i | } | DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION & OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETS FOR ATTRACTING COPPER, ALUMINUM & OTHER NON-FERROUS METALS by Leonard R. Crow DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT oF Universal Scientific Company, Ine THE SCIENTIFIC BOOK PUBLISHING CO. VINCENNES, INDIANA 1951ELECTRICAL BROOKS ny Leonard R. Crow 1 SATURATING CORE DEVICES OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS 2 LEARNING ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS BXPERIMENTALLY 3 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETS FOR ATTRACTING COPPER, ALUMINUM & OTHER NON-PERROUS METALS 4 YNCHRONOUS DEVICES AND. ELECTRICAL SERVO-MECHANISMS SYNCHROS, SELF-S METALLIC RECTIFIERS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS “Ti SctENTIFIC BOOK PURLISHHNG COMPANY 1940-14 Leak: for 7 PREFACE Back in 1995 I gave a public lecture demonstration At the physics department of llinois University ia Which {used an electrical training ald of my own de Sign and construction to show that an electromagnet could be used to attract non ferromagnetic metals, fat good clectrical conductivity, nthe following five years I devoted much thought, lime, and etfort to making various typ ‘tues of electromagnets with which I could produce attraction of non ferzous-metals effectively. Following ts a description of, and basic fundamental operating principles pertaining fa the type of let. ‘tromagnet that Thave found most elective for the attraction of noa ferrous-metale,Norice ‘Some of the devices and constructions illustrated land deseribed inthis book are covered by letters alent. Designers and manufacturers are warned to chock the patent situation thoroughiy, before in- corporating ay of the embodiments deseriied herewith into their own designs Or constructions. IMlustration oF description inthis book must not be construed to imply that a device, system or con- struction shown herein is commen property avails able for public use by anyone, Accordingly, Were fore, te publishers oF author wil not assume any esponsibility for damages arising out of tigation Involving infringement suite relative to any svstemy, onstruction or apparatus deserihed herein,ELECTROMAGNETS OF SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION FOR THE ATTRACTION OF NON-PERROMAGNETIC METALS Magnetism is oe of the most interesting and mysterious as sell a3 one ofthe most important plysieal phenomens kagwn, ‘Through its action we generate and wlilze the enormous quat- ities of electrical power which mate possible modern indastey {and modern living. ‘Many Important principles of electromag. netisn can be understood from the study of an electromagnet, vented and designed by the author, which attracts non-terse- magnetic metals Everyone has experimented with magnets and observed thelr attraction fr iron filings, nails, and other: small articles of {ron and steel. Some of you will ave seen large electromag nets attached to cranes pick up tons of werap steel and move it About with ease. ‘Tons of iron are held firmly tothe magnet with an invisible force and are released by te fip of 4 switch You have also observed that while iron is atracted with such force, otter metals such 26 aluminim, copper, and silver are ‘snaflected. This principle Is often used to separate iron from2 ELECTROMAGNETS Te to an ordinary electromagnet, non-magnetic metals of good electrical conductivity will actaaliy be repelled, le viee etal ‘of the above it witl be most interesting to learn how magnetion, can be ased to attract non-ferromagnetic metals, 1 1934 the author designed equipment with which it was pos- sible to demonstrate principles whereby non-terromagncte metals might be attracted by a special magnet. Tn 1000 tae author completed the development and construction cf an ciee- {tromageet which woold actualy atraet metals ouch as akan, ‘num, copper and stver. Infact the magnet would atrast any otal of fair or good electrical conductivity. ‘Toward the oct of 1947 the author completed the design and construction of uch Improved electromagnet forthe attraction of non-ferreu ‘metals, the details anddescription of which are Included se tae article: The special electromagnet is illustrated in Figur In Figure 2 the magnet, with its axis horiaontal, iy She supporting a heaty piece of copper. In Figure 8 two pleces of aluminum have been aded to the original plece of copper, Figure 4 shons the magnet supporting two silver doles: sizeof the magnet is illustrated by comparison withthe sives dollars. ‘That the magnet may also be used to attract ieee fo tndicated clearly in Figure 8. Before considering the detals of construction and principles ‘of operation of the special wivetromagnet, let us review sone ‘of the Basie principles of magnetism and clectromersetioey DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 9 ‘We will not onty observe that non-ferromagnetic metals can be attracted to an electromagnet but will alao gain the pleasure of