonprobability sampling, which adversely
the researcher.
affects the ability to generalize results.

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Types of Survey Methods – Telephone-Administered Surveys

Telephone interviews are less expensive than face-to-face interviews,

and more suitable for gathering data from large numbers of respondents.

Advantages.
Disadvantages.
• Interviewers are supervised at a
central work location.
• Only audio can be used.

• Less expensive than face-to-face • Complexity of questions.

interviews.
• Allows respondents from a wide
geographic area, and data is
collected quickly.
• Call backs are possible.
• Random dialing selects a random
sample.
• Respondents may hang up.
• Limited to national boarders.
• Less than 50 percent of U.S.
households have a landline.
• Refusal rates are high.
• They annoy many people.

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 Telephone-Administered Surveys – CATI

Most computer-assisted telephone interview systems have one

question per screen – with the interviewer reading the question and
recording respondent’s answer.

Advantages. Use of CATI

• The major advantage is lower cost per interview. systems is
declining due to
• Allows inbound return calls routed to the
online surveys
interviewer who “owns” the interview.
which are more
• Eliminates the possibility of coding errors. cost effective and
• Results tabulated in real time, identifying flexible in design
question that can be eliminated or changed. and execution.

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 Telephone-Administered Surveys – Mobile Phone Surveys

Mobile phone surveys are growing in use for these reasons.

• High percentage of mobile phone usage.
• Availability of mobile phone applications.
• Rapid decline in landline phone penetration.

Disadvantages.
Advantages over Internet/phone surveys. • FCC regulations.
• Immediacy. • Cost to respondents.
• Portability. • Safety is a potential issue.
• They reach consumers with no Internet • Not suitable for complex
or landline available. questions.
• Limited graphic ability.
• Relatively small sample
sizes.

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 Types of Survey Methods – Self-Administered Surveys

A self-administered survey has the respondent respond in their own

time, without the presence of an interviewer.

Disadvantages.
Advantages.
• Limited flexibility.
• Low cost per survey.
• High nonresponse rates.
• Respondent control.
• Potential response errors.
• No interviewer-respondent bias.
• Slow data acquisition.
• Anonymity in responses.
• Lack of monitoring capability.

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 Self-Administered Surveys – Mail Surveys

Mail surveys typically are sent to respondents using the postal service.

Disadvantages.
Advantages. • Lower response rates which
 Inexpensive to implement. creates nonresponse bias.
 Reaches hard-to-interview • Misunderstood or skipped
respondents. questions.
• Slow acquisition of data.

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 Self-Administered Surveys – Mail Panel Surveys

A mail panel survey is a questionnaire sent to a group of individuals who

have agreed to participate in advance.

Advantages.
Disadvantages.
• Can be tested prior to the survey.
• Members are often not
• High response rate.
representative of the target
• Can be used for longitudinal population at large.
research.

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 Self-Administered Surveys – Drop-Off Surveys

The drop-off survey is hand-delivered by a representative to selected

respondents; completed surveys are either mailed or picked up.

Advantages.
• The availability of a person who can:
• Answer general questions. Disadvantage.
• More expensive
• Screen potential respondents.
than mail surveys.
• Create interest in completing the
questionnaire.

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 Self-Administered Surveys – Online Survey Methods

The most frequently used survey method is online surveys.

Advantages.
• Less expensive per respondent
than other survey methods.
• Collects data from hard-to-
reach samples.
• Can randomize question order.
• Missing data can be eliminated.
• Improved graphic capabilities.
• Companies can survey
customers using email.
Disadvantages.
• Internet samples are rarely
representative.
• Nonresponse bias can be high.
• Limited ability to generalize to
the general population.
• Propensity scoring can
adjust results.
• Underrepresented samples
are weighted more heavily.

