Wolaita Sodo University

PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN

THE DEPARTEMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE ,COLLEGE OF
ENGINNERING

Course: Urban and Reginal

DEVELOPMENTPlanning
Individual assignment
BY AMANUEL MENA
ID /PGW/81495/15
SUBMETTED TO: TADELE. T (Asst. Professor)

Wolaita Sodo
MAY2015
Q8. Discuss about the role of women in the development planning , challenges ,

practices opportunities , what has to be done and etc

Importance of Poverty Reduction : - The overall purpose of development assistance is to

improve the livelihoods of citizens in recipient countries, especially the impoverished. Poverty
reduction is internationally recognized as an important assistance issue. For example, in 1996 the
DAC set a clear achievement goal in its action policy to reduce poverty. (International trends will
be described in chapter 1-3.) Development cooperation focusing on rural development is a very
important component for poverty reduction for the following reasons:- Approximately three-
quarters of the world’s impoverished live in rural areas. Many poor people in cities are migrant
workers and farmers who have left rural areas3. Therefore, if living standards and income
generations in rural areas are enhanced and rural immigrants to cities return to rural areas,
excessive population influxes to cities should be reduced, causing poverty in the cities to
decrease. Improvement of rural areas can be a safety net when there is a lack of job
opportunities in cities due to depressed economic conditions.

Poverty Reduction : - Poverty is described as the lack of the following five capabilities.
Economic capabilities: to earn an income, to consume, and to have assets. Human capabilities:
to have access to health care, education,sufficient nutrition, clean water, and hygienic living
conditions. Political capabilities: human rights, to participate in political and policymaking
process, and to be able to have an influence on decision-making. Socio-cultural capabilities: to
participate as a valued member of the community with social status and dignity. Protective
capabilities: to prevent vulnerability from food insecurity, illness, crime, war, and conflict.

Participatory Development : -The promotion of the development of human and physical

resources in rural areas requires recognizing the fact that local people themselves are the main
implementers of development projects. If the people participate passively in projects, they
become inactive and will depend on external inputs. In order to avoid this situation, local
decision-making in project planning and implementation is important. In other words, a project
that the local people themselves plan and implement is given priority as local materials and
human resources are utilized effectively by the local people’s initiative and responsibility. Local
independence and sustainable development of project outcomes are enhanced by the effective
use of local resources.
Development Objectives: - Improvement of Economic Capabilities (Agricultural income
improvement, non-agricultural income improvement, improvement of industries, and
development of infrastructures).Improvement of Human Capabilities (General health
improvement and development of educational standards).Improvement of Protective Capabilities
(Conservation of natural environment and natural disaster prevention measures) . Improvement
of Political Capabilities (Decentralization and improvement of policy-making capabilities)

Development of small-scale irrigation is a common JICA project aiming to generate income for
small-scale, self-feeding farmers. It is essential for a sustainable project that farmers themselves
maintain irrigation facilities, and recover and reinvest initial investment costs. Therefore, the
construction of irrigation facilities should be implemented, considering farmers’ maintenance
capabilities and the recovery and investment of capital by comparing irrigation facility
construction costs to the net income growth of farmers in the future. Moreover, it is important to
involve farmers in the project-planning stage for development of administrative organizations for
irrigation facilities, as it is difficult to facilitate local ownership after construction of such
infrastructure. As for capacity building of agricultural extension workers, project plans based on
low-risk traditional farming methods are desirable, as modern techniques require additional
technical and Economic risks for impoverished groups11. That is to say, although technical
assistance often tries to introduce modern techniques, the economic vulnerability of small-scale
farmers must be considered when introducing such techniques. If anything, an improvement of
existing techniques to the extent that farmers can handle them and generate income by increasing
their productivity may lead to a situation in which farmer ownership can be better facilitated and
projects made successful. In terms of community-based activities for farming, development of a
shipping system is also important.

These are the enhancement of productivity and increase of agricultural product prices. Although
the enhancement of productivity is led by the development of agricultural techniques, marketing
is essential for farmers to improve the selling price of their agricultural products. When farmers
sell their products individually to middlemen, the selling price often is lower due to the small
volume of trading. However, a larger volume through cooperative shipment enables farmers to
set higher selling prices. JICA promotes projects that focus on improvement of farmers’
associations and market facilities for such reasons.