tnderstanding its principles of action, orsted in 1819 was the first to show that a eurrent carrying wire was surrounded by a magnetic field. Me discovered that ‘Compass needle aligns Itself at right angies to a wire carrying,‘ ELECTROMAGWETS [esto constuction, aap OPERATING panciPLEs 5 withthe conventional explanation tht curren iow i fom post~ compass 1s placed above the wire It will point inthe i= eetion shown in Figure 7-A, polating at right angles tothe eur~ ing conductor. ‘The compass needle will point in the ‘hat the flux lines are moving. I the current la rer Yersod as in Figure 7-B the compass will point inthe opposite direction as shown and we know the flux lines have reverced their Figures ‘an electric current, ‘Thes it is known that in a circu similar to that in Figure 0, there willbe a magnote field shout the aire {nthe direction shown. ‘The current direction is tn nccormane Fieve Ive piace a number of magnetic needles or coms urrent carrying conductor tn the manner shown ie he compass needies vill point In the directions ust e + Figures + rns =6 ELECTROMAGNETS ‘This indicates vory clearly that the magnetic lines of foree aro Atrected ina circular path around the eonfuetor and thet thee direction reverses with a reversal of current in the condusion ‘To-cetermine the direction of the flux lines me grasp the conductor in the right har with the Usimb pointing inthe direc ton of the eurrent. ‘Then the fingers encirele the wire ta the direction of the fax lines (see Figure 8), ‘This is Enown’ae the Fight Mand Rate, Now lot tvo parallel wires carrying current a the same rection be placed near wach other as in Figure 10. ‘The commas ‘ill point in the direction shown in Figure l0-A Mf placed abs ctther wire and will also point in the same direction af shifted to any positon above the two wires. However, lt will reverse its direction when placed underneath either or both of the vires (Figure 10-B). ‘Thus we conclude that flax lines encircle cach ire and also that there are lines extending around oF encircling ath wt We can now deduce two Important properties of fax lines. 1s to be observed by experiment tint parallel wires: auch as those illustrated in Figure 11 are attracted by the magnetic ae- tion of the two currents flowing in the same direction” hig ats traction can be explained by saying that the lines of fax are lnder tension Ike stretched rabber bands, that ts, they tend to shorten, ‘Those lines which eneirele both wires wll, then, tend = DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 7 Figure 10 to pull the wires together. Note thatthe flux lines between the ites are opposite indirection. We may also say that In r sion such as the space betwoen the wires where the lines af tux are in opposite directions, here is attraction betwoun the con Actors, Now let the two parallel wires carry currents in opposite di- Feetions as in Pigure 12. The flux lines about No. | Seeduciana ELECTROMAGNETS Ls Nez sarees) T= Pigure 12 ill Be opposite tothe fx lines about No, 2 conductor and there fu lines enetreting both conductors, ‘The two conductors wit repel each other. Thus we see that hx lines which travel nthe same direction, as ine space between the wires; rooe doce repulsion _ F¥Om the Toregoing we see tha such non-ferromagnetlc metals as copper conductors ean be moved about in magnetic fields because of the magnetic lines of force that are prodced by currents flowing in the conductors ( oes not, necessarily, indicate (at it Is poasible to magnatizn manner that we do apiece of steel or uther ferromagnetic metal; however, i 8 quite interesting to note the stetking sanitary of attraction an repulsion as shown by Figures 19 and I 1m Figure 13, by tho use of conventional symbols te ton ‘ctor are shown carrying current. The circles witha ples (6) at thelr centers represent the cr0ss section of two sovdee= tors carrying current away from the observer. The direction of the magnetic flux about the conductors ia algo shown ty rele= tion to the direction of current flow. Just below the two onde tors are two permanent magnets with an indication of the dives. {iow of flax lines of each magnet in relation tole" pola ‘Note the similarity inthe direction of the fax line between the DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 9 Qe (PP el (au arranction Figure 13 Imatnets an between the conductors carrying current iy shown i te draing and can easily be demonsteted iat there Lp 'satracton between the wo opoe (aon ferro can whet thefts ins between thee are reese a ikewite, there i alscton tees tne (Germareat sngris} wees fe he steonie direction Ms polarity reversed to that of Figure 12. Mere the soagnetie tines of force between the two contctors are inthe sare asec on thereby producing repulsion between the two comer @ © eN\Ay VA Va Figure 410 BLECTROMAGNETS (non-ferrous) conduclors, Likewise the magaeti lines o force between the two permanent magnets are inthe sume ire ioe nd Feputson ts produced betwen te wo Uervous’ ste noe From the foregoing