Key Points

Ž Single or two stage operation needs to be considered:

Ž single stage - runs under fire conditions only
Ž two stage - runs at a turn down volume for normal operation, increasing to full duty
under fire conditions.
Ž Simple lobbies do not require pressurisation.
Ž Duct systems need to be independent for stairs and lobbies. Fans may be common.
Ž The interaction of other mechanical ventilation/air conditioning systems needs to be
carefully considered.
Ž Fire fighting shafts require 2m/s egress velocities, through open doors.
Ž In the case of double doors egress velocities need only be based on a single leaf
open.
Ž Pressurised air needs to be vented out of the building.
Ž Checks on potential leakage paths during construction are essential.
Ž Provision should be made in the calculation of the design supply volume for the
uncertainties related to potential leakage through the building fabric and ductwork
system.
Ž The presence of lift shafts can create considerable difficulties in trying to establish a
pressurised space and therefore need to be very carefully considered.
Ž The correct functioning of the pressurisation system will be required for the issuing of
a fire certificate.
Ž Early leakage testing is advisable to identify any weak elements in the enclosing
building fabric and before false ceilings or false floors are installed and completed.

References

Ž BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5588: Part 4: 1978. Code of Practice for

smoke control in protected escape routes using pressurisation. BSI. Amd 1986.
Ž BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5588: Part 5: 1991. Code of Practice for
firefighting stairs and lifts. BSI. Amd 1992.
Ž BUILDING REGULATIONS. Part B: Approved Document B: Fire Safety. HMSO.
1992.
Ž FIRE RESEARCH NOTE 958 HMSO.

13.1.1 Introduction

This section addresses the requirements of pressurised spaces which are used as a means
of escape, with particular reference to:
• air tightness of the protected routes;
• sizing and the selection of fans;
• testing and commissioning of the air distribution system;
• provision for lifts.

These regulations only apply in the UK although the physical principles will apply elsewhere.
Part B of the Building Regulations3 require fire escape routes (staircases, lobbies or
corridors), to be naturally ventilated to reduce the density of smoke in the event of a fire.
Natural ventilation is not always possible and options exist for pressurising escape and
firefighting stairs by the introduction of mechanical ventilation.
The use of pressurisation will also give a greater degree of confidence that the escape route
can be used for extended periods. This may be necessary in tall buildings when a
considerable amount of time is needed to descend the escape stairway.
In essence, the design of staircase pressurisation is straightforward. However, the somewhat
involved nature of BS 5588: Parts 4 and 51,2 can lead to considerable confusion. This section
of the guide aims to provide a basic explanation of the British Standard and simple guidelines
to avoid difficulties that can be experienced in achieving design requirements.
13.1.2 Principles

Pressurisation is not designed to completely oppose smoke flow, but is generally effective
during occupants escape, and for firefighters familiar with the hazards of smoke filled rooms
on fire.The principles involved in stair pressurisation are simple. The relevant British Standard
for pressurisation is BS 5588 Part 41 and Part 52, which gives general information and design
guidance. This section of the Guide should be read in conjunction with these parts of BS
5588.
The aim is to flood the staircase/lobby with fresh uncontaminated air thus limiting the amount
of smoke entering escape routes. Air from supply fans will maintain a static pressure across a
closed door between the stair/lobby and room, or will provide a flow of air to oppose smoke
ingress if the door is open.

Single or two stage supply

There are two options for the supply air system. The simplest is to supply all the required air,
only during a fire condition, upon a suitable alarm, and is known as single stage. Alternatively,
the fans can operate in two stages. Under normal conditions the fans run at a reduced
volume, the higher volume being used during a fire condition triggered by an alarm. The two-
stage system might be employed where the first stage provides the normal ventilation for the
stair, with suitable fans provided for the higher duty. Either system is acceptable.

13.1.3 Options for pressurising staircase/lobby/corridor

Once the decision to pressurise has been taken there are three basic arrangements for
pressurising one or more elements in an escape route, and these are summarised in the
Table 13.1.1.
There is no requirement to pressurise a simple lobby. (A simple lobby being defined as a
lobby with no toilets or lifts opening on to it).
A fire lobby on a fire fighting stair is defined differently and can include toilets. Generally,
lobbies should not contain or give access to plant rooms not associated with the fire fighting
stair.

Table 13.1.1. Options for pressurising staircase/lobby/corridor

Pressurization Options
Method Explanatory Comments (see below)
Stair Lobby Corridor BS 5588: Part 4 Clause*
1 (i) Yes No No 4.2.1
2 (ii) Yes Yes No 4.2.2.2
2 (iii) Yes Yes Yes 4.2.2.3
3 (iv) No Yes Yes 4.2.3
3 (v) Whole Building 4.2.4

* Text is provided in BS 5588: Part 4 for further information.

