Course Code: BUCU 003

Course Name: Development Studies

CAT ONE AND TWO

Explain the implication of the institutional model of development on cultural

Sustainability

Cultural sustainability as it relates to sustainable development (to sustainability), has to do with

the maintaining of cultural beliefs, cultural practices, heritage conservation, culture as its own

entity, and attempts to answer the question of whether or not any given cultures will exist in the

context of the future. Culture is defined as a set of beliefs, morals, methods, and a collection of

human knowledge that is dependent on the transmission of these characteristics to younger

generations. Sustainability is defined as the ability to sustain or continue

Cultural sustainability also offers viable options in the realm of social policy, addressing issues

of sustainable development. Cultural sustainability can be viewed as a fundamental issue, even a

prerequisite for progress toward sustainable development. However, the theoretical and

conceptual understanding of cultural sustainability within the general frameworks of Sustainable

Development remains hazy, and as a result, the role of culture in environmental, political, and

social policy is poorly implemented.

Determining the impact of Cultural Sustainability is discovered through multidisciplinary

approaches and analyses of the concept of culture in the context of Sustainable development.

This entails investigating the best practices for incorporating culture into political, social, and

practical domains, as well as developing methods and indicators for assessing the impacts of

culture on Sustainable Development.

Describe the role that the government can play to promote research and

Development

The government offers funding for research initiatives in a variety of fields, including medicine,

environmental science, and technological advancement. These initiatives are crucial for

generating new technology, discovering new treatments for diseases, and therefore increasing

our comprehension of the environment.

Government organizations such as the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of

Health, etc. provide grants to companies doing research and development, and non-profit

foundations such as the Cancer foundation which are working to find cures to terminal illnesses

such as cancer

The government also assists the research and development sector by funding the training of

scientists and research professionals, these trainings may be in the country or outside the country

through benchmarks and funding research studies by various researchers.

The government also provides funding for the acquisition of important state of the art research

equipment and building of research and development facilities which enable the scientific

community to work better.

Discuss the key issues that confront cities in developing countries due the problem

of rural-urban migration

Unemployment

Increased movement of people from rural areas results in a surplus workforce in the urban areas.

In this regard, many of those migrating are left unemployed. Moreover, due to the surplus

workforce, employers tend to pay low wages, which may force their employees into harsh

economic situations.

Poor sanitation

Rural to urban migration may lead to overcrowding in urban areas. Overcrowding causes an

increase in demand for low-cost housing for both the poorly paid employees and the

unemployed, resulting in the emergence of informal settlements and slums. As observed in many

third world countries, such slums lack proper sanitation, which exposes residents to diseases like

cholera.

Increase in crime rates:

Unemployment resulting from surplus labor in urban areas is one of the contributing factors for

crime in inner city areas. Some unemployed youth join gangs and other organized crime

syndicates in order to make ends meet. Moreover, unemployment in urban areas contributes to

several social ills, such as drug abuse and prostitution.

Environmental pollution:

Rural to urban migration may lead to overcrowding of urban areas, which often results in

increased motor vehicle emissions, industrial pollution and improper waste disposal. In addition,

without proper planning, increasing urban populations may lead to stretched utility services, such

as garbage collection and maintenance of drainage systems. This not only pollutes the

environment, but it also exposes individuals living in these areas to unsanitary conditions, which

can create health complications.

Discuss the measures that the Kenyan government instituted under the structural
Adjustment program in the 1990s.
The Kenyan government introduce SAPS

SAPs were designed as short-term strategies to stabilize heavily indebted Kenyan economy and

were followed by long-term Economic Recovery Programs (ERPs) designed to restructure and

revitalize the economy through extensive liberalization and privatization, diversification of

exports, and the like

Introduction of debt auctions

Debt auctions involved Kenya offering their debt certificates to the highest bidder at discounts

representing the purchaser’s perception of the prospects of repayment for conversion into local

equity. Auctions were held every month or two in the late 1990s, often involving amounts of

over ksh 100 million. The equity could be for new investment, not just shareholdings in existing

companies, hence potentially benefiting Kenya. By the mid-1990s, however, debt auctions had

been discontinued for similar reasons to debt equity swaps

Discuss the impact for industrialization in a country

Increased Income
By converting primary sector outputs into semi-finished or finished commodities, manufacturing

companies add value to them. They become more productive as a result, increasing the country's

GDP. Manufacturing expansion also creates more jobs. They recruit more workers. In addition,

demand also came from supporting businesses for the manufacturing sector, especially in the

service sector. That ultimately brings more employment and income opportunities into the

economy.