ilustrations we see that magnetic lines of eres flowing in cpposite directions between curteat caring {fgntuctora or between magnets (beeen nonlertove oe tere, ferrous metals) produce atraction. And thal magnetic ites force flowing sn the same direction between curtent carne Eenductors oF between magnets (betweun non-fereout ar even ferrous metals) vrodvce repulsion agnetic force about quite stall unless a very lar 10 produce ig ad aa llctent a supplying avery tage curren os singe ese ea ‘lage ad ow power contampcs This device (ten in Figre 8) ls a specialy designed die- scclletransormery ‘The fw tan seoeler teem ent soureaof mare i i00 ae tell apd hor shrt cle Actor, provides te enaacton Plgure 18 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 11 ‘This U conductor when carrying a eurrent of approximately 400 amperes can be used to produce (with small power eonsumiton) ‘Some atriking experiments to ilusteate Important basic mag netic phenomena Figure IS illustrates how a current of 400 amperes will pro- ‘duce a very strong magnet field about a conductor, In lack, the magnetie field about the conductor inthis instance is 30 ‘reat thats layman might easily mistake the condactor for a magnet. Although it does actually look like the copper conductor has become a magnet, we know, of course, that the small natle ‘magnetized by the strong magnetic field produced a3 4 res ‘sult ofthe large current flow through the copper (U) wir2 ELECTROMAGNETS To farthor ustrate the ettect ofthe magnetic fled produced by the current flow through this U loop conductor, ‘igwe ne ‘hows a large nll suspended within and atthe coater er pe toop. The large current tlw through the loop Sontetor p= of small nails, ‘To proceed a step further, we shall now study Figure 17, Hore afew large nails are shoxn within the loop of Sapper ire and it tobe noted that al these nile have become magnetized by the magnetic eld about the eurzeat carrying oehon ee of te alls Ras become a magnet and they a eset aes ae aca ike poles of magnet repel, These taf sees the same polarity because they ar al an the sane sen a ondcior and are subject to lies force tat re fg the same direction. Although the current fos fee falls, AS the fc strength and polarity of any one eat teatro i likewise changes through alle others, Cnsequntie ieee nals have Ike polarities at all times which reouite Ie tein between them since like poles revel Let ws assume that the magnetic fax for a given alternation ‘5 flowing downward on the inside ofthe copper laop aren DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 13 ‘As the magnetic flux elrcles about the conctor it wil flow up- ‘ward on the outside of the loop. ‘Therefore, a nail placed on the utside ofthe loop will have the opposite polarity to one on the {inside and attraction will result between a nail on the ouside ‘nd one on the inside sinee unlike poles attract. Figure 10 shows this very clearly where several nay on the Inside sf the loop cling tothe nails an the outside ofthe loop. ‘As has previously been stated the magnetic force about a aff eazexing court equi small une s ery Inne ccubFent i. made to flow tirough I~ In order to concentrate the action and increase the foree, the wire may be formed into sev eral tums as shown in Figure 10, Here there are three turns forming the coil (helix) thereby concentrating the magnetic lines of force along several inches of the conductor into stall space, ‘which shows how the magnetic strength produced by «piven curs Fent flow ean be concentrate 1H to a well established fact thatthe magnetic force (strength) of a coll is directly proportional to the ampere turns ofthe Gil, To find the ampere turns ofa col itis necessary to mul Liply the number of turns inthe eoil by the current flom, I8 ams eres, through the coil. For example, a col of 100 turns carry= ‘ng 10 amperes is equivalent toa coi of 10 turns earrying 100 Amperes, assuming of course that all other factors could be ‘made eqiat im each e "The magnetic force bet two parallel conductors may bery ELECTROMAGNETS suumened by concentrating the magnets Sed and thereby in. easing he force ty forming ie cements ince on, in Figure 2) ‘Here there wosld be many fee Ics tt Coll al has palling them together {rough both coils were in the same direction, the ‘ne of the cols were reversed thereby reversing the of current flow through iat col, the to cols wows DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 15, [A vory striking demonstration of the attractive and repulsive forces produced by the magnetic tlds of two cells Is luatrated by Figures 21 and 22. In Figure 21-A two colls are shown suse ended and separted a considerable distance before current nas Pigwre 2 ‘made to flow through them, A current flow through the two coils 4 the same direction caused the atractive force to be so great tat the colts jumped together Uhrough several inches as shown in Figure 21-8, de to flow through the two coils in opposite directions they repelied exch otters the maner shown in Figure 