Mid-term Objective : - The development of small and medium enterprises provides

employment opportunities for impoverished groups. The processing of primary products in rural
areas increases income generated and labor opportunities by adding value, although the prices of
primary products from agriculture products do tend to be lower. Also, non-agricultural activities
enable small-scale farmers to improve income, despite the limited income generation from
improvement of land productivity (except in cases where land reforms lead to expansion of
cultivated areas). In cases where there is insufficient land as a result of population growth,
income generation from non-agricultural sources or work away from home may be favorable.
However, an excessive influx of migrant workers causes an increase of poverty in cities due to
the lack of labor opportunities. Thus, it is important to improve income generation from non-
agricultural activities in rural area.For income generation, both industries including agriculture
and the capabilities of the administrators must be developed. For example, the training of
administrative officers who are in charge of industrial development and the collection of
industrial statistics used in the policy-making process are required. Moreover, the tax collection
and financial systems must be improved in order to promote financial improvement for
industries. In order to develop an economy, the development of infrastructure, such as
transportation and telecommunications, is indispensable. At the same time, there are various
other factors which inhibit economic development in rural areas, such as limited access to
necessary information, limited transportation and inadequate communication means (roads,
public transportation services, etc.), information (such as telephones and mail routes), and
electricity. The development of transportation and telecommunication infrastructure, including
rural electrification infrastructure, telecommunication networks local roads and public
transportation is important. It enhances human and social capabilities. For example, rural
electrification facilitates the use of medical apparatus and storage of medical supplies in health
care facilities (e.g. storage of vaccines in refrigerators). Also, the development of transportation
and information infrastructure enhances individual capabilities and evokes their consciousness as
members of the society through the provision of necessary information and knowledge for the
civil life. In this way, infrastructure such as roads, electricity, and information systems are
important elements in order to improve productivity and living standards in rural areas.
However, there are problems with infrastructure distribution and management systems in
developing countries12. Priority is often given to infrastructure development in cities over rural
areas. Furthermore, budget shortages, lack of human resources, and distance from cities (where
equipment and human resources are often found) may inhibit maintenance and management of
infrastructure.

General Health Improvement : - One aspect of poverty in rural areas is the unsatisfactory
health conditions of local people. Unhealthy and ill people cannot perform to the best of their
capabilities nor make efforts to improve their living conditions. Therefore, the promotion of rural
development necessitates the improvement of health conditions for local people. Usually,
impoverished people tend to have insufficient nutrition, are not vaccinated, or live in unhealthy
conditions. On top of this, suitable medical treatment cannot be obtained in many rural areas due
to a lack of sufficient public medical services. These inadequate medical facilities and lack of
treatment in turn leads to other family members having to take care of the ill, lowering the
productivity of the family as a whole. Therefore, an expansion of public medical services and
improvement ofsanitary conditions are essential. In many developing countries, however, the
benefits of advanced medical services centering on modern hospitals rarely reach rural areas for
economic and geographical reasons. The health and medical reforms which many developing
countries are promoting today as a result of severe financial situations are increasing not only
effective management, but also medical payments by public medical services such as
vaccinations. Regional medical institutions can be categorized with hospitals (where several
doctors are always available) at the top of the hierarchy, and health centers (where nurses and
midwives are available) and health posts (run by health assistants) underneath. In this pyramid,
development of a referral system becomes important in order to link regional medical
institutions, in addition to the construction of institutions suitable to the local population and
economy. Furthermore, several approaches including public medical services for treatment and
primary health care (PHC)14 for prevention should be combined.

In the case of implementation of rural development activities for poverty affiliation, the
commitment to NGOs, accumulation of the know-how applicable to other areas, and training of
human resources are important, based on cost effectiveness. In order to extend spillover effects,
training courses for development administration are also importantFor stable food supply, it is
necessary to a take comprehensive approach. Also, the creation of a system which transmits
lessons to other rural areas and agricultural development cooperation should be implemented.
Rural development activities for natural environment conservation include the promotion of
effective forest resource usage and alternative techniques. For promotion of the results of these
activities, local administrative and NGO capacity building as well as comprehensive cooperation
with NGOs is required.Itprovides comprehensive rural development cooperation for local people
suffering from conflicts and disasters as part of its effort in reconstruction. For improvement of
administrative capabilities, local rural development officers will be trained and policy advisors to
central governments dispatched. To create a national rural development plan. To set priority
issues and regions. To plan and implement regional projects focusing. To establish an overall
plan with other donors and governments . To take surveys on regional priority issues. The Points
of Concerns it is important to establish the system to spread the effects to other areas. Rural
development should be coordinated with multi-sectoral and various concerned people and
organizations. It is necessary to choose issues strategically based on national rural development
plans. The advantages of integrated rural development are described as. To enable
multidisciplinary anti-poverty efforts in rural areas. To enable solutions to regional problems,
targeting impoverished groups, and To promote the participation of local people, local
administrative organizations, and civil society. However, intensive investment in a specific area
does not necessarily disseminate spillover effects to other areas. Also, it is difficult for activities
of integrated rural development to make consistency with sectoral measures at national levels.
Frequently, gender roles are clearly divided in rural areas, so when new agricultural
organizations, techniques, and skills are introduced, benefits may vary by gender. For example,
when concepts of irrigation agriculture and farmers associations were introduced to an area
where traditional slash-and-burn agriculture was dominant and where males cut and harvested,
whilst females engaged in other agricultural activities, male work decreased while female work
increased as a result of the introduction of double- and triple-cropping. In addition, when
themales sold their surplus through the farmers association, they were able to benefit from the
introduction of the irrigation system but females did not in spite of the increased labor input.
This lowered female motivation and made it difficult for the project to succeed. Hence the
importance of special consideration of gender by making detailed surveys of the local culture and
customs in the project-making process.