Explanatory Comments for Table 13.1.1

Method 1

(i) Pressurising staircase only

• For applications where no smoke control is needed in horizontal routes
• Stairs must lead direct to accommodation or via simple lobby.
• The simple lobby is unpressurised, hence only one duct is required.

Method 2 Pressurising some or all of horizontal route

(ii) Pressurising staircase and lobby
• Not a simple lobby - may contain lifts, toilets etc.
• A separate duct or other source of air is required to pressurise the lobby and stair
independently although the fans may be common.
• Lobby pressure should be less than or equal to stair pressure though not more than 5 Pa
below with doors closed.

(iii) Pressurising staircase, lobby and corridor

• Only applicable if corridor construction has 30 minutes or more fire resistance.
• The corridor is considered part of the escape route.
• A separate duct or other source of air is required to pressurise the corridor, lobby, and
stair independently although the fans may be common.

• The corridor pressure must be less than or equal to that of the lobby though not more than
5 Pa below with doors closed.
• Self closing doors to accommodation units are required.

Method 3

(iv) Pressurising lobby and corridor only

• No permanent ventilation in staircase (except pressure relief if required).

(v) Pressurising the whole building

• There is limited evidence of success using this approach.
• Additional smoke stop doors may be required to prevent smoke spread.
• Generally not recommended and no details are included within the British Standard.

The majority of situations would utilise stair and lobby, or just stair pressurisation. Stair and
lobby pressurisation is preferred as the pressure drop caused by doors to the stair opening on
other floors will have a lesser effect on the lobby pressure at the fire floor.

Connection of pressurised spaces

A pressurised space will force smoke away from it, therefore the smoke should not be allowed
to spread into a naturally ventilated escape route.
There will be no adverse interactions of the pressurised cores if:
(a) pressurised spaces are separated by large unpressurised spaces, eg open plan offices,
courtyards, etc.
(b) all staircases and lobbies (where appropriate) are pressurised.

Interaction with air conditioning / mechanical ventilation

The important issue here is to avoid disturbing the trend of keeping smoke away from the
escape routes. Normally the air conditioning system will shut down on fire alarm. Two-stage
systems or smoke extraction using the air conditioning or ventilation system will require
special consideration at the design stage. Air conditioning or ventilation extract equipment
used for smoke exhaust may also require special treatment:
(1) All supply air should be stopped first, prior to operation.
(2) Extract ducts may have to be fire rated.
Extract fans may require fire rated motors.

13.1.4 Pressurisation differentials

The required pressure differentials are shown in Table 13.1.2. These are maintained across
doors, taking account of leakage paths. The leakage path is characterised by an effective
area “AE” which is calculated by identifying all complete leakage routes via doors and
windows to outside.
Table 13.1.2. Required pressure differentials
Pressurisation level (Pa)
Emergency
Building Height Reduced operation for stage 1 of a two stage system
Operation
Up to 12m or below
50* 8
ground
Above 12m 50 15

* 25 Pa may be appropriate - See Fire Research Note 958 HMS0

Leakage due to pressure differentials

Principal leakage paths and design allowances are shown in Fig 13.1.1. Detailed examples
are given in BS 5588: Part 4 Annex H The actual leakage rate may not be easily calculated at
scheme design stage, (windows, etc. will not have been specified), but an assessment should
be made in case relief vents are needed. The provision of pressure relief vents is discussed
later.

Leakage

Q = 0.827 AE DP1/N (m3/s)

N = 2 for doors
N = 1.6 for windows
AE = effective area
DP = Pressurisation level difference between staircase and lobbies (corridors)

Figure 13.1.1

13.1.5 Preliminary design

Usually the worst case design condition for modern double glazed buildings is the egress
velocity, quoted at an “open door” from the lobby or stair to the room. This condition is
particularly dominant with firefighting shafts. If the building is less than 10 storeys this
calculation is usually best done first when determining riser space.Supply ducts should
branch into the lobby at every floor and into the stair at every fourth floor.
Figure 13.1.2

Design for “open door” condition

BS 5588: Part 4 requires egress velocities of between 0.5 and 0.75 m/s dependant upon the
stair/lobby arrangement, eg staircase only is pressurised, staircase and lobby independently
pressurised etc. The alternatives available and their consequences are shown in Fig.13.1.3.
Figure 13.1.3

For a quick assessment the maximum likely requirement for a single stair door leading to a
single lobby door measuring 2m x 0.8m is given as follows:

Design Flow rate = 2 x 0.8 x 0.75 = 1.2 m3/s

Using 0.5 m/s the flowrate would be 0.8 m3/s. This is only valid for buildings with up to 20
storeys. Above this two doors on different floors must be considered.
To account for inadequate venting from the room the actual volume is assumed to be lower
than that calculated. The required volume is then derived by dividing the calculated volume by
0.6, i.e. for the above examples this would give a revised flow rate of 2.0m3/s. Double doors
have greater leakage but only one leaf is assumed to be open when calculating egress
velocities.