22-. ‘order to concentrate and wtillze effectively the magnetic lines of force that are produced by a curred! flow through conductor, for most applieations itis advisable to uae ferro magnetic metals such as steel to condict the flux, because air ' very poor conductor of magnetism and ferromagnetic metals ‘such as steel are exceptionally good magnetic conductors, "That 's, alr offers a high reluctance while ferromagnetic metals offer16 ELECTROMAGNETS DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 17 Figure 22 low relectane, How a fereoma Jastrate this tacts leas shoge bet cares shown n Figures 23400 2, The foregoing exeriments shouldbe sulci ogre a very clear pleure af how magnetic fax Is produced yee ee | Figure 24 | And something of the relation of the fax to the current flow, ‘The discussion thus far has been eorcerned with the me- chanical force produced by magnetism. ‘We must also sty the etlect of magnetism in inducing a voltage or current if we are {to understand the attraction of non-magnetic metals by the sp cla electromagnet, Atter Ocroted discovered the magnetic field about a con- ductor carrying current in 1810, many experimenters attempted {a produce the inverse effect. That ia, thay tried to produc ‘current by means of a magnet feld. All were unsuccessful until Faraday's historic experiments in 1031. ‘that a current, oF more correctly an e igure 25 | ‘indeed when ihe amount of Hux threading ae roe, an ae1 BLECTROMAGNETS at that no voltae was induced bya steady magnetic el sardlessoChiow.strong It ight be made: Let Gs conser lew imple cmerinents concealing Ine acromotve ore the tur magi of Figure 25 be thrust quick ne ‘The doe voltmeter witha wero center scale wil defect SS lure 25 ‘momentarily either tothe righ oF left depending upon the po- larity ofthe connections. Let us say it deflects to the Fighe Next ithe maet Is witdraym golly the voltmeter wll de ‘et momeatarsiy to the ltt ‘Now let the har magnet be rvlaced by a eo or solenoid a tatlery asin Fipire 98; Upon closing te ittory eee tne ~_8 f sip DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 19 voltmeter will show a deflection, and will deflect inthe opposite direction upon opening the eireuit, ‘The magnitude of the voltage Induced with the arrangement of Figure 26 would be guite smal, However, the magnitode cf the induced voltage can ba greatly increased by inserting a laminated tron core in the solenoid as sn Bigure 21. ‘The introduction of an airon core caanes a great eal more fax tobe et up in col B fora ven current inthe ‘ail Ay thus Inreasing te induced volagee We sy the 108 arres thax more really than ir Because 1 has 3 higher er ‘mean, ‘Let ws consider the direction af the induced electromotive force'm Figure 2, Upon closing ie ste, carren wl flow Inthe direction f the arrows onthe solenoid winding and hs bodice a north pole atthe Figh hard ed of he Iron care. Now tre must uses law discovered by Lona in 1834 which is called ene’ Law. ‘The lay may be staled as fellows: Any induced °° “0 electromotive orcs tends to st up tcarrentn hich x direction ~ si To apbuse ne allon Which praicea the electromotive. fotge. ‘Ths, upon closing the Switch in Figure 27, curren would be °° | Induced in colt tn the direction indieted because sich acur= ent would setup 4 magnetic flax which opposes the tux st ap bya north poe atthe righthand ead ofthe alectromagna core. Figure 20 shows that coll B wil be repelled since fax lines in the sume diction ropa. We might also consider that the car ‘ent in col Ais producing a north ple athe left sie of oll B ‘hich is repelled bythe adjacent north poe of eo Ax Upon pening the ath, the current In ell A woud be reversed2» ELECTROMAGNETS igure 28 (decreasing), “According to Lens’ law, the induced eurrent in coll B would setup a magnetic flux which would teat ies the decronse of the existing flux. Under this cena ware the electromagnet a Bre having voltages ince in them because ofa Charting car- ‘magnetic washer would behave ina similar many, ‘You recall that for direct curren, inisced voltages and cur= rents aypear only dating switching operations and ihee wesc no induced voltage during steady current flow reyardieen of kg strong the folds may te. However, the author's ayeciel Goer magnet ullizes alternating current and if we tre wanes the operation of the electromagnet we must consider e tee a the characteristics of alternating current, ‘As Jos already tnow alternating curren ha the property of reversing its direction of flow many times a aecond. rere sual 0 cycle current it flows in one direction for 1/0 second, and then In the opposite direction forthe ned aoe, second, However, it does not change abruply from cay heen Peres in one direction to 10 amperes in the ether eisai his would require a very rapid change in current al a never- {fale and consequently induce high voltages. Instead i eos 4n the grad) manner illustrated in Figure 29; This connec fale a sine wave and represents many natural motions re Sol, Agaterniing current, For