CONCULUSION:- The role of woman in development planning the first being a mid-term
goals for the desired condition of the community. The involves assessment of the current
conditions of the community, resulting in the identification of the problem or problems as well as
assets. Once the problems are identified, the project planning team refines the inventory of
available resources and then chooses a goal for the project. The strategy to achieve the goal using
the previously identified resources. The project plan begins to take shape during when the project
objectives are established. Also the project activities are designed to accomplish the project
objectives. The planning team studies the objectives and activities, identifies any potential
challenges to the project’s successful completion, and develops a corresponding contingency
plan. The creating the project Objective Work Plan. The select a method to evaluate progress
towards achievement of the project objectives and goal. After creating an evaluation plan, The
develop a sustainability plan that ensures the project’s benefits to the community will continue
after the end of project funding. Finally, The financial resources required to perform, evaluate,
and report on the project will be estimated and a budget established.

Q3. Discuss about the relation between urban planning and poverty redaction?

Introduction:- Mudor and Tookon (2011) contend that every organization desires to be
successful as much as current environment is very competitive .organization irrespective of size
and markets strive to retain the best employees. acknowledging their important role and
influence on organizational effectiveness. In order to overcome challenges, organization should
create a strong and positive relationship with its employees, direct them towards task fulfilment
and ensure they have job satisfaction. Fisher (2012) in order to achieve their goals and objectives
organizations develop strategies to compete in highly competitive markets and to increase their
performance. Nevertheless, just a few organizations consider the human capital as being their
main asset, capable of leading them to success or if not managed properly can lead to failure of
the organization and high stuff turn over (Fisher, 2012).

THE HOTEL INDUSTRY IN ETHIOPIA DEMAND FOR HOTELS : -A relative increase of

investment is recently observed in the hotel & tourism sector. The hotel industry consists of
many different services, including accommodation, restaurants, cafes and catering. The market
for the hotel industry, especially classified hotels in a developing country like Ethiopia, is closely
linked to the tourism industry, because a majority of consumers for the sector services come
from international tourists. According to the United Nations Statistical Commission, tourism
comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year and staying at least 24 hours in the coun
Also, the hotels in Ethiopia have the intention to purchase from the local market. Improvement
of productivity of other sectors can take advantage by exploiting the characteristics of the hotel
industry as an interface with other industries and its purchasing power, and eventually it will
contribute to poverty reduction and the growth significantly. The improvements of the banking
system in extending financial services and the customs procedures would be helpful not only for
the hotel sector but also for the economic growth of the country. Thus, the hotel sector requires a
strong commitment from the side of government and other stake holders such as the private
sector banks. Generally, the hotel industry of Ethiopia is worthy to be availed with adequate
loanable funds from both public and private financial institutions as it is an expanding and
promising industry. The ultimate product in hospitality industry exhibits abstract features after
being added concrete ingredients and then offered as a service. To this end, the quality of service
offered as a whole has been used as a competition element in the market by enterprises. Within
this sector where human serves human, quality - as a whole offering by service providers- is
assured by the human resources that decide on service delivery. Employee work motivation is
more important in a customer service oriented business such as the hospitality and tourism
industries. Quality becomes more important than the quantity as the service outcome is not
physical and it cannot be measured by quantitative tools. Therefore, besides inputs, we should
take management, organization, creativity, intelligence, attitude and behaviours of the workers
into consideration; that is to say, qualitative and quantitative outputs should also be dealt with in
defining productivity for service establishments. As for hotel and hospitality establishments,
human resources, which are crucial for most of the Enterprises within the industry, may have a
direct impact on the enterprise‟s ontology as the product is abstract and the quality of that
product is determined by the qualifications of the distributor. Reflecting the quality of this
resource to the products of the enterprise or ensuring the productivity for the best interest.
Enterprise can only be achieved through motivationtry visited.