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 Selecting the Survey Method – Situational Factors
The goal is to produce usable
data in as short a time as possible
at the lowest cost.
Budget.
• Includes all resources, not just
dollar amounts.
Completion time frame.
• Direct mail or interviews
require long time frames.
• Online surveys, telephone
surveys and mall intercepts
can be done more quickly.
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Quality requirements.
• Completeness of data refers to
the depth and breadth of data.
• Generalizable data accurately
represents the population
studied and can be projected
to the target population.
• Small sample size limits
generalizability but
weighting is possible.
• Data precision.
• Mail and online surveys can
be precise but not
generalizable.
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 Selecting the Survey Method – Task Factors
Difficulty of the task.
• Researchers should make it as
easy as possible for
respondents to answer.
Stimuli needed to elicit response.
• Common examples are
products – as in taste tests.
• And promotional visuals – as in
advertising research.
• Online and personal surveys
facilitate visual stimuli.
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Amount of information needed from
respondent.
• Collecting more data lowers
response rates and increases
respondent fatigue.
Research topic sensitivity.
• Topic sensitivity is the degree a
question leads a respondent to
give a socially acceptable
response.
• In phone and face-to-face
interaction undesirable behaviors
are underreported and desirable
behaviors over-reported.
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 Selecting the Survey Method – Respondent Factors
Diversity.
• The more diverse the
respondents, the fewer
similarities they share.
• The less diverse the
respondents, the more
similarities they share.
Incidence rate is the percentage
of the general population that is
the focus of the research.
• When incidence rates are low,
researchers spend time and
money locating respondents.
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Respondent participation.
• Ability to participate – ability
to get meet with researcher.
• Willingness to participate –
inclination to share thoughts.
• Knowledge level – if they feel
they have the knowledge to
answer questions on the topic.
• Key informants have high
knowledge levels.
Marketing “best practices”
increase participation levels.
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 Causal Research Designs

Causal research obtains data enabling researchers to assess “cause-

effect” relationships between two or more variables.
• The concept of causality between independent variables (X) and one
dependent variable (Y) and stated: “If X, then Y.”
Causal research requires data be collected using experimental designs.
• In an experiment, researchers manipulate independent variables and
measure the effect on a dependent variable, controlling other
variables.
Questions examining causal relationships are framed with the focus being
on the specific impact one variable causes on another variable.

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 The Nature of Experimentation

A variable has more than one value – observable, measurable.

• Experiments focus on determining the change in one variable as
another changes – provides evidence of causal relationships.

Experiments control the situation to examine causal relationships.

• Control variables do not change as the independent variable is
manipulated.
• Extraneous variables are any variable not measured or controlled
that may affect the dependent variable.

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 Validity Concerns with Experimental Research

Validity is the extent to which the conclusions drawn from a particular

research design, such as an experiment, are true.
• Internal validity is the extent the research design accurately identifies
causal relationships.
• External validity means the results can be generalized to the target
population.
Types of experimental research designs in marketing research.
• Pre-experimental designs include: one-shot study, one-group, pre-
test/posttest, and static group comparison.
• True experimental designs include: pretest-posttest, control group,
posttest-only, control group, and Solomon Four Group.
• Quasi-experimental designs include: nonequivalent control group, and
field experiments.

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 Comparing Laboratory and Field Experiments

Lab experiments are causal research designs conducted in an artificial

setting – high internal validity but lack external validity.
Field experiments manipulate the independent variables in order to
measure the dependent variable in a natural setting – high realism.
• Independent and extraneous variables are difficult to control.
Besides realism and control, also consider these three issues when
considering use of a field experiment.
• Time frames – take longer than lab experiments to complete.
• Costs – more expensive than lab experiments.
• Competitive reactions – if secrecy is desired, lab experiments are
more effective.

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 Test Marketing

Test marketing uses experiments to obtain information on market

performance indicators.

Test marketing has three broad applications.

• Used to pilot test new products or modifications.
• Or to explore options of marketing mix elements.
• Or to examine product weaknesses or strengths, The cost of test
or inconsistencies in marketing strategy. marketing
The main objectives of test marketing. experiments can
be high.
• To predict sales.
• To identify possible customer reactions.
• To anticipate adverse consequences of
marketing programs.

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 End of Main Content

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© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.