Rising standard of living

People have access to cheap and varied goods. As a result, they get the things they need to make

their lives easier and more productive. In addition, urbanization also allows people to have better

access to education or health services. On the other hand, manufacturing expansion creates more

income for households. They earn higher wages than those earned in the primary sector. They

can use it to buy goods and invest in education and training.

Goods available in abundance and variety

The goods available are more abundant and more diverse. Industrialization allows us to have

more things to buy at affordable prices. Manufacturing increased its production significantly.

Machines help workers be more productive, producing more goods than ever before. Thus, prices

can fall as output increases on a large scale.

Highlight strategies that African government has taken to control rural-urban migration

Improvement of the rural subsistence sector

The subsistence sector has been improved by African governments in order to increase rural

incomes and close the urban-rural income gap. The implementation of new models of village

organization is the first step in enhancing the sector's economic performance. Currently, villages

in certain African nations are dispersed across large territories and are frequently too tiny to

function as viable economic entities. To make it simpler to offer infrastructure, agricultural

supplies, and other services, they have been reorganized into larger units.

Establishment of basic social and economic Infrastructure

This involves the construction of feeder roads to ease the transport of agricultural raw materials

to processing industries, construction of schools and medical services in rural areas. In addition

to this, agricultural extension services should be developed and provided in rural areas.

Decentralization

Because national governments find it increasingly difficult to meet the great variety of needs and

demands for public goods and services by population groups across the country, it is privatizing

the delivery of some goods and services and it is decentralizing some national government

function to local governments in urban and rural areas. After decentralization, local communities

can better articulate their needs and demands, and local governments are, at least in principle, in

a better position to meet those demands. Local governments and communities can take many

more decisions on their own, and adapt development policies and programs for urban and rural

areas to suit the specific needs of the population.

Highlight the social economic factors that promote the emergency of developing countries

Economic development implies an improvement in economic welfare through higher real

incomes and other welfare indices such as improved literacy, better infrastructure, reduced

poverty and better health care.Economic development requires a degree of political stability,

investment and mixture of public and private initiatives to increase economic potential.

Political stability / Law and order.

Political stability and the protection of private property is ranked as the most important factors

for encouraging firms to invest in developing economies. Any sign of instability increases the

economic and personal risk of investing in developing countries.

Levels of infrastructure.

e.g. transport and communication. In recent years, economic development in Central Africa has

been improved due to increased investment in roads, railways and seaports. Part of this

investment has come from Chinese companies who have a vested interest in transporting raw

materials from Africa to China.

Tourism.

For developing economies with an attractive climate and environment, tourism can be an

important source of foreign earnings and incentive to develop infrastructure and new hotels.

Foreign aid.

Targeted aid can help improve infrastructure and living standards. It can be important for

developing economies with low levels of savings and capital investment. This in turn leads to

socio economic development in any developing country.

dentify and explain key function of economic integration in Kenya as a country.

Specialization

With the help of economic integration, Kenya will be able to have a bigger degree when it comes

to the specialization in the processes and the products which are produced in the country.

The specialization is completely based on the different advantages of the cost comparison and

that too by a particular geographical location. So, in a way, it causes a great production in Kenya

Expanding employment

With Kenya practicing economic integration in the best way, there is no doubt that it will

increase some employment opportunities due to the increase in the labor requirements. Therefor

there will be an increase in the employment opportunities for the people in the country. This will

also lead to an increase in income, as well. All of these changes will lead to a better economy,

which is certainly one of the best things that can come out of economic integration. Hence,

people will have new chances to get jobs in countries that tend to practice economic integration

in the best way.

Qualitative Improvement in Output

With the help of economic integration, there is an offering of having unrestricted access to the

different products which are being produced by Kenya .This will provide a strong inducement in

order to expand the production that happens in the country and also allows the people to

completely expand the economies of scale which are present in the country.
Discuss the key challenges to sustainable development in developing and developed

countries.

political instability

The biggest obstacle to sustainable growth in developing nations is political instability, which is

brought on by civil wars or wars with neighbors. Since most of the resources are going toward

funding these wars and some toward recovery after the war is over, which includes compensating

the casualties and providing aid to the affected families, this disrupts the country's activities and

slows down the rate of sustainable development in the nation.