example, represents the veloehes {ime relation ofa weigh suspended from a spring unt ca Gsellation. Considering alternating curren the ost DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 21 Figure 20 resents zero curren, but the current bs increasing. fac Irs tereasng most rudy at thn pt the waves The goat rarer mama curr a he aretha stopped ie ereasing. Beyord point B the current decreases. At pot the current is soro and decreasing most rapidly. rom C to D And E the effect Is repeated but inthe opposite direction. Thwe 1 sce that with alternating currents, the carrent is ehanging continously except atthe peak of the wave, tat Io, excepk at Points like B and D. Since shanging curren produces cha fox, and enangig ex produces iniveed voltages and cr in conductors linked by te changing Hak, then aternating eu ‘eils produce similar alternating Indaced electromotive forces Now let us consiter an ron core solenold connected to an alternating current sour ‘eashor (stort circuited always tn ie opposite inducing voltages Thus the washer wil road om he ects bese {ux lines produced by the eareat flow i the washer produces north pole adjacent heen a he elctromagnet nearest the {he caren fw through the electromagnet pron orth ple adjacent the face ofthe washer nearest the "phe reflaiv force enried betwen th Id ofan ae.2 BLECTROMAGNETS Figure 30 {iscromagnet andthe Held of a short cteulted secondary (raster) ts atrikingy shown by u sty af Figures 30 soe 92, Figure 31 shows an electromagnet and vith x means poe {or comacting it toa source af alternating current: he sire I — Q om igure 21 Figure 32 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 29 Lt two washers be placed near the end ofthe electromagaet fas in Figure $3. Some of the {lux trom the electromagnet ait thread or eat theough both of the washers, and atx particular instant currents in the two washers and i the electromagnet winding will have the directions indicated. ere we have ane of the most important operating principles ofthe special electro ‘magnet for attracting non-magnetic metals. Ac source SALA Figure 33 {Compare the situation of the currents in the two washers of Figure 33 withthe currents inthe two coils of Figures 20 ane 21. The currents are flowing inthe same direction and a2 ine dicated in Figure 38, tere will be flax lines linking the two ‘washers which will tend to pall them together. However, since the force of repulsion between the ac. electromagnet ard batt Washers ia very strong itis difficult to show by the arrangement of Figure 33 that there isan attraction between the two washer 1 tho currents in the two washera were suffcienly large the ‘washers would be pated together wth conser ore, ae bole i ffir her i immaterial since ty gases tarot on-ferromaynetic materials Just ast docs threagh ‘With this fondamantal principle in mind, Wha there a a traction between the two Washers of Figure 33), let ds now gon ‘sider the construction and field of the special electromagnet which wil tract non-ferrous materials. “The slectromagnet 4 shown dlagramatically in Figure 34. ‘The few turns shown represent the entire winding of the electromagnet. Figure 38 4 cross section ofthe inner and outer laminated iron cores which extend the entire axial length ofthe electromagnet, Pig- ‘he group of copper washers space between the laner and copper washers occupy this space in only the face end of the magnet. The top washer shows clearly iv the photograph of Figure I. ‘The complete electromagnet isPy ELECTROMAGNETS NER. Ont ‘ound on a supporting stand for convenience in demonstrating ts unique ability to attract non-ferromagnetie meen ‘We now know the construction ofthe electromagnet and have ‘studied the essential magnetic theory involved tn he opens LAMINATED CYLINDRICAL core )* camnaten ) CENTER pce Figure 35 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 25 LAMINATED copper CENTER SHERS ‘CORE Figure 36 ‘With this information it will mot be difficult to explain its performance Figure 87 ls a cross section of the magnet with the four conver washers removed. ‘The circles at the top and bottom Fepresent the winding, ‘The dots and crosses indicate that eur= ‘ent is directed out of the paper above and into the paper below atthe Instat considered. We know from the right hand rule that o oo6 ELECTROMAGNETS the flux lines are directed toward the right within the coll, We ‘also know that practically all ofthe fx is concentrated ‘nthe fron beeause of it high relative permeability, Now let the copper washers be replaced as indicated inthe cross section of Figure 38. Again let us consider an intart when the alternating current if Increasing and directed out of Pigere 98 ‘he paper above as indieated by the dots, Referring tothe theory resented in connection with Figures 25, 26, and 27, we inow that the induced currents in the copper washers will be directed * in Wie Opposite direction t those in the coil ax United ty tke 0ts-i8 the lower half of the washers. Lenz” law states that the ccarrent