A tale of …

… two bridges, two participates, two cities and two states

Bridges as landscapes of cultural and political identity
Amrita Madan1 and Sindhuree Iyengar2+
1
Visiting Professor, Sushant School of Art and Architecture, Ansal University, Sector 55, Gurgaon,
Haryana, India and Founding Partner, Atelier Anonyme Design, K 1/33 LGF, C.R. Park, New Delhi
110019, India
2
Assistant Professor, Sushant School of Art and Architecture, Ansal University, Sector 55, Gurgaon,
Haryana, India.
+
Corresponding author email: sindhureeiyengar@ansaluniversity.edu.in

Abstract
Bridges around the world have been considered physical and symbolic connectors of
places, communities and cultures. By finding the cross connections between the
physical and symbolic meanings associated with the bridges, we explore the idea of the
bridge in two ways – the manner in which its identity is rewritten over time and the
process by which the bridge, in return, starts to hold a value of its own.

Constructed with the basic premise of establishing a physical connection between two
points, the (river) bridge very often turns into a ‘place’ – over time, its weaves itself
around stories and becomes a narrative of the past that is yet to be. In this innate quest,
whereas very often communities are united and bonds are built, sometimes bridges
stand to become the image of the divide as well. In both cases, however, the use of the
bridge evolves and it ceases to be ‘just a bridge’ - it becomes an interactive zone for
people visiting it, passing by and crossing it as daily commuters, squatters, hawkers or
even a stage or backdrop for social and cultural celebrations/ festivals.

In this paper, we take an in-depth look at two bridges in the state of Andhra Pradesh in
India – the Purana Pul on the river Musi in Hyderabad (erstwhile Andhra Pradesh) and
the Prakasam Barrage on the river Krishna near Vijayawada (in the present day Andhra
Pradesh). Through these two examples, we explore the how our relation to the past
changes with time and how these bridges have become the canvass for reflecting the
changing political identities and iconography – it depicts the nature of the people and
their orientation to grasp on to the past or remain in the present.

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INTRODUCTION: HOW WE TELL THE STORY

It was the best of times,
it was the worst of times,
it was the age of wisdom,
it was the age of foolishness,
it was the epoch of belief,
it was the epoch of incredulity,
it was the season of Light,
it was the season of Darkness,
it was the spring of hope,
it was the winter of despair,
we had everything before us,
we had nothing before us…

Dickens’ famous starting lines in “A Tale of Two Cities”i describe aptly the political, cultural and
social scenarios that surrounded the inception, evolution, decline, resurgence of the two
bridges covered in this paper – the Purana Pulii on the river Musi in Hyderabad (capital of
erstwhile Andhra Pradesh and of present day Telangana State) and the Prakasam Barrage on
the river Krishna near Vijayawada (in the present day Andhra Pradesh, near its current capital
Amaravathi). Located in the area referred to as the larger Andhra Desaiii in the South of India,
the bridges’ stories present parallel chronicles of the times, eventually fading into oblivion.
Today, once again, with the division of Andhra Pradesh into two separate states, those of
present day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the bridges’ roles are being reinterpreted.

Image 1: Ibrahim Bridge (Source: https://dome.mit.edu/, Rights: Lois Safrani, 1991) and
Prakasam Barrage (http://tourmet.com/prakasam-barrage/)

Presenting the analogous narratives of these two bridges, which are located in two cities of the
erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, allows us to explore how the bridge is a window to our past, a mirror
to our present and a portal to our future. We examine how these particular bridges have
become the canvasses for reflecting the changing political identities and iconography of the
region.

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We begin by looking into the political and cultural situations of this region when its re-
convergence into a larger whole occurred under the rule of Kakatiyas. The growth of the region
triggered by the Kakatiyas eventually led to the inception of the first bridge, the Ibrahim Bridge
(that later went on to be called the Purana Pul) in 1578 at Golcondaiv. On the other hand, the
Delta Region of the river Krishna and the Port saw intermittent development and was
repeatedly either politically separated from the mainland or when it was assimilated politically,
it was considered as a mere ‘service centre’ catering to the mainland. It was only in the mid-
1800s that the British rule brought on the Prakasam Barrage in its first avatar as the Krishna
Anicutv, in the present day Vijayawada city. In the second part of the paper, we discuss the
actual in-depth history and stories associated with the bridges, finally leading up to how these
structures can effectively be considered as mirrors of our times, our aspirations and our
identities.