Poverty

A significant obstacle to sustainable development is the extreme poverty that exists in

developing nations.

The governments of these nations are typically too underdeveloped to devote adequate time and

money to accomplishing their goals. This is a result of the high levels of poverty among the

populace, who are unable to pay adequate tax, a significant source of revenue for the

government. The government in these nations typically has significant national debt, which

prevents them from advancing other fields, such as sustainable development

Unemployment

High uncontrolled populations result in high employment rates in developed countries, which

leads to the emergence of other issues such as high crime rates, poor sanitation, and generally

low living standards. This has an impact on sustainable development because the government

does not allocate more resources to this sector because it is focused on other pressing matters.
In your experience what do you think are the effects of covid-19 in development?

Covid 19 in transport and shipping

the global shipping market has been significantly affected by the coronavirus epidemic and

slowed shipments to and from China. Container-ship operators have canceled over 40 sailings

previously set to arrive at the Kenya between mid-February and April 1, 2020, resulting in a 25

percent drop in container volumes.4 Elsewhere, pileups and backlogs continue to build. While

shippers and charterers may invoke force major clauses, such clauses are not available to certain

owners who control their own vessels

covid 19 in hospitality and tourism

Many countries continue to curtail inbound tourism, especially from countries with a high

number of coronavirus cases. The Kenya Union’s industry chief for example estimates 1 billion

losses per month in the tourism sector due to the virus’s impact. One of the largest losses, felt

globally, stems from a decline in visitors from China and other countries such as europe, who

represent a lucrative market for tourism and a large population of luxury goods purchasers in

Kenya.

Covid 19 in restaurant and entertainment

Restaurants and the food industry will be greatly impacted. Several large chains have collectively

closed thousands of restaurants in Kenya since the outbreak. Suppliers expect raw material and

protein prices to increase substantially, this has subsequently led to closure of many hotels
Discuss the role played by cooperatives in economic development.

Encourage people participation

Cooperatives play an important role in global and national economic and social development in a

variety of ways. In terms of economic and social development, cooperatives encourage "full

participation of all people" and facilitate a more equitable distribution of globalization's benefits.

They contribute to long-term human development and play an important role in combating social

exclusion.Thus, cooperative development should be regarded as one of the pillars of national and

international economic and social development.

Strengthening communities

In addition to the direct benefits they provide to members, cooperatives strengthen the

communities in which they operate. cooperatives are specifically seen as significant tools for the

creation of decent jobs and for the mobilization of resources for income generation. Many

cooperatives provide jobs and pay local taxes because they operate in specific geographical

regions. it is estimated that cooperatives employ more than 100 million men and women

worldwide.

Provide employment

cooperatives provide locally needed services, employment, circulate money locally and

contribute to a sense of community or social cohesion. They can provide their employees with

the opportunities to upgrade their skills through workshops and courses and offer youth in their

base communities short and long-term employment positions. Students could also be employed

on casual-appointment basis during long vacations. Through these, cooperatives will contribute

to economic development.
Agriculture plays a major role in promoting the national development of any country

Product Contribution:

Most of the developing countries depend on their own agriculture to provide food to be

consumed by their population. However, there are few exceptions. Some countries such as

Kenya, have large exports based on natural resources which enable them to earn enough foreign

exchange to import their food requirements for their people. But most developing countries do

not have necessary foreign exchange earnings to import food-grains to feed their people and

therefore have to rely on their own agriculture to produce enough food to meet the consumption

needs of their people.

Factor Contribution:

Another contribution of agriculture to economic development is that it provides two important

factors labor and capital for industrial growth. The size of agricultural sector in developing

countries is quite large as around 60 per cent of their population is engaged in it and therefore it

can release a significant amount of labor to be employed in the industrial and other non-farm

sectors. However, agriculture can release labor for industrial development if its productivity

rises.

Market Contribution:

The market contribution of agriculture means the demand for industrial products. In the earlier

stages of development when urban sector is very small and markets for exports have not yet been

found, agricultural sector of developing countries is a major source of demand or market for

industrial products. The farmers often produce cash crops such as sugar, jute, cotton and from
their sales they obtain money incomes which they can spend on industrial goods. Besides, the

farmers who have marketable surplus of food-grains (cereals and pulses) sell them in the market

from which they get money incomes which also become a source of demand for industrial goods.