The provision noted under the calculations for leakage in the BS, (which suggests adding
50% to the design flowrate), do not apply to the “open door” calculations. However, when
specifying fans they should be selected with a view to having to increase the flowrates to
meet site conditions, i.e. leaky shafts and doors. It is not uncommon with the more ‘leaky’
forms of construction (eg dry lining) for the actual volume flow for pressurisation to be
substantially greater than that predicted in design. It is important to be aware of the
construction characteristics and provide an appropriate allowance on fan duty.

FIRE FIGHTING STAIRS AND LIFTS

BS 5588: Part 5 (see Fig. 13.1.2) requires an egress velocity of 2 m/s at the fire floor and also
at the fire service access level. The resulting flow rates are usually quite large compared with
other areas, as indeed are the flowrates if natural ventilation is used. Typically 10 to 11 m3/s
would be required! Where fire fighting lifts are provided the shaft is pressurised but lobby
pressurisation is not mandatory.

13.1.6 Venting of pressurisation air

Section 13.1.5 gives an allowance in the design calculation for inadequate venting of
pressurisation air, this however does not remove the requirement to provide a path for the air
to leave the building.
There are four methods for dispersing the air which flows on to any given floor from a
pressurised stair or lobby. Venting should, if possible, be uniformly distributed on each side of
the floor to minimise wind effects.
(a) discount the largest side of the building to allow for adverse wind effects.
(b) Special vents: in a “sealed” area provision of vents to outside. The area of the vent in
m2 is given by QN/2.5 (m2) - see clause BS 5588: Part 4: 14.3.2 on discount one side of the
building to allow for adverse wind effects.
(c) Vertical shafts: similar to B above but use : Area = QN/2.5 (m2) - read clause BS
5588: Part 4:
(d) Mechanical extract: extract rate should be greater than QN - ensure no spread of
smoke - read clause BS 5588: Part 4:
QN is the net volume flow rate into the floor (excluding toilets etc.) and should be
based on open-door conditions.

13.1.7 Building Elements

Staircase pressurisation systems rely on elements of the building construction performing in

particular ways. Serious problems may occur if this is not properly understood by the
designer. Considerable liaison is needed with the architect in matters of detail and
specification. The following issues should be addressed:
• BS 5588 provides typical allowances for crackage around doors. However, data suitable
for the ‘average’ case may not be relevant to a specific building design. It is important to
specify a realistic leakage rate. At the very least the designer should be clear as to what the
architect’s specification for the building fabric is, in order to make the correct design
allowances. For example, if some doors have smoke seals - this can dramatically alter the
leakage rate.
• Doors in firefighting shafts (Part 5)2 must not be smoke sealed.
• All components of the building which come into contact with surfaces to be pressurised
should be inspected with regard to their relative air tightness. This primarily relates to
junctions of building components, but could be all embracing for walls , ceilings, floors, etc.
Generally a wet finish, eg plaster, will seal most junctions but be wary of false ceilings and
false floors in pressurised spaces; which tend to hide a multitude of small air leakage paths. If
these leakage paths are not inspected and identified they may cause serious problems later.
• Drylining can also be a source of leakage at ‘blind joints’ into the cavity of the lining. These
leakage paths can be invisible to the eye but because of their potential length can render
pressurisation of a space impossible. Applied skirtings onto dry lining is also another potential
leakage source. Mastic sealing of all blind joints in drylined walls should be specified.
• Door closers should be of sufficient capacity to hold the door closed under the maintained
pressure. Ideally doors should be arranged to seal against the jamb if jambs exist. Door
closures should not impose undue resistance to opening, particularly for the young and
elderly.
• Stairs generally form compartments which must be fire rated. Stopping of joints is a
requirement.