THE BEFORE: WHERE WE ARE PLACED – THE STORY BEFORE IT ALL BEGAN

The convergence and the divergences within Andhra Desa
Until the rule of the South Indian Dynasty of the Kakatiyas (1163-1323), who established a
series of defensive forts in the region, this area was sparsely inhabited and relatively
unimportant. King Ganapati Deva of the Kakatiyas (believed to have reigned between 1199–
1262) was considered one of their greatest rulers. He re-united the Andhra people as one,
along with establishing the idea of defensive forts and opening up of trade routes and
concessions across his kingdomvi. The Kakatiya Empire eventually extended from the Bay of
Bengal all the way to present day Maharashtra – covering both the areas/ cities that come
under the present discussion, within its limits. At this time, they were all one.

Image 2: Map of Kakatiya Empire with locations of Present Day Hyderabad and Vijayawada

King Ganapati Deva also seems to be the first link between the two bridges – he established the
Motupalli Port near Vijayawada (site of Krishna Anicut/ Prakasam Barrage developed centuries
later) that helped create the trade routes between the coast and the interiors eventually
extending up to Surat in present day Maharashtra. On way of this route, along the river Musi,
lay ‘Gollakonda’ or Golconda, one of the defensive locations developed by Ganapati Deva,
where he built a kuccha (impermanent) or mud fort. This was the site where Ibrahim Bridge/

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Purana Pul was constructed to cross the Musi River from the Golconda Fort in the 14th Century.
This is also the site of present day Hyderabad city, capital of Telangana.

In the 1300s, the Bahmani Sultanatevii heralded the end of the Hindu rule in the Deccan region
as a whole. The Bahmani Sultanate ruled a large area extending from the west coast across the
Deccan Plateau. At the same time, the eastern coast was ruled by the Reddisviii, whose main aim
seemed to be the establishment of law and order and the propagation of Hindu rule in the
region. They built heavy fortifications near the Vijayawada area and, for a while, development
of the coastal regions took precedence.

Both the Bahmanis and the Reddis contested control over the plateau with the Vijayanagra
Dynasty further south. In the 1400s, the Vijayanagra Dynasty had gained control over the Delta
and the Port including the region around Vijayawada. After 1518, following an attack by
Vijayanagra Dynasty, the Bahmani Sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of
Ahmednagar, Qutub Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Baridshahi of Bidar, Imadshahi of Berar,
Adilshahi of Bijapur. These five are collectively referred to as the "Deccan Sultanates". Once
again, under the Golcondan or the Qutub Shahi Sultanate, the two regions of Golconda and the
Krishna Delta find themselves a part of the same rule, and have simultaneous contributions to
the development of trade and business in the sultanate.

Image 3: Maps showing the Political situation in the Deccan between AD 1400-1650
Ref: https://alchetron.com/Deccan-sultanates-2285650-W#-

Primarily, the Golconda fort was made permanent under the reign of the first three Qutub
Shahi rulers as it began to serve as the repository and trade centre for the diamonds discovered
in the larger region of the plateau. Also, in the early 16th century, diamond mines were found
near Vijayawada on the banks of Krishna River. Masulipatnam Port, which was the key to all the
foreign trade in the Deccan region, was located a mere 67kms away from Vijayawada. The
Qutub Shahi rulers controlled the port and its surrounding areas. Many accounts refer to this
consolidation or convergence as the reason for the development of the area. “By 1560's the
links between the eastern seaboard centred around Masulipatnam and Peddapalli
(Nizampatnam) and Golconda was firmly established. The consolidation of Krishna and
Godavari deltas by Ibrahim Qutub Shah gave access to the rich fertile zones clustered with
villages of craft production, specialized towns which till now catered to domestic markets and
occasionally to foreign markets as well.

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The political access to the coastal areas coincided with the expansion of trade to South East Asia
from about 1570’s, which picked up rapidly by the next decade and brought Masulipatnam into
the Coromandel and South East Asian network of trade. One notable feature of this expansion of
markets has been the corresponding growth of hinterland of the port throughout the
seventeenth century.”ix

Yet, the Krishna Delta area was never really significant beyond its status as a Port; it was always
famine struck and no evident progress was observedx. Even though the region was abundant
with natural riches and fertile soil, its market was never really captured. Even the Qutub Shahi
kings only considered the Krishna delta their trade route. The focus was always on Golconda
and the city of Hyderabad was vividly patronized to sell the products,

The Deccan Sultanates continued to be at war with each other and with the Vijayanagra
Dynasty until Shah Jahan forced them to acknowledge Mughal authority in 1636xi. Aurangzeb’s
attack and subsequent annexure of the region to the Delhi Sultanate in the late 18th Century
established a larger area that encompassed the whole of the southern region but the tip of the
Indian peninsula within its control.

It is at this point of consolidation of the entire sub-continent under one power that the focus of
development seems to shift from Golconda to Masulipatnam and the Delta region of the
Krishna. “The rise of Masulipatnam from an insignificant coastal outlet to that of a major
'emporia' centre in the seventeenth century can be attributed to two important developments in
the last quarter of the sixteenth century. Firstly, the consolidation of the kingdom of Golconda in
Krishna and Godavari deltas in which the port was situated and from where it drew most of its
merchandise….”xii In 1700s, after the death of Aurangzeb, the Nizam of Hyderabad was
founded. The Nizam’s rule saw a lot of turmoil; they were attacked by the Marathas many times
over, losing each time and eventually becoming a tributary to them.