in the washers will prodace flax which will oppose the ‘ux produced by the primary. ‘Thus the current in the washers Produces a flux directed toward the Tat through the-centes of {he wast Mote thatthe action ofthe ndeced current In the washers is sueh thatthe flux it prodices tends (0 crowd the ‘ux oul of the center core and into the oiler core Now let a plece of copper be trought near the face of the ‘magnet as shown in Figure 80._‘The flux lines passing thrtigh the plece of cooper will induce a voltage which will cause a eur rent in the plece of copper in the samne direction am the current in the copper washers ofthe electromagnet, ‘This current will, ceuse the place of copper to be attracted to the copper washers Jost as the two wires were attracted in Pigure Li. the two coll In Figure 20, the two coils in Figure 21-B, an the twa washers in Figure 33. ‘The currents inthe washers and inthe piece of copper pro- {vce magnetic flex Lines threading bath the washers amd piece of copper. These flux lines tend to act ag stretched rubber bands DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 27 (a tulling the two parts together. the alternating current inthe opper washers is sllicinty large tat the copver pec ts pulled forcibly against the fae the magnet. Ai oal con- fictive pieces are attract, but vith decteasing forces Bach {aud ploco wil have less Indaced current than he preceding ‘ne and wl Us be attracted les forcibly toward the compet ‘ashers. However, the slecteo-magnet shown is powerfl enough to reedly suport two silver dollars or several discs of alums “thls pe of electromagnet there is another force involved whichis of Interest and Importance. This force is one cow erned wih the elect proguend by a traveling agaets He By this we simply mean that due Yo the particular contraction lectromagnel there are two magnetic flex fel pro= duced atthe endo the magnet. The fir of thee te the Feld Produced by the primary coll Rte & Sinusoidal varying Held SsCun by Whe primary current Tie secon is ald inthe Cenlral core which age the fist faidby afew degrees lesa tha one half eyele) "he interaction ote feds over the face of the magnet paces &Tagnelle ETL Which appeareto sve from ihe cutr-core tthe maghet Ia ovare te central care. The traveling mageti eld illzedm the eectro- ‘nagnel Ina. mdmer wilek produces sitone seitoring sclionsn {Wevmass elng arated by te maga — ‘The traveling magnelie field ts produced in this electromag- nat in exactly the same tanner ax i many commercial singe base Induction motors. ‘hese motors are ealledcshaded pole” Imotors andthe principle involved i called the “shaded flea PLECTROMAGNETS principle, ‘The shaded pole provides the rotating field to start the rotor of the plain what ts meant by a ‘magnet of Figure 40, autre single-phase induction motor. ‘Po ex: haded pole" let us study the electra- — font one Hore we have a laminated core electromagnet in which a short circuited cooper ring is embedded in the pale faces Tho ortion of the pote face inside the short elreulted tar iy aaie to be siaded, while that portion external to it Is unshaded, $0, the pole ise is called a "shaded pole” and the shor circuited turn (conductor) ss known a Te “shading coll With alternating cusrent in the primary Wining, there ts an alternating magnetic field in the unshaded portion of the pale \rhieh isin tims phase with the alternating current producing it ‘The magnetic flld inthe shaded portion ofthe pole lags the above mentioned field due to the action of the “shading col? Let us assume that ata given instant, the flux in the uashaded portion isa certain valve and increasing. ‘The flux inthe shaded Portion due to the primary coil Is tat same value, bth the shed portion the fax setup by the eurrent induced i the “shading cot” is inthe opposite direction (Lae! Laws the net flux Is some smaller value, ‘This would mean thal giver Values of fax woutd oceur first inthe unshaded portion ofthe Pole and ata slightly later time, ia the shaded portion ofthe pole. Hence, the appearance of a shifting or movlog magvette Heid results, The direction ofthe shilling flux ls across the DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 29 Pole face from the unshaded portion toward the staded por- ton, ‘Pigure 41 is a schematic drawing of a shaded pole motor. ore we see the direction of the sbiting flux andthe direction ‘of rotation of the rotor. Note thatthe flux shifts in advection SHIFTING FLUX j ROTATION, SHADING COIL oF ROTOR ee To Ac. source “4 ‘rom the unshaded toward the shaded portion of either motor Wis. wollestatished fact that a conductor in 4 rotating magnetic feld will have a force exerted on it tnding to make the conductor follow the rotating field. Therefore, the foree on the conductors in the rotor face cause to move fram the un- ‘shaded toward the shaded pole section as ilustrated in Figare 4), “From the foregoing explanations i ie obvious thatthe copper ‘conductor (¥) of Figure 40 will have a force exerted on i tha will move iin the