13.1.8 Ductwork and fans

High velocity systems are common to reduce space requirements. Energy and noise are of
secondary importance since the system is operated only during an emergency. Conventional
ductwork of the appropriate classification may be used. All normal rules of design apply, see
also section 10. In addition the following points should be considered:
• Ductwork should be leak tested and an allowance for leakage should be added to the
design volume (if leakage is outside the pressurised space). Tests should be carried out in
accordance with DW142/143.
• Velocities can be high during operation. Correspondingly duct pressures can be high and
balancing dampers should be of a robust quality capable of withstanding high pressures, and
provide good regulating control. Simple butterfly dampers or opposed blade dampers behind
grilles are generally inadequate.
• Flexible or bendable ducts should not be used as they can come adrift with high velocities
and pressures.
• Fans and motors should be generously selected in the sense that they should have plenty
of scope for upgrading or downgrading their duty to allow for actual site conditions during
testing and commissioning. The electrical supply and switchgear should accommodate this
requirement.
• BS 5588: Part 4, suggests 50% should be added to the design volume for ‘uncertainties’
and ‘unidentified’ leakage. Uncertainties is one thing, unidentified is another. All potential
leakage paths should be identified and allowances made for them. Classic examples would
be service penetrations and where fittings go into walls, eg dry riser boxes, hose reel
cabinets, water drinking points, etc.
• Although these systems are essentially used in an emergency, noise should still be
considered; they should not be so noisy that people cannot communicate in escape routes
whilst evacuating the building. Grille exit velocities should not exceed noise levels of NR50.
Usual good air distribution design should be adhered to.
• Equipment should be protected from fire.
• Electrical supplies should be maintained either from an essential distribution board or an
alternative emergency stand-by generator.
• Adequate redundancy should be built in:
- If only 1 staircase or a firefighting shaft then duplicate fan/motor sets should be
provided.
- If more than 1 staircase then dual motors only are needed
• Avoid fire dampers in any pressurisation duct as they are unlikely to operate, failure could
prevent the necessary airflow reaching the designated space.
• Systems should be actuated by detectors/sprinklers/ manual call, and provided with
separate isolating switches.
• Air intakes on the mechanical ventilation plant should be carefully positioned to avoid
bringing smoke from a fire back into the building.
• Sometimes pressure stabilisers are necessary to satisfy all the design criteria,
(particularly fire fighting shafts) and offer a safety factor in design.
• The use of variable volume fans based on presssure sensors in the stair/lobby are
particularly useful for fire fighting shafts.
13.1.9 Lifts

Lifts and pressurised spaces pose a different set of problems. If a lift is contained in a space
which requires pressurisation, it is essential to liase with the lift engineer and be mindful of
possible leakage paths. There are a number of issues which need to be considered:
• BS 5588 Part 4: 14.2.4 will provide guidance on lift doors; they are a major source of
leakage and a specified rate would be advantageous. It is possible to have brush seals fitted
on some lift doors which will restrict the passage of air.
• Smoke seals should not be fitted to lift doors in firefighting shafts.
• The main source of air leakage is the lift shaft itself; on high rise buildings the stack effect
may intensify the leakage rate. Apart from the regulatory 0.1m2 of vent area at the top of the
shaft, mentioned specifically in the BS, there are many other air leakage paths through
access holes for power and lifting gear cables. Great care should be taken when considering
sealing these holes for lifting cables because they move constantly and must not be allowed
to be degreased with brush seals.

13.1.10 Commissioning

The majority of buildings will require a Fire Certificate. The proper functioning of these
systems needs to be demonstrated in order to obtain a Fire Certificate. This is a life safety
system. It is important to ensure the systems are fully operational, well ahead of practical
completion. Adequate time/space should be allowed for any remedial work or necessary
adjustments, before the building is occupied. Consider also the following provisions:
• Arrange for early pressure test if a false ceiling or false floor is being used in the
pressurised space. At the very least carry out a visual inspection of ceiling and floor voids
before they are inaccessible.
• If the building is to be fitted out for tenants, carpets may not have been installed at the
time the tests are performed and therefore giving rise to air paths through the gaps under the
doors. In this instance specify temporary or permanent door thresholds to restrict air flow.

• Commissioning should be done by balancing to achieve design pressure not volume;

ensure this is specified. All tests required by BS 5588 Part 4 should be carried out and
recorded. This information should be in the maintenance manual so the building owner has a
record of the performance of the system.
• Excess air from the design of “open door” conditions must be absorbed when the doors
are closed. In this respect, the operation of variable speed fans or pressure relief dampers
must be demonstrated.
• Design pressures must be achieved, and it is also necessary that “open door” velocities be
demonstrated.

13.1.11 Typical Arrangements

Calculated Actually req'd

3
Stair air volume 0.9 m /s 1.2 m3/s
Lobby air volume 5.1 m3/s 6.1 m3/s
6 Floors: Total pressure 1200 Pa
Lobby pressurisation +45 Pa
Stair pressurisation +50 Pa
Plant: Duplicate axial flow fans in plant space directly above risers

Note: For fire fighting shafts, only the services associated with firefighting facilities may pass
through the shaft. Toilets are the exception but ducts must be separated and risers suitably
stopped.

Fig 13.1.4 Typical Arrangement.