Under the British rule, the region was once again divided up in terms of its political and
administrative aspects. The Krishna Delta region came under the Madras Presidency while the
Hyderabad region remained under the control of the Nizam as a princely state.

The trend of development of the coastal region, however, continued and in fact intensified. It is
during the time of Madras Presidency that Vijayawada city gained its name as commercial
capital of the south. In 1852, the construction of the Krishna Anicut redefined the existence of
Krishna delta. Four canals were channelized through the river to increase the inland trade.
Parallel to this, British annexation and protection of Hyderabad State started in 1798 after the
Second Anglo-Maratha war. Hyderabad State continued to be an independent entity even after
Indian Independence in 1947. It was only in 1948 that the state was consolidated into Modern
India, lending parts to Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Today, with the re-division
on Andhra Pradesh into Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, though under the Indian flag, the story
of political dissatisfaction continues in the area.

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Image 4: (1) The Mughal Empire, AD 1605-1707, (2) India in 1856 under the British rule, (3)
States of the Indian Union before 2014 showing the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, and, (4) India
Political Map Today (Various Web Sources)



So how do these two bridges together tell the story of the to-and-fro between political
consolidation and disorder that have been integral to this region?

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THE IBRAHIM BRIDGE / PURANA PUL
Qutub Shahi Dynasty – The Birth of the Bridge

It was the best of times…

Under the Bahmani Sultanate and the later Qutub Shahi Dynasty, Golconda slowly rose to
prominence as it began to serve as the repository and Trade Centre for the diamonds
discovered in the larger region of the plateau. The impermanent mud fort was made
permanent, converted into a large fortification in Granite by Quli Qutub Shah. His successors
notably Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah (1550-1580) were responsible for making may alterations and
additions of the fort.

Golconda lay on the trade route from the port of Masulipatnam to the interiors of the sub-
continent. Trade flourished due to this strategic location. Many renowned diamond traders and
merchants from Europe and South East Asia visited Golconda to buy diamonds. In his
chronicles, Travel in Indiaxiii, Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a French traveller and merchant of
precious stones from the 1600s, writes about frequently visiting Golconda using two trade
routes: Surat – Daulathabad – Pipeli – Nanded – Masaipet – Golconda, and, Masulipatnam –
Bezawada (Vijayawada) – Gandikota – Nellore – Golconda

The second trade route, starting at the Masulipatnam Port, also passed through the Krishna
Delta region, an area rich in diamonds and the city of Bezwada (now Vijayawada), and has been
an inland trade zone for coastal Andhra Pradeshxiv. The growing trade and power of the Qutub
Shahi dynasty are evidenced in Tavernier’s account, if one is to go by his descriptions of the law
and order, military resources and the associated pomp and show of the same.xv

At Golconda, the flourishing trade and its resultant overpopulation as well as the need for the
defensive position along the western line probably compelled the Qutub Shah rulers to look
towards the southern side of the fortress to expand the habitation. In 1758, the Ibrahim Bridge,
what is now called the Purana Pul, was made – a resultant of this great endeavour. The Ibrahim
Bridge continued to hold a very important position in the surroundings. Its 600 feet long span
was made out of 23 arches made in Granite Stone. The Bridge is 36 feet wide and 54 feet above
the riverbed and is built upon an area where the river is narrow and the banks are steepxvi. The
Bridge very soon became the indicator the rise of the Qutub Shahi dynasty. They controlled
Masulipatnam and Golconda, and their relatively secure position allowed them to expand and
make a statement of that control in the form of the Ibrahim Bridge.

Qutub Shahi Dynasty – The Creation of Hyderabad/ How the story evolved….

It was the epoch of belief….

Metaphorically, the Ibrahim Bridge enabled the space to grow, made a statement of power of
political rulers and the prowess of their knowledge banks. Physically the bridge was simply a

7
response to a demand. Additionally, it created new avenues of life and sustenance for the
people.

Though created out of a necessity, during the course of the Qutub Shahi rule the Ibrahim Bridge
begun to get its own identity and could be now seen as striving to survive for its own sake. With
the creation of Hyderabad in 1591, propagated by the bridge’s presence, it became the creator
of new stories, an identity beyond the practical reason of its existence.