Hygiene factor : - Hygiene factors are called extrinsic factors such as interpersonal relations
with supervisors, salary, security; working conditions and status .They do not motivate the
satisfaction although they result in job satisfaction. the absence of extrinsic factors causes
dissatisfaction among the employees. They are called extrinsic factors, if not satisfied had an
effect of reduced employee efficiency (plunked, 201, P: 419). According to Herzberg,
motivations factors are the primary cause of job satisfaction .They are intrinsic to a job and relate
directly to the real nature of the work people perform. In other words. Motivational factors relate
to job content. When an employer fails to provide motivation factors, employees‟ experience,
employees enjoy job satisfaction and provide high performance.(plunked et al,2001,P:421),the
same author discussed each factors as follows. Achievement: The opportunity to accomplish
something or contribute something of value conserve as a source of job satisfaction. Recognition:
The wise manager let the employees known that their efforts have been worthwhile and the
management notes appreciates them. Responsibility: The potential for acquiring new duties and
responsibilities, either through job expansion or delegation, can be a powerful motivation for
some workers.

Organizational Effectiveness : - Composition of people which formulate independent

business identity for some specific purpose is commonly known as organization and getting
desired outcome within defined resources is treated as effectiveness. Organizational
effectiveness is the notion of how effectual an organization is in accomplishing the results the
organization aims to generate (Muhammad, et al, 2011). It plays an important role in accelerating
organizational development (Bulent et al, 2009). It is the net satisfaction of all constituents in the
process of gathering and transforming inputs into output in an efficient manner (Matthew et al,
2005). Organizational effectiveness is defined as the extent to which an organization, by the use
of certain resources, fulfils its objectives without depleting its resources and without placing
undue strain on its members and/or society (Mary et al, 1996).

Q1. Discuss about beneficiaries and actors in social planning.

Definition:- The actor concept means that the analyst must consider all individuals and social
groups concerned by a specific collective problem. Such a viewpoint has the advantage of taking
account of the fact that public and private actors do not all intervene actively and visibly at all
stages of a policy: their behaviour is sometimes directly tangible, but equally it is sometimes
hard to identify directly. This depends on, among other factors, the process by which they
become aware of their own interests, their capacity to mobilise resources and form a coalition to
defend their rights and interests and, finally, their strategic decision either to take action or to
remain voluntarily outside the decision-making arena. By adopting the concept of ‘empirical
actors’ proposed by Friedberg, we go along with him in rejecting the distinction made by several
authors between ‘an agent’, who is rather passive and whose behaviour is determined by the
system in which action occurs, and ‘a true actor’, who has become active and autonomous in
relation to the institutional and social context.

The political-administrative system and the public actors who constitute its fundamental
components, are worth singling out:

The classical dimension of this definition resides in its affirmation of the sovereignty of public
actors: the state is supposed to be the only entity entitled to exercise power of restraint over all
other sub-systems and over citizens (legitimate monopoly of power – Max Weber).

The administrative organisations of the political-administrative system form an important and

relatively independent centre of gravity (for example in relation to governments and parliaments)
in the body of a state’s institutions.

The notion of interaction suggests that there are reciprocal relationships between the sub-
systems. The political-administrative sub-system transforms ‘societal’ demands (inputs) into
restrictive state actions (outputs).
The distinguishes between external interactions (relationships of reciprocal influence between
the political-administrative system and its environment, for example consultation procedures for
parliamentary bills, rulings or decrees with regard to people who will be affected by them or the
examination of applications for operating licences) and internal interactions in the public sector
(for example the consultation procedure for the services linked to ‘environmental impact studies’
in Switzerland, or the procedures for bringing an issue to the attention of the relevant authorities
within the French administration or the planning inquiry system in the UK. Clear procedural
rules are generally defined for each type of interaction by the legislation and/or regulations.

POLICY ACTORS: - It explores the various types of policy actors political- administrative
actors, social actors, target groups, beneficiaries, and so on. It explains that the various types of
actors constitute what is called the ‘basic triangle’ of a policy. It presupposes that a social
problem has been defined politically as a public one and that consequently, a public intervention
measure of a redistributive nature is imperative. It notes that this precondition concerning the
link between the beneficiaries .of public initiatives and political-administrative actors is not
necessarily a given in everyday reality.