direction indieated toward the shaded portion ofthe pole. ia three legged core as shown in Figure 42 ts wound with a coll and excited by a source of alternating current the three pole bieces will all become (N) north poles at some instantaneous value ofthe impressed valage which will result in repulsion be- teen the flux lines as illustrated, ‘The flux ofthe two outer oles will tend to repel the ‘lux lines of the center pole to crowd them toward the center and the flux from the center pote will tend to repel the fix of the two outer poles. Here now we have exactly the condition existing In the authors special electro ‘magnet except that In the electromagnet the two auler poles are30 ELECTROMAGNETS acre ill iN I N TOA. SOURCE Figure 2 formed ino one continuous cylindrial pole about the i [But In adition the center pole of the authors apecia magiet has a short circuited rounding the pole end 1 we modify the three Legged electromagnet of Figure 42 by adding a short circuited copper secondary on the center core leg the modified electromagnet will look {ihe Figure 48, This ‘device wil therefore become a compound shaded pole lectro- ‘magnet. In this electromagnot a (second secondary tertiary Dlece of copper Y will have x force exerted on it in the direction shown if iis placed over poles A and € but will have a forge exerted oni in the opposite direction if placed over pales B LJ ~covrte on ALUMINUM SHEET ToAc. SOURCE Figure DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 31 ‘and C, ‘This means thatthe tertiary Y will have forces exerted ‘on i from poles A and B which will cause a strong Centering, Action of the tertiary over pole C. Here again we have the same condition in the authors special electromagnet, except that poles ‘A and B are formed into one continuous leylindieall pote about the center poe, ‘A graphic illustration of the existence of the travelling mag- nett field produced Uy the special electromagnet Is illustrated by an acteal photograph (Figure 44), Here two alumiaum alls are placed upon the face ofthe electromagnet and wit the pe mary current turned onthe aluminum lulls rotate very eapily. ‘The curved arrow above each ball indicates the direction of Fo tation of the tal Several tn properties of ing things are tobe noted about the attractive ‘special electromagnet. ‘The mass to be OF FORCE | orecriow, ft Pigure2 BLECTROMAGNETS attracted may be subject to a repulsive force from the primary {Held and therefore should be of a size not larger than the space within the cylindrica! pole, ‘Sinea the eur rent in the prisnary ‘winding is generally opposite te the current inthe mass to be attracted, that mass should be ofa general siza and shape to le ‘within the eylindreal poe pleee tundary and should nol extend lover into the influence ofthe primary cot ‘When the circamference of Uw mass to be atracted is larger than the circumference of the evlindrieal pole, the repulsive force exeried upon Itty the pr mary winding ineeases very rapidly with an nerease in i! aize,,‘The non-ferrous mass 13 also repelted if it is approx! nately of the sate puripheral di. mensions as the sige dimension ofthe cylindrical gore bt is ‘ot closely adjacent thereto. ‘The object to be attracted should tbe nape tothe fielé and showld generally be placed faely, close tothe magnet unless it Is quite bit smaller than the n= side dimension ofthe cylindrical pole face. tis posible to make the conductive mass to be attracted Sump" a considerable ‘istance to affix ttsel! tothe attractor by having the now-ferrous ass of considerably smaller diameter than the eylinirieal Dy experimenting with armatures of diferent sizes suspended at varios distances from the attractor face it bas been fou that a region or zone of attraction exists whichis eonteal In shape. A conductive object placed with its principal conducting ‘ath within this cone is attracted. ‘The base of this cone DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 99 ‘substantially coincides with the face ofthe attractor and has its vertex on the axis al a distance from the attractor 2 illustrated In Figare 45 Figaro 45 shows a silver half dollar suspended near the at- lwactor face. In this figure the half dollar is suspended so to have its pane perpendicular tothe plane of the attractor lace igure 46 Delore the magnet is energzad. Dat the Instat current sows ‘Heoagh the primary winding of the electromagnet the hl dollar {ura 30 tat ts plane te parallel with te pane othe attractor face as shown in Fire 41 ands araced ih consicersbe force, ‘This result in exactly opposite to the ress to be expected the sver dollar were paced in the field ofan ordinary aie {ernating current electromagnet. I the altraioe In this opecia Clectromagnet were not present io exercise its iftunce, tas ice of the primary goll and, se tn lectromagnet, the abject-woyM4 ELECTROWAGNETS Jn Figure 483 large aliminum die is guspended in ont of the electromagnet with its plane parallel withthe attractor face berore the electromacnet winding iz energized