During his voyage in the 1600s along the trade route from Surat to Golconda, Tavernier writes
in his chronicles about the city (Hyderabad or Bhagnagar) and Ibrahim Bridge “Bhagnagar is
then the town which they commonly call Golconda, and it was commenced by the great
grandfather of the King who reigns at present, at the request of one of his wives whom he loved
passionately... The neighbouring country is a flat plain, and near the town you see numerous
rocks as at Fontainebleau. A Large river (Musi) bathes the walls of the town on the south west
side and flows into the Gulf of Bengal close to Masulipatnamxvii. You cross it at Bhagnagar by a
grand stone bridge, which is scarcely less beautiful than the Pont Neuf at Paris.... Before the
reaching the bridge you traverse a large suburb called Aurangabad, a coss in length where all
merchants, brokers and artisans dwell…” xviii

Image 5: Layout and Principal Buildings of Hyderabad at the time of Mohammed Quli Qutub
Shah (Source: H. K. Sherwani (1967) Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, Founder of Haiderabad:
Bombay), pp. 12.

8

Image 6: Landuse Map of Hyderabad in 1612
(Source: https://dome.mit.edu/, Cartographer: City Improvement Board (Indian (South Asian),
1912-Ca. 1962)

The Bridge’s entrenchment in to folklore and its almost immediate romanticisation is evidence
of its importance and the value associated with it for the people. The growth of Hyderabad
during this time, instigated by the presence of the Ibrahim Bridge, into a green city with many
marketplaces and public places such as mosques, public baths, monasteries, guesthouses,
caravan seraisxix and terraced gardensxx indicated a time of peace and prosperity. One can say
that the Bridge took on an identity of its own symbolizing political stability and flourishing trade
since the money earned was not diverted to war but rather was being used for the
development of the settlement.


The Mughal Period – How the story evolved….

It was the season of Darkness….

The Mughal invasion brought all this development to a stop. The Sultans and their nobles were
forced to retreat into Golconda fort and take shelter there. The Bridge no longer signified
growth and prosperity but rather lost its meaning. Often called the stage of ‘Inhibition’, this
phase represented a time of decadence, poverty, decline and great economic stress on the
political systems and the city. This phase focussed mostly on the piece by piece re-building of
city, no longer glorious but struggling to survive.

This phase is very often referred to the century of political decline under the Mughal rule. Not
much information on the Bridge is available during this phase of darkness and decline. This lack
can only be equated to shifting values caused by political turmoil and instability.

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British Rule – How the story evolved….

It was the age of wisdom…

The formation of Hyderabad state and the incredible growth of the city under the British Rule
via the administration of the Nizams retell the importance assigned to the bridge. The city grew
on both sides of the river.

The Nizams realised at the outset that their survival and growth could not be despite the British
but hand-in-hand with them. They agreed to British control and got protection in return. By this
process, they got their land and control over their riches which allowed them continued the
development of the regionxxi. The growth of the city during this time, on both sides of the river
and the now expanded metro towards the north, could no longer be supported by Ibrahim
Bridge as the sole connection across the river. The Chaderghat or the Oliphant Bridge was
constructed at the northern end of the settlement in 1839 and the Ibrahim Bridge was renamed
Purana Pul – indicating its declining importance as a political statement. In 1857, a need was
felt for another bridge and the Afzalgang Bridge was created between these two.

Image 7: Purana Pul (Source: https://dome.mit.edu/, Survey: Leonard Munn, Published 1915)

Musi floods in 1908 destroyed vast parts of Hyderabad and the area between Purana Pul and
Chaderghat Bridge; the most populated area was washed away.xxii At this point, the story of
Purana Pul seems to re-write itself. The Pul had survived the floods and now became the
symbol of perseverance for the people of Hyderabad. When Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya, an
engineer and the former Diwan of Mysorexxiii, gave a plan to regulate Musi floods, it hinged on
the idea of a retaining wall designed along the lines of the Purana Pul and using similar
materials and construction techniques, an evidence to the redefined value ascribed to the
Bridge.

10

Image 8: Hyderabad’s development (Source: https://dome.mit.edu/, (Cartographer G. Hasan
Mohiuddin (Indian (South Asian), 20th Century)

The reinvention of the Purana Pul continued during this time. It became the symbol of
community, values and tradition as well with the Bonalu, an annual Hindu festival, being put in
place in the 19th Century. The Purana Pul was and still remains the site from where the Bonalu
starts every year.


Post independence – How the story evolved….

It was the epoch of incredulity…

Even after independence of the sub-continent from British Rule, Hyderabad State refused to
assimilate into the rest of the country. The richest of the princely states, Hyderabad’s wealth
was amassed during the British rule via industrialisation and aided by its autonomous
administration. There was wariness in being part of India and they wanted either sovereignty or
continue as a dominion to the British Empire. The subsequent inclusion of the region into the
Indian Union happened in 1948 happened after the Indian army took control following violence
in the region.