Types of policy actors : - Political-administrative actors, social actors, target groups,

beneficiaries, and so on. It explains that the various types of actors constitute what is called the
‘basic triangle’ of a policy. It presupposes that a social problem has been defined politically as a
public one and that consequently, a public intervention measure of a redistributive nature is
imperative. It notes that this precondition concerning the link between the beneficiaries of public
initiatives and political-administrative actors is not necessarily a given in everyday reality.

We take policy to mean a series of decisions or activities resulting from structured and recurrent
interactions between different actors, both public and private, who are involved in various
different ways in the emergence, identification and resolution of a problem defined politically as
a public one.

EMPIRICAL ACTORS: - Given that policies embody the results of the interactions between
different public and private actors, we must start by defining the actual concept of an actor. For
the purposes of this study, the term actor can be taken to designate either an individual (a
minister, member of parliament, specialist journalist etc.), several individuals (constituting for
example an office or a section of an administration), a legal entity (a private company, an
association, a trade union etc.) or a social group (farmers, drug users, the homeless etc.).

A group of several individuals constitutes a single actor insofar as, with respect to the policy
under consideration, they are in broad agreement and share a common approach as far as the
values and interests that they represent and the concrete aims that they pursue are concerned.
This consensus can be arrived at, for example, through the hierarchical structure or through the
democratic process.
INTENTIONALACTORS : - Adopting a scheme of intelligibility known as ‘actantial’
(Berthelot, 1990, p. 76), we acknowledge the intentionality of individual action. This takes place
in a social context that can be perceived alternatively as a system of interdependence (Crozier
and Friedberg, 1977; Boudon, 1979), a historical stage in a process (Touraine, 1984) or a
situation pertaining to the here and now. In each case, an actor’s behaviour is never reduced to a
position, role or other type of fixed category. In other words, in our opinion, an actor always
disposes of a greater or lesser margin of discretion and of manoeuvre, depending on the situation
in question. Our thesis here is that no social or political field is perfectly structured, controlled or
regulated. For this reason, individual and collective actors deliberately exploit ‘areas of
uncertainty’ (to use the expression coined by Crozier, 1963) that are an inherent part of political-
administrative organisations, formal regulations and social norms in order to promote their own
values, ideas and interests. They possess, therefore, a certain degree of freedom but also
resources (cf. Chapter 4), which enables them to develop strategies and tactics, or even to adopt
‘goal-oriented behaviour’ (Berthelot, 1990, p. 80).

Public actors: - If there is one common denominator that connects all policies it is the fact
that they are constituted by a range of initiatives usually undertaken by public actors. Thus, it
would seem essential to provide as precise a definition as possible of the characteristics of public
actors as opposed to the private actors who are also involved in policies. This is all the more
necessary given the fact that the names and titles by which the actors are ordinarily known
usually provide little information about what they actually do, whether in a public capacity or
not. Furthermore, the definition of public actors must make it possible to differentiate between
policies described as ‘corporatist’ (associative) or ‘private’. It should be noted that, in terms of
an analytical approach, this distinction will hardly fit in with a prescriptive theory that seeks to
define the ‘appropriate’ role of the state in society. In order for it to work, it is imperative that
this definition be inclusive, that is to say that it should not exclude any of the activities in which
political-administrative actors are involved. However this is difficult.

political actors caught up in power struggles are concerned, the line of demarcation between
public and private actors is an important factor in the development of their strategies. In fact,
confronted with a social problem that has not yet been tackled by the state, political actors can
either propose the introduction of a new policy (which will be politically costly to a greater or
lesser degree), or propose that a ‘corporatist’ or ‘private’ policy be established.

There are numerous examples of policies of this latter type.

wage policy (collective agreements),

The voluntary compliance of companies with manufacturing standards (categorising of

companies according to ISO regulations)disclosure agreements entered into by bankers who
undertake to monitor the origins of certain funds which may be linked with money-laundering
operations or tax evasion.
Affected actors : - The affected actors consist of target groups, end beneficiaries and
negatively or positively affected third parties.The target groups are made up of people
(individuals or legal entities) and organisations whose behaviour is required to change. It may be
the (in) direct cause of the collective problem that a given policy aims to resolve, or it may be
regarded as appropriate that it should adopt the appropriate remedial action. Consequently, the
target groups’ decisions and activities are – or will be – the subject of concrete state intervention.
The policy in question will impose obligations on them or grant them rights. It is presumed that,
as a result of such measures, either that the target groups will alter their behaviour and or that the
collective problem can be resolved or at least mitigated. The notion that groups who are the
cause of the problem (polluters, providers of unsafe goods, drivers causing accidents) should
change is straightforward here, a word of explanation is required however on the identification of
target groups who are not in this category. For example, schools may not themselves be deemed
to blame for illiteracy or doctors to blame for ill health, nevertheless the alteration of behaviour
by these actors may reasonably be expected to contribute to the reduction of these problems.

