Ch2.

Proofs

School of Electronics Engineering

Prof. Jeongsik Choi
 Contents
2.1 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs, and Counterexamples

2.2 More Methods of Proofs

2.3 Resolution Proof (*skip)

2.4 Mathematical Induction

2.5 Strong Form of Induction and Well-Ordering Property

Prof. Jeongsik Choi 2

 Mathematical Systems
Mathematical systems
Axioms
✓ Statements that are taken to be true

Definitions
✓ New concepts in terms of existing ones

Undefined terms
✓ Terms that are implicitly defined by the axioms

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 Mathematical Systems
Theorem and proof
Theorem
✓ Proposition that has been proved to be true

Lemma
✓ Theorem that is usually not too interesting

Corollary
✓ Theorem that follows easily from another theorem

Proof
✓ Argument that establishes the truth of a theorem

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 Mathematical Systems
Example 2.1.1(Euclidean geometry)
Examples of axioms

✓ Given two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains them

✓ Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one line
parallel to the line though point

Examples of definitions

✓ Two triangles are congruent if their vertices can be paired so that the
corresponding sides and corresponding angles are equal

✓ Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their measures is 180˚

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 Mathematical Systems
Example 2.1.2 (Real numbers)
Example of axioms
✓ For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
✓ There is a subset 𝐏 of real numbers satisfying
(a) If 𝑥 and 𝑦 in 𝐏, then 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑥𝑦 in 𝐏
(b) If 𝑥 is a real number, exactly one of the following statements is true

𝑥 ∈ 𝐏, 𝑥 = 0, −𝑥 ∈ 𝐏

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 Mathematical Systems
Example 2.1.5 / 2.1.6
Examples of theorems about real numbers
✓ 𝑥 ⋅ 0 = 0 for every real number 𝑥
✓ For all real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧, if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧, then 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧

Example of a lemma
✓ If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then either 𝑛 − 1 is a positive integer or
𝑛−1=0

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 Direct Proofs
General form of Theorems
For all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , if 𝑝 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , then 𝑞 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛

A direct proof shows that

if 𝑝 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is true, then 𝑞 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is true

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 Direct Proofs
Definition 2.1.7
An integer 𝑛 is even if there exists an integer 𝑘 s.t. 𝑛 = 2𝑘
An integer 𝑛 is odd if there exists an integer 𝑘 s.t. 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1

Examples:
✓ 12 is an even integer, -21 is an odd integer

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 Direct Proofs
Example 2.1.10
Give a direct proof of the following statement:
For all integers 𝑚 and 𝑛, if 𝑚 is odd and 𝑛 is even, then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is odd

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 Direct Proofs
Example 2.1.11
Give a direct proof of the following statement:
For all sets 𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍, 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 − 𝑍 = 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 − (𝑋 ∩ 𝑍)

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 Direct Proofs
Example 2.1.12
The minimum of 𝑎 and 𝑏 (𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐑) is denoted by min{𝑎, 𝑏}.
Prove that
For all real numbers 𝑑, 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , 𝑥,
if 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 and 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑, then 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑1 and 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑2

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 Direct Proofs
Example 2.1.13
There are many ways to prove a statement
Example: 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 − 𝑋 = 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 for all sets 𝑋 and 𝑌

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 Disproving a Universally Quantified Statement

Example 2.1.14
For all 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙 + , 2𝑛 + 1 is a prime

Example 2.1.15
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 , for all sets 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶

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 Proof by Contradiction
Proof by contradiction
Consider a conditional proposition: 𝑝 → 𝑞

Assume that 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false

Derive two propositions 𝑟 and ¬𝑟 from 𝑝 and ¬𝑞

✓ 𝑟 and ¬𝑟 cannot be true simultaneously (contradiction)

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 Proof by Contradiction
Example 2.2.1
Give a proof by contradiction of the following statement:
For every 𝑛 ∈ 𝒁, if 𝑛2 is even, then 𝑛 is even

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 Proof by Contradiction
Example 2.2.2
Give a proof by contradiction of the following statement:
For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, if 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2, then either 𝑥 ≥ 1 or 𝑦 ≥ 1

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 Proof by Contradiction
Example 2.2.3
Prove that 2 is irrational using proof by contradiction

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 Proof by Contrapositive
Contrapositive
For a conditional proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞,
¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is called contrapositive

𝑝 → 𝑞 and ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 are logically equivalent

Proof by contrapositive is a special case of proof by contradiction

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 Proof by Contrapositive
Example 2.2.5
Give a proof by contrapositive to prove that
for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, if 𝑥 2 is irrational, then 𝑥 is irrational

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 Proof by Cases
Hypothesis can be divided into multiple cases
Suppose that we need to prove 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝1 ∨ 𝑝2 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝑝𝑛

Then, original hypothesis can be proved by showing

𝑝1 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝2 → 𝑞 ∧ ⋯ ∧ (𝑝𝑛 → 𝑞)

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 Proof by Cases
Example 2.2.6
Prove that 4𝑚2 + 3𝑛2 = 100 has no solution in positive integers, that
is, that 2𝑚2 + 3𝑛2 = 40 is false for all positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛

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 Proof by Cases
Example 2.2.7
Prove that for every real number 𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥

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 Proofs of Equivalence
Equivalence
Some theorems are of the form 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞

Note that 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

To prove 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞, we need to prove both

✓𝑝 → 𝑞
✓𝑞 → 𝑝

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 Proofs of Equivalence
Example 2.2.9
Prove that
for every integer 𝑛, 𝑛 is odd if and only if 𝑛 − 1 is even

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 Proofs of Equivalence
Example 2.2.10
Prove that
for all real numbers 𝑥 and all positive real numbers 𝑑,
𝑥 < 𝑑 if and only if −𝑑 < 𝑥 < 𝑑

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 Proofs of Equivalence
Example 2.2.11
Let 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are sets. Prove the following are equivalent
(a) 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 (b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐴 (c) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵

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 Existence Proof
Existence proof
Proof in the form of ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) is called an existence proof

Examples:
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐑 (𝑎 < 𝑏), Prove that there exist 𝑥 s.t 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏

Prove that there exist a prime 𝑝 s.t. 2𝑝 − 1 is composite

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 Existence Proof
Example 2.2.14
𝑠1 +𝑠2 +⋯+𝑠𝑛
Let 𝐴 = 𝑛
be average of the real numbers 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … , 𝑠𝑛 .

Prove that
there exist 𝑖 such that 𝑠𝑖 ≥ 𝐴

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 Resolution Proofs (*skip)
Resolution
A proof technique proposed by J. A. Robinson in 1965

If 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 are both true, then 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 is true

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 Mathematical Induction
Principle of mathematical induction
For a propositional function 𝑆(𝑛) whose domain of discourse is 𝐍,
Suppose that

[Basis step] 𝑆(1) is true

[Inductive step] For all 𝑛 ≥ 1, if 𝑆(𝑛) is true, then 𝑆(𝑛 + 1) is true

Then, 𝑆(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵

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 Mathematical Induction
Example
Let us define 𝑆𝑛 = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛. Prove that
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑆𝑛 = 2
for all 𝑛 ≥ 1

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 Mathematical Induction
Example 2.4.3
Use induction to show that
𝑛! ≥ 2𝑛−1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
(Note that 0! = 1 and 𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 … 1 for 𝑛 ≥ 1)

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 Mathematical Induction
Example 2.4.4 (Geometric sum)
Use induction to show that if 𝑟 ≠ 1,
𝑎 𝑟 𝑛+1 −1
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯+ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑟−1
, for all 𝑛 ≥ 0

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 Mathematical Induction
Example 2.4.5
User induction to show that 5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1

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 Mathematical Induction
Theorem 2.4.6
For a set 𝑋,
if 𝑋 = 𝑛, then 𝒫 𝑋 = 2𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 0

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 Mathematical Induction
Example 2.4.7 (A tiling problem)
Definition: A board with one square missing a deficient board
Prove that
we can tile a 2𝑘 × 2𝑘 deficient board with trominos for 𝑘 ≥ 1

tromino

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 Strong Form of Induction
Strong form of mathematical induction
For a propositional function 𝑆(𝑛) with the domain of discourse 𝐷 =
𝑛 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 }, suppose that

[Basis step] 𝑆(𝑛0 ) is true

[Inductive step] For all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 , if 𝑆(𝑘) is true for 𝑛0 ≤ 𝑘 < 𝑛,
then 𝑆(𝑛) is true

Then, 𝑆(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝐷

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 Strong Form of Induction
Example 2.5.1
Use mathematical induction to show that
postage of 4 cents or more can be achieved by 2 and 5 cent stamps

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 Strong Form of Induction
Example 2.5.2
Suppose that the sequence 𝑐𝑖 𝑖=1 is defined by

𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑛/2 + 𝑛, ∀𝑛 > 1

Use strong induction to prove that 𝑐𝑛 < 2𝑛, ∀𝑛 ≥ 1

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 Well-Ordering Property
Well-ordering property
Every nonempty set of nonnegative integers has a least element

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 Well-Ordering Property
Theorem 2.5.6 (Quotient-Remainder Theorem)
If 𝑑 (𝑑 > 0) and 𝑛 are integers, ∃integers 𝑞 and 𝑟 satisfying
𝑛 = 𝑑𝑞 + 𝑟, 0≤𝑟<𝑑
Furthermore, 𝑞 and 𝑟 are unique

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