The Purana Pul was no longer a political tool but a symbol of community and perseverance for
the people. Yes, it had history, but that was not important in the day-to-day lives of the people.
The Bonalu continued to take place, as did intermittent festivals and cultural events around the
area. The Pul left to fall apart and slowly deteriorated. The government used the idea of the Pul
to hold people together but did not really do anything concrete about it.xxiv Eventually, hawkers

11
took over and the bridge stopped getting used as a bridge in the 1990s. Symbols of metropolis
assigned to the city left this area behind… It was now simply present but of the past…

The city centre started shifting to the new metropolis, which comprised of the twin cities
Hyderabad and Secundrabad. New identities such as the Hussain Sagar Lake, Buddha statue,
etc. emerged and Hyderabad grew more into ‘Cyberabad’ with development of IT sector in the
city. In the words of Architect Surya Narayana Murthy Gullapalli, an ICOMOS Executive
Committee Member and a great proponent of the cause of restoration of the Purana Pul, the
emergence of these new iconographies led to the near complete ignorance of the Purana Pul. It
gradually became a spot for local vegetable market and a shelter for hawkers.xxv

Image 9: When Purana Pul became a flea market / place for vegetable vendors….
(Source: https://telanganatoday.com/puranapul-bridge-occopied-markets)

In the recent past, however, this attitude showed some inkling of change. An urban
conservation study conducted by Rahul Mehrotra in 1986 indicates the growing need that the
people of Hyderabad felt for conserving their past. A series of studies were conducted in on the
Purana Pul as well, and there was some efforts made to establish its individual value. The World
Bank-UNESCO Heritage Structure Fund Reportxxvi included a detailed analysis of Hyderabad,
including the Purana Pul under the heading “Structural improvements to heritage bridges and
retaining walls as well as the Rehabilitation of tangible (river drives, suspension bridges) and
promotion on intangible heritage.”

Image 10: Purana Pul (Source: https://dome.mit.edu/, Rights: Rahul Mehrotra, 1986)

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Today….

It is the age of foolishness….

In the newly created (in 2014) state of Telangana, however, the focus has once again shifted
away from the conservation of the past, its value being relegated to picture postcards.

The newly formed government’s emphasis seems to be about creating a new identity for the
state and the prestigious past is hammered by the creation of new laws. As reported by the
Deccan Chronicle (an in many other journals and newspapers) in, as recently as, April 2017, the
law protecting older monuments in Hyderabad, such as the Purana Pul, has been scrapped.

We are devising an exclusive heritage policy and Act for Telangana. A state-level committee
headed by the CM will be the implementing agency. The Act is being devised to conserve
heritage structures, culture and traditions of Telangana besides giving powers to the committee
to demolish heritage buildings lying in dilapidated conditions posing a risk to the lives of
citizens,” the officer said. 'Though the state government had attempted to demolish dilapidated
heritage buildings in the city by scrapping Regulation No.13 in December 2015 by issuing a GO,
the Law department had cautioned that the GO would not stand legal scrutiny and enacting a
new Act would be better. Based on this, the government has constituted an expert panel to
draft the new Act.xxvii

These new laws are indicative of the current pulse of the newly formed state; the bridge, the
instigator of the development of the city, is longer relevant. The new government is trying to
mask the city with new icons, creating a dilemma for the people of Telangana whether to
accept the new or to latch on to the heritage where they hail from.

The changing attitude towards the bridge over the 400 years of its existence are indicative of
the peoples’ and governments’ priorities of that time. Today, for the people of Telangana, their
antipathy towards the Pul is indicative of their sheared relationship with the past and the
growing need for them to establish a separate and individual identity with respect to Andhra
Pradesh. On the other hand, as the story of Prakasam barrage unfolds below, we will try to
understand how the Barrage is being used to fill this very gap for the people of Andhra Pradesh
today. They lost their priced Hyderabad to Telangana and are now yearning for past
connections that sustain new futures, as is evident by their choice of the new capital,
Amaravathi, a mere 40 kms from the Prakasam Barrage but a region with a great past and
heritagexxviii.

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KRISHNA ANICUT / PRAKASAM BARRAGE

Qutub Shahi Dynasty - the birth of the bridge / the solace

It was the winter of despair….

Victim of constant inclusion and exclusion due to perpetually shifting political control, the
Krishna Delta region saw sporadic developments under the Reddis and later under the rule of
Qutub Shahi kings, who used it purely as a port. In the early 1600s, British merchants arrived at
the port of Masulipatnam and went into discussions with the Qutub Shahi sultan for trading
facilities in the area. They set up their first (textile) factory in 1611 at Masulipatnam. At this
point the port was describes as “a fine port with markets for diamonds and rubies from
Golconda”xxix In his book, India under British Rule, J Talboys Wheelerxxx referred to
Masulipatnam as the first port on the Coromandel or East Coast of India established for the
importation of horses form the Persian Gulf and described it as cramped by the 1620s.