Even formally ‘public’ actors may need to be seen as the ‘targets’ of policy inasmuch as the
concern is with changing their behaviour.
Q2. Discuss about beneficiaries social capital and new urbanismits challenges?.
Current research (Putnam 2000; Dunham-Jones & Williamson 2009) has suggested that for many decades
social interactions and social connections within communities across America have been on the decline.
An urban planning movement, new urbanism, has recommended planning design techniques designed to
create communities that have higher levels of social interactions, social connections, and community
satisfaction than traditional suburban developments (which they believe are somewhat to blame for the
current lack of social interaction, social connection, and community satisfaction in communities). This
study seeks to examine the effectiveness of these new urbanist design strategies in creating social
interaction, social connection, and community satisfaction in a new urbanist development. The main
focus of this study is to examine the relationship between planned spaces and community benefits (in
terms of increased social interaction, social connection, and community satisfaction). This relationship is
examined by analyzing two communities in which the planning is very different: a traditional suburban
development and a new urbanist development. The study offers what is believed to be a unique set of
communities. Due to a number of interesting issues that arose during the development process, what was
supposed to be two adjoining new urbanist communities ended up becoming one new urbanist community
and one traditional suburban community (see Chapter 3 for more details about the development of these
two communities). While this outcome was very upsetting for many of the planners involved in the
process, it does PREVIEW (% provide an ideal setting for which to study the differences between
traditional suburban and new urbanist developments.
The work of Grindle and Thomas (1991) on the political economy of reform in developing countries is
one from which several other authors quote. Based on an analysis of policy and organizational reform in
recent decades from several developing countries, they propose a multivariate framework for
understanding the emergence, discussion, implementation and sustainability of policy reform in
developing countries. They focus especially on the role of policy elites in shaping policy agendas,
weighing policy options and managing political and bureaucratic challenges of policy reform. By policy
elites, they refer to ‘those who have official positions in government and whose responsibilities include
making or participating in making and implementing authoritative decisions for society’. Key factors in
their framework are the environmental context of reform, the agendasetting circumstances and the policy
characteristics. The environmental context includes the individual characteristics of policy elites such as
their ideological predispositions, professional expertise and training, memories of similar policy
situations, position and power resources, political and institutional commitments, loyalties and personal
attributes and goals. It also includes the context of policy choice such as societal pressures, historical,
economic and international context, administrative capacity and other policies. The agenda-setting
circumstances include whether there is a perception of a crisis situation or not. In a perceived crisis
situation there is strong pressure for reform and immediate action, the stakes are considered high, change
is seen as innovative and high-level decision-makers are involved in the reform process. On the other
hand, where there is no perception of a crisis situation, the agenda-setting circumstances are ‘politics as
usual’. The reform issue is one that is chosen by policy makers rather than pushed onto the agenda. The
stakes are seen as low and decisions are often left to middle level decision-makers, incremental change is
acceptable and there is flexibility in timing. Decision making in perceived crisis situations tends to be
dominated by concerns about macro political relationships whereas in politics as usual, policy decision
making tends to be dominated by concerns about Sometimes those interested in the effective development
and implementation of health reform in developing countries appear to think that focusing on technical
content generation, advice and support will lead to the desired endpoint. Inadequate attention is paid to
how this content is going to be adopted and implemented within the national and international context.
Yet observation suggests that reform is political as well as technical. In the words of Walt and Gilson
(1994): ‘The traditional focus on the content of policy neglects the other dimensions of process, actors
and context which can make the difference between effective and ineffective policy choice and
implementation’. Glassman et al. (1999), in a political analysis of health reform in the Dominican
Republic, comment: ‘the process of health sector reform involves a continual tension between the
technical and political dimensions’. Thomas and Gilson (2004), in their paper on actor management in the
development of health financing reform in South Africa, make similar observations; and Cassells (1995)
reflects: ‘health reform is inherently political’. Among the findings of the SAZA study (Gilson et al.
2003), which explored health reform policy-making processes in South Africa and Zambia, was the
strong influence of political factors and actors over which health care financing policies were
implemented and which were not, as well as the details of policy design.

