Transcription is the process in which 

a gene's DNA sequence is copied (transcribed) to make an

RNA molecule. RNA polymerase is the main transcription enzyme. Transcription begins when
RNA polymerase binds to a promoter sequence near the beginning of a gene (directly or
through helper proteins).

1.7 Explain the relationship between the structure of DNA, protein synthesis and the phenotype
of an organism

The answer is that the DNA inherited by an organism specifies traits by dictating the synthesis
of proteins. In other words, proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype. Rather, a
gene dispatches instructions in the form of RNA, which in turn programs protein synthesis. DNA
is the primary genetic material contained within your cells and in nearly all organisms. It's used
to create proteins during protein synthesis, which is a multi-step process that takes the coded
message of DNA and converts it into a usable protein molecule.DNA contains the genetic code
that is also responsible for the direction of all cellular functions including mitosis, DNA
replication, protein synthesis, and molecule transportation. An organism's phenotype (physical
traits and behaviors) are established by their inherited genes.

2.1. Describe the relationship among DNA, chromatin and chromosomes

DNA is formed from double stranded nucleic acids, also known as double-helix. DNA spends
most of the time in a state that is very long and fragile.
During cell division, mitosis/meiosis, DNA is coiled around proteins to create chromatin. This
process makes DNA relatively smaller in volume and strengthens the DNA to allow cell division.
Chromatin is further coiled using scaffolding proteins to create chromosomes, which may then
be replicated and separated during cell division.
DNA is a double-stranded molecule which is composed of two polynucleotide chains with
formation of double-helix structure. Chromatin is composed of DNA wrapped around histone
proteins. Chromosome represents high-level packaging of 30-nm fibers of chromatin

2.3. Describe the stages/phases of mitotic cell division with the aid of diagrams

Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Some
textbooks list five, breaking prophase into an early phase (called prophase) and a late phase
(called prometaphase). These phases occur in strict sequential order, and cytokinesis - the
process of dividing the cell contents to make two new cells - starts in anaphase or telophase.

2.4. Explain the importance of DNA replication for maintaining genetic stability
The precise copying of genetic information during DNA replication provides genetic stability to
living organisms. Errors introduced during DNA replication may compromise the survival of the
organism. The fidelity of DNA replication is accomplished mainly by the proofreading function of
DNA polymerases.

2.5. Discuss the role and importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction

The process of mitosis generates new cells that are genetically identical to each other. Mitosis
helps organisms grow in size and repair damaged tissue. Mitosis is a way of making more cells
that are genetically the same as the parent cell. It plays an important part in the development of
embryos, and it is important for the growth and development of our bodies as well. Mitosis
produces new cells, and replaces cells that are old, lost or damaged.Some organisms can use
mitosis to reproduce asexually. The offspring of asexual reproduction are genetically identical to
each other and to their parent. Most single-celled, microorganisms reproduce asexually by
duplicating their genetic material and dividing in half. For example, phytoplankton reproduce
primarily through asexual reproduction. Some single-celled eukaryotes, including some plants
and animals, reproduce asexually in a processes called fragmentation or budding.

2.7.Explain why sexually produced organisms vary in characteristics

During sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce
genetically-diverse offspring that differ from their parents. If the parent organism is successfully
occupying a habitat, offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. Sexual
reproduction involves meiosis, which is the process of a cell doubling its DNA, shuffling its
genes, and then dividing the shuffled DNA among four cells. Each resulting cell, or gamete,
resulting from meiosis has only half the amount of DNA as the parent cell. So in order to form a
new organism, two gametes -- the sex cells, sperm and egg -- must fuse, further mixing the
genes to produce more genetic diversity. Asexual reproduction is one organism dividing into two
organisms without shuffling its genes, so the offspring has the same version of genes as did the
parent.

2.8. Identify and describe gene and chromosome mutations

A gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations can occur in
a single base pair or in a large segment of a chromosome and even span multiple genes.
Mutations can result from endogenous (occurring during DNA replication) or exogenous
(environmental) factors. These mutations result from errors in cell division that cause a section
of a chromosome to break off, be duplicated or move onto another chromosome.
The chromosomal mutation is the process of change in the chromosomes as a result of
rearranged chromosome parts and changes in the number of individual chromosomes or
chromosome sets present in the genome.

Types of Chromosomal Mutation

Chromosomal mutations can be broadly categorized into two groups; chromosomal mutations I
and chromosomal mutations II
https://microbenotes.com/chromosomal-mutation/

2.9. Discuss the implications of changes in DNA nucleotide sequence for cell structure and
function in sickle cell anaemia