Most accounts also refer to the British having trouble with the Golcondan authorities and
having to put up with a lot of harassment. They abandoned the Delta Region and shifted their
factory further south. Political trouble in the area subsequently forced the British to shift back
to Masulipatnam in 1626. By this time, a famine had struck the area and it was no longer
flourishing. So much so, that in his travels in the 1630s, Tavernier described Masulipatnam as a
“struggling town (village), in which houses are built of wood and are detached from each
other”. He goes on to say that this place is only famous for its anchorage and nothing else.xxxi


Company Rule in India - How the story evolved….

It was the worst of times…

The struggle of the Krishna Delta region continued well into the 1800s. The land was rich and
fertile but, since the power of the river Krishna could not be harnessed and cultivation was
mostly impossible, the area was famine ridden. Famines from 1805 to 1807 in the whole of
Andhra, in 1811 in Nellore District and again in 1823 caused a lot of despair and common
people started immigrating away and the population became low.xxxii To top these centuries of
despair, the outbreak of the great Guntur Famine, a severe famine in the Guntur region
(encompassing Vijayawada and Krishna Delta) in 1833-34 resulted in the demise of 40% of its
population. In 1839, crops failed in the entire Andhra region. It is said that the British
administer did not do anything to alleviate the pain and suffering of the region and its
peoplexxxiii.

Walter Campbell, who described himself as an eyewitness, elucidates the horrors of the famine
in Masulipatnam in the centre of the Krishna Delta. He writes: "The description in "the siege of
Corinth" of dogs gnawing human skulls is mild as compared with the scenes of horror we are
daily forced to witness in our morning and evening rides...It is dreadful to see what revolting

14
food human beings may be driven to partake of. Dead dogs and horses are greedily devoured by
these starving wretches; and the other day an unfortunate donkey having strayed from the fort,
they fell upon him like a pack of wolves, tore him limb from limb and devoured him on the spot."

This famine had taken a toll of lives of one half of the total population of Guntur. The reports of
the Collectors of Cuddapah, Bellary, Godavari, Nellore, Guntur, etc., show the deplorable
condition of peasantry under the British rule. Godavari district, the garden of Madras
Presidency, the report of the Collector says, was on the verge of ruin. The population, which in
1830 had been 695016, had decreased in 1840 to 533,836. xxxiv


At the onset of the Crown Rule in India (Including the Madras Presidency Phase) - How the
story evolved….

It was the spring of hope…

This despair became the immediate incentive for the Godavari and Krishna Project Schemesxxxv
and hope bloomed for the first time in centuries for the Krishna Delta Region.

Though instigated by loss of revenues and by the destruction of the population of the region,
the East India Company decided to come up with some major irrigation works of the Rivers
Godavari and Krishna. The project was mentioned as “irrigation investment yielded results
directly in the form of water rates and cesses, and indirectly in the long run form the increases in
land revenue and the diminished economic and social cost of famines”xxxvi . Besides the irrigation
works, the company also put in place various public works and administrative policies. Roads,
railway and irrigation, water routes were the most important part of the agenda.xxxvii

The irrigation program developed for the Deccan Region embraced a series of major projects on
the Cauvery, the Krishna and the Godavari. The task was assigned to Colonel (later Sir) Arthur
Cotton. After working on the Cauvery Anicut, he built the Dhavaleswaram Bridge at
Rajahmundry in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. The project was a huge success and
approximately 700000 acres of agricultural land were provided with irrigation.xxxviii Looking at
the success of the Godavari Project, the feelings of hope for the people of Coastal Andhra
especially Krishna Delta were boundless and work on Krishna Anicut (later named Prakasam
Barrage) started immediately afterwards.

The barrage became the symbol of hope and prosperity for the people of Andhra and its
creator, Sir Arthur Cotton, still holds a position of reverence for them. Not only did the Barrage
banish famines from the area permanently, it also helped re-create flourishing trade and
brought immense prosperity to the region.

1858 saw the establishment of the Crown Rule in the Country after the great revolt of 1857 was
thwarted. However, feelings of unrest grew in the country and the freedom movement was

15
soon launched. During this phase, the value assigned to the Krishna Anicut remained minimal.
The purpose of irrigation was being served and famines were a thing of the past.

At the same time, Vijayawada emerged as the commercial capital of Andhra region because of
the creation of four canals: Buckingham canal, Eluru canal, Krishna canal and Ryves canal. The
inland trade was a direct result of the canals as they brought in riches to the region.

Post independence – How the story evolved….

we had everything before us,
we had nothing before us…

The Krishna Anicut had sustained irreparable damage during the floods in September 1952 and
its transition to Prakasam Barrage was synchronous to the formation of Andhra Pradesh, a few
years after Indian independence.