Q5. Discuss about planning support system functions.

The discussion about planning support system functions has highlighted the impacts of planning, in its
various forms, as revealed through published research and data. It provides a mixed account of the
success of planning in achieving its objectives. There are two broad reasons for the criticisms. First, there
is the inadequacy of the policy tools that have been available to planners. Some of the tools, such as
development control, are reactive in nature. In some cases, the application of protective designations is
not the most appropriate approach as changes in land management practice are needed. Many types of
regulation are weak, due to scope of application or problems of implementation and enforcement.
Resources are not always properly distributed to achieve the policy goals; this is clearly the case with
agricultural support. In some areas, as with urban regeneration, the level of resources is insufficient to
deal with the scale of the problem and the pressure of market forces. And there are difficulties in raising
the public support needed to implement measures which would achieve the policy goals, as with raising
fuel prices sufficiently to alter travel patterns. The second reason lies in the unsatisfactory outcome of the
'politics of planning', the operation of negotiation and bargaining during the planning policy process.
Charges of corporatism and inadequate public participation have been levelled at some aspects, such as
pollution control; elsewhere the balance of involvement by interests has resulted in certain groups being
poorly treated by the distributive impacts of planning. The distribution of costs and benefits has been
emphasised in the accounts of land use planning, countryside policy and heritage conservation. The
patterns of access of different groups to the planning process has not resulted in equitable outcomes.

The rationale for planning :- Without adopting a tightly functionalist approach, it can be argued
that planning is a necessary state activity. Economic and social circumstances prompt a degree of state
action in managing our physical environment and trying to influence our use of that environment. There
are several senses in which this is the case. First, planning, in its most general sense, is a means of
avoiding anarchy and disorder. There are strong tendencies towards such disorder in our economic
system. The interaction of competitive forces in the market-place does not automatically lead along a
smooth path to the public interest. Instead competition can generate the anarchy of the market, with
periodic oversupply of goods, mismatch of needs and supply (or even demand and supply),
underutilisation of some resources (such as labour) and overexploitation of others (such as environmental
goods and services). The cycles of boom and slump, of crisis and temporary recovery, have shaped our
economy and society during the twentieth century, and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future.
These outcomes of a market system have particular consequences in the case of the natural and built
environment, as change often has long-term consequences. In urban areas, the cycles of property
development can leave cities scarred for many years, whether by the disruption of large-scale
development activity, the dereliction of abandoned sites or the apparent irrationality of empty new
buildings. The London Docklands area has seen all these stages over the past two decades: docks left to
decay for years as the Port of London Authority pulled out to newer, more profitable locations; the decade
of massive redevelopment and disruption for local communities under the UDC in the 1980s; and the
partially empty tower of Canary Wharf standing as testimony to the collapse of yet another property
boom. In the case of the natural environment, the effects of market decision-making are similarly long-
term and unstable. Mining activity can change the face of a rural area completely for decades. Cessation
of that activity only creates new problems of dereliction, equally persistent. Pollution flows may alter
over the short term with levels of industrial output and technological change, but the impact on
ecosystems can be long-term. They take time to adjust, assimilate and recover, or, more pessimistically,
to adjust, alter and change irreversibly for the worse. Planning has a role in reacting to and, more
important, trying to prevent the worst excesses of this inherent instability (Hobbs, 1992).
Q4. Discuss about the role informal sector in urban development and its plans.
Introduction :- In the 1998 study has been updated, also with UNICEF support. The Future of Filipino
Children: Development Issues and Trends is a compilation of twelve sectoral papers written by experts in
their respective fi elds. As in the fi rst study, it tracks and analyzes current and emerging issues and trends
affecting Filipino children today and how these would affect their future by focusing on five themes:- The
family and community life, The human capital, The human security, The political and economic
development, and ICT and communication media

Enabling policymakers :- A UNICEF report has noted, “Children pay the heaviest price for our
short-sighted policies (and programmes). But certainly, they will also be the benefi ciaries of whatever
investments we now make for their future.” A futuristic study such as this would enable policymakers in
government and other sectors to take a more long-term, holistic and strategic perspective of child
survival, protection, participation and development. In supporting the study, UNICEF suggests that “such
an initiative may be able to provide decision-makers a better understanding of environmental trends
which could contribute towards the crafting of creative and responsive policies.”