with current. Dut the snstant that current flows through the electromagnet’ HIF winding the large disc 1s repelled with great Tore and ally-mies to res with ts pTanie perpendicular to Ne face ot mugnet (260 Figure 40) and remuins iTtMts positon 8 long as the current continues to flow through the primary ‘winding of the electromagnet, 1s altogether possible to modify the secondary (attractor) lement by substituting a winding in place of the copper washers. Such an arrangement is shown by Figure 0, Here a means is provided for short circuiting the secondary coil by closing the switch to position A as illustrated. By the arranzement the switch may be closed, eausing the ahort ein cuted winding o act Like the copper wast, producing af. traction ofa noncferrous mass when vsed In Conjunction with the primary winding and eslindriea! core. "Then the gwitch may bbe opened causing the non-ferrous mass to be repelied since the only fax lines now produced by the electrommmnet are fase DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 95 ewe 1 Produced by the primary. By the arrangement shown In this figure the switch may be closed to position B thereby connecting {he winding to the same alternating current source to which the primary winding ts connected but in a manner so as to oppose {he primary winding. By this means attraction ofthe nom o- Fos mass can also be accomplished, "This arrangement in hich the secondary (attractor) is connected so as tobe tn phase ‘opposition to the primary Ls inferior t the form in which the secondary (attractor) kas current induced in It. "The reasun for ‘his ts to be attributed tothe fact thatthe current induced a the ‘mans tobe attracted (tertiary) is not exactly opposite sm phase to the primary current and therefare-Pil not Be exactly ie Puse withthe current inthe secondary where the secondary ts {ed tn exact apposition tothe primary. When earrent ta the secondary is induced, itis more nearly exacliy in phase with the current inthe armature which results tn maxionn Th the instance wh the primary and secondary (attractor)26 ELECTROMAGNETS are comected in phase opposition to the same alternating eur rent source, the secondary (attractor) edreuit may be modified 50 as 0 alforé some phase lag. An arrangement for this mod {cation is shown In Figure 50 where a resistor may be eon: nected In series with te attractor winding by closing the switch to position B, This cireuit ean be connected in parallel eppost tion with the primary and by adjustment of the variable rheostt, 2 fairly comparable phase lag may be produced. However, this {form of construction (even with a reststor) tn which the second ary (attractor) ts connected tn phase opposition to the primary is inferior to the form in which the secondary has current i> ced tn ‘The arrangement shown in Figure 50 has some advantages {or educational demonstrations even though tts ot a5 efficient as the copper vasher ‘ype. ‘The switching system allows 4 ‘mich greater flexibility im its use since the equipment may be DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES 97 ArT. aE Figure 50 ‘sed both as a special electromagnet for non-ferrous materials and as a conventional electromaynet. ‘Due to the fact that this electromagnet is an open core deview Ms power factor ts nol unity. ‘This results in rather large power consumption and in heating of the winding although the Resting nay be rediced considerably by using very large wire. For large electromsgnets ofthis kind it may be necessary to pro- ide means for eireulating cooling media thraugh htt pei> ‘nary and secondary. ‘Hollow copper tubing could be used Inthe ‘onstruction af extremely large electromagnots ofthis tye Generally speaking, capacitors may be used in correcting the ower factor ofthis type electromagnet thereby relieving Ue poner supply line of much of ts vattless curr burdes and thus helping to op the electromagnet primary Winding cool, Figure 51 is a graph showing amount of power factor corfece ton that was oblained with satte capacitors of 100 microtarads in conjuction with one of the authors" electromagnets for the attraction of non-ferrous metals. ty line voltage, power Angle obtained through the use of state ca- ‘acitors in conjunction withthe electromaghet, ‘The electra ‘magnet and capacitors were those used to abtain the gravy shown In Figure 81. In order to correct the power factor by use of stale capacitors the capacitors are, of eourse, shunted pat Corminals ofthe primary winding u the electroEy ELECTROMAGNETS g oa TCARITANCE IN MCRORRRADS Pigere st ‘ratte CAPACITORS USED FOR POWER FACTOR CORRECTION ‘Cayaciance Une Line Power Factor lass Arie ° ws 10 0 . ” a0 a0 wee 190 us uo 0 ore ‘An electromagnet for atraction of non-ferrous metals such or the ate ous malas when used on 8 Tow The type electromag not for the attraction of small particles or pieces of non-ferrous metals, Cis necessary that it be designed and constructed for regulred wil depond on the size ofthe pieces or particles to be auracte.—