There was extreme political turmoil in the region from 1947. This turmoil continued for many
years and only marginally subsided when Madras State (converted from Madras Presidency
after Independence in 1947) and later the Hyderabad State were dissolved and a new state – of
all Telugu speaking people – called ‘Andhra Pradesh’ was formed in 1953. Right around this
time, work on Prakasam Barrage started.

Image 10: Construction Images of Prakasam Barrage that were televised nationwide after it
shot to fame in 2016

16
The Krishna Delta being an indispensable region and Krishna Anicut playing a very crucial role in
the existence of the delta, that time chief minister Andhra Kesari Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu
has taken the decision to elevate the importance of this Anicut and proposed to build a bridge/
barrage, a 1223 meters long edifice. The project was completed in 1957xxxix and became the
first major irrigation project of Independent India. It also became the icon for the city of
Vijayawada, which it connected to the Guntur District and provided opportunities for growing
trade. Transportation was also eased due to its strategic value for movement of exports and
imports.

This huge endeavour of creation of the Prakasam Barrage represented the acknowledgement of
stability in the region. It symbolised local Indian enterprise after a long period of suppression. It
also symbolised the coming together of people of Andhra Pradesh, their future and their hopes.

In the 21st century, Prakasam Barrage became the location for political protests and rallies of
various natures. Its strategic location and value as a major connector spurred this situational
choice. During the Telangana protests and for many years before, during the Jai Andhra
Movement, it is said that the barrage was the epicentre of many political rallies.

Image 11: Some of the protests at the Prakasam Barrage over the years

17
Today…
It is the season of Light…

The recent re-division of the Andhra Pradesh has forced the creation new narratives for the city
of Vijayawada and the people of ‘new’ Andhra Pradesh. Andhra people are now looking for a
new identity. Chandrababu Naidu, the Chief Minister of the new Andhra Pradesh, was left with
very little to work with when Hyderabad, the original capital he helped develop into an IT hub
was sheared away from the State.

The site for the new capital chosen is merely 40 kms away from the Prakasam Barrage and the
city of Vijayawada, forming a state capital region. The proposed new capital and the state of
Andhra Pradesh are now represented by the Barrage as it has not become

For long, the barrage was the epicentre of many political rallies. Now, it is the site for cultural
rejuvenation of the State, being the location for numerous cultural events for the state. The
2016, the venerated Krishna Pushkaralu, a festival of the River Krishna, which is celebrated
every 12 years was held at the Barrage under the flag of the ‘new’ Andhra Pradesh. The fact
that the very first Pushkaralu was held here signified the Barrage’s growing social and cultural
importance for the people of Andhra Pradesh. Prakasam Barrage shot into fame once again and
was now the focus of many vigorous debates and televised documentariesxl regarding its
construction and its value and individual identities.

Image 12: Krishna Pushkaralu at the Prakasam Barrage in 2016

In May 2017 the new government declared a ₹100 crore budget to “put back on track
Prakasam Barrage that was neglected by the previous government”xli It was an irrigation
project, the saviour of people of the region, the connector and it is now reinventing itself as the
representation of the perseverance for the people of ‘new’ Andhra Pradesh and of its power.

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CONCLUSION
History is full of stories, dates, a few connections and a lot of conjectures. In this paper, we try
to inter connect the stories of this region using these two bridges. If we look at these two
entities, they come across as more than mere physical connectors but as the connections
between ideas and people. The entwined stories tell us about the rags-to-riches journey of the
Krishna Delta on the east coast of India and the riches-to-rags one of Hyderabad.

How we treat our built environment and heritage is a strong indicator of political and financial
situations. The ‘Bridge’ as an idea turns out to be a valid indicator of the times. Since the Bridge
almost always starts from a practical consideration, when values of different nature get
ascribed to it, it can become a measure of the times. Understanding and approaching the
Bridge from this perspective tells us the real inclinations of the people.

Though the Purana Pul was built as an answer to a need, it rapidly very became an icon of
prosperity and growth. Today, it only has commemorative value and is essentially being allowed
to wither away. The people of Telangana do not feel the need to relate to the past as much as
re-write their stories for the future. New icons are being formed at this point.

The Prakasam barrage, on the other hand, is coming into its own only now. It has always been
important for the common man but its self-generated identity is formulating as we speak. It is
now an icon of the regeneration of the state. With the establishment of the new capital of
Andhra Pradesh at Amaravathi, a mere 40 kms from it, the whole region is seeing new hope.
With the Krishna Pushkaralu being celebrated here, Prakasam Barrage is now a celebrated
cultural space, a political statement, a reinvention, and a representative of a union of the
different nature. Its identity has shifted from being a symbol of protest (during the Telangana
movement) to a place of celebrations (where the new Andhra Pradesh rewrites itself).