Development Challenges :- The country’s paramount challenge is widespread poverty, and

children rank third among the basic sectors with the highest poverty incidence. Rapid population growth
is directly linked to poverty and is an impediment to socioeconomic development. The sectors that suffer
the most are families with no livelihood or very low level of income, those with minimal or no education,
those living in rural areas, indigenous peoples, and children and women. The Philippines has no lack of
sound plans, programs, policies and laws, but failure lies in the breakdown of law enforcement,
inconsistencies and ambiguities in the laws, and difficulties in coordination and implementation. These
numerous challenges are multidimensional, interdisciplinary and multi- sectoral in nat Development
Approaches. Basic social services, such as health care, education, employment, family planning, and
social protection programs, must be viewed as investment rather than expenditure. The national
government must focus on ensuring investments in public services and on delivering effective regulation
and efficient facilitation services. Local government units must unconditionally and with a sense of
urgency fulfill their front-line role in delivering basic services and socioeconomic interventions to the
poorest of the poor and the most disadvantaged, among them the children. The multi-sectoral and
interdisciplinary nature of development challenges can be best addressed by government through
interagency teamwork and collaboration at the national, regional and community levels. Maximum
effectiveness and efficiency can be achieved by focusing on and strengthening approaches that have
demonstrated greatest success, such as community- and family-based initiatives and multi-stakeholder
partnerships. Focused targeting of lagging regions or poorer localities can address disparities or uneven
development, such as high poverty areas which have shown positive signs of development in health or
education.
Community-Based Development:- Individual and community empowerment has led to preference for
bottom-up development strategies where the socalled “beneficiaries” (participants) of development now
play an important and active role. This role includes defining development goals, objectives and
approaches; planning and managing programs and projects; documenting lessons and experiences; and
measuring success and impact. Community-based approaches facilitate experiential learning and popular
participation. The UN 1979 Report on the World Social Situation defines community participation as
“sharing by people in the benefi ts of development, active contribution by people to development and
involvement of people in decision making at all levels of society.” The concept of community
participation is best captured in the popular African proverb, “It takes a village to raise a child.” In the
education capital is a fundamental element in informal entrepreneurship, “as parts of the informal sector
are built on local salient networks, supported by community loyalty, trust and patronage” (Lloyd Evans,
1997). Social Protection Framework:- Social protection targets the most vulnerable and disadvantaged
sectors. The National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) defi nes it as “policies and
programs that seek to reduce poverty and vulnerability to risks and enhance the social status and rights of
the marginalized by promoting and protecting livelihood and employment, protecting against hazards and
sudden loss of income, and improving people’s capacity to manage risks.” Social protection has four
components: social welfare, labor market interventions, social insurance, and social safety nets. The
social welfare component consists of preventive and developmental interventions that seek to support the
minimum basic requirements of the poor and reduce risks associated with unemployment, resettlement,
marginalization, illness, disability, old age and loss of family care. Labor market interventions are
measures that aim to enhance employment opportunities and protection of the rights and welfare of
workers. Social insurance programs seek to mitigate income risks by pooling resources and spreading
risks across time and classes. Examples are microinsurance, agricultural insurance and social support
funds. Social safety nets are stop-gap mechanisms that address effects of economic shocks, disasters and
calamities on specifi c vulnerable groups. Measures include emergency assistance, balanced development
covering fi ve domains – intellectual, physical, social, ethical and aesthetics. - Comprehensive Thinking.
This is characterized by a capacity to see the relationship between the social, economic, cultural, political,
and technological aspects of the environment and to make decisions on the basis of an understanding of
its costs, benefits, and consequences. - Ecological Intelligence. Ecological intelligence is the capacity to
evaluate the costs and consequences of environmental decisions that may appear as environmentally
sound but may, in fact, not be so because of the impact of earlier decisions in the production cycle.
balanced development covering five domains – intellectual, physical, social, ethical and aesthetics. -
Comprehensive Thinking. This is characterized by a capacity to see the relationship between the social,
economic, cultural, political, and technological aspects of the environment and to make decisions on the
basis of an understanding of its costs, benefi ts, and consequences. - Ecological Intelligence. Ecological
intelligence is the capacity to evaluate the costs and consequences of environmental decisions that may
appear as environmentally sound but may, in fact, not be so because of the impact of earlier decisions in
the production cycle.

Referances
Chambers, R. (1983) Rural Development, Longman Scientific & Technical -----(1997) Whose Reality
Counts?, Intermediate Technology Publications Department of International Development (DFID)
(2001a) Department Report 2001

(1996) Endogenous Development and Rural Villages in Japan, Iwanami Shoten Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2000) Report on Basic Study for Formulation of Poverty Guidelines

Chambers, R. (1983) Rural Development, Longman Scientific & Technical