Over the course of our in-depth look at these two bridges, we come to understand that the
Purana Pul and the Prakasam Barrage do not just tell parallel stories but complimentary ones.
Looked upon individually, the story remains incomplete, but combined, they tell the story of
Andhra, of its divide and its consolidation like no other architectural edifice.

When one rises, the other one falls and vice versa. Connectors by nature, the bridges are in a
unique position to be interpreted as the real canvases of our society and our politics. Both
bridges have cultural associations as well as religious ones, both are examples of technological
advancement of their times, both start from practical considerations, yet one was created to
expand the urban population (Purana Pul) while the other (Prakasam Barrage) became the
reason for life in the region.

An interesting point to be noted here is the following: The individual identities of both these
bridges get defined within 50 years of their existence as Ibrahim Bridge and as Prakasam
Barrage, and this identity becomes the precursor to the establishment of capital cities of
political state of different times. Together, the bridges act as sources and references for the
wide-ranging and often-volatile political narratives of Andhra

19
Endnotes and References

i
Charles Dickens (1859) The tale of two cities, Capman & Hall, London.
ii
Purana Pul literally means the ‘Old Bridge’
iii
Andhra Desa refers to country/ Area of Andhra, a region where Telugu speaking people
reside.
iv
Golconda was expanded in the centuries to come and the larger area was called Hyderabad.
Present day Hyderabad encompasses the 1578 Golconda.
v
An Anicut is a dam made in a stream for regulating irrigation.
vi
H.K.Sherwani (1967) Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, Founder of Haiderabad: Bombay and Web
Sources: http://www.andhraportal.org/personalities-ganapati-deva/ and
http://www.scribd.com/doc/6138615/Andhra-History#scribd
vii
Department of Information and Public Relations (1953) History and Legend in Hyderabad:
Osmania University Press, Hyderabad
viii
P. Chenna Reddy (1991) Guilds in Medieval Andhra Desa (A.D. 1000 – A.D. 1500)
ix
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1795/10/10_chapter%201.pdf pp 42
x
Om Prakash (1988), The New Cambridge History of India: European commercial enterprise in
pre-colonial India, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom
xi
George Mitchell (1986) Islamic Heritage of the Deccan, MARG publications, Bombay
xii
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1795/10/10_chapter%201.pdf Pp 40
xiii
Travels in India, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Baron d’Aubonne, Vol 1-2, Valentine Ball, 1889
xiv
Peter Bernholz and Roland Vaubell (2014) Explaining Monetary and Financial Innovation: A
Historical Analysis, Springer publishers, Switzerland.
xv
Travels in India, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Baron d’Aubonne, Vol 1, Valentine Ball, 1889, pp
149-171.
xvi
Department of Information and Public Relations (1953) History and Legend in Hyderabad:
Osmania University press, Hyderabad.
xvii
River Musi is a tributary to River Krishna which actually flows out at Masulipatnam
xviii
Travels in India, Book 1, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Baron d’Aubonne, Vol 1-2, Valentine Ball,
1889, pp.151-52
xix
A serai is a resting place for travellers
xx
Shehbaz H. Safrani, ed. (1990), Golconda and Hyderabad, Marg Publications, pp 14, 19.
xxi
Robert Paton McAuliffe (1923) The Nizam: The origin and the future of Hyderabad,
Cambridge University
xxii
Shah Manzoor Alam (1965) Hyderabad – Secundrabad: A study in Urban Geography, Allied
Publishers Bombay.
xxiii
Diwan = Prime Minister
xxiv
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Historic-Purana-Pul-crying-for-
restoration/articleshow/ 43848866.cms
https://article.wn.com/view/2014/09/30/Historic_Purana_Pul_crying_for_restoration/
xxv
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/450-year-old-Purana-Pul-turns-a-flea-
market/articleshow/10334915.cms
xxvi
Stephania Abakerli, Programme Leader Word bank and D. Ajay Suri, Regional Advisor for
Asia, Cities Alliance Heritage Based City Development Programme in India (2014)

20

xxvii
http://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/150616/heritage-buildings-face-
the-hammer.html
xxviii
Anamika Roy (1994), Amaravati Stupa, Vol. 1&2, Agam Kala Prakashan
xxix
Dr. P. R. Rao (1990) History of Modern Andhra Pradesh (1858-2016): Sterling Publishers, New
Delhi, pp. 7
xxx
J Talboys Wheeler (1886), India under British Rule, Macmillan and Company, London, pp. 7
xxxi
Travels in India, Book 1, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Baron d’Aubonne, Vol 1-2, Valentine Ball,
1889, pp.175
xxxii
Dr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyengar (1941) Ancient India and South Indian History and Culture, Vol
2, Poona Oriental Press, Poona, India, pp. 7
xxxiii
Dr. P. R. Rao (1990) History of Modern Andhra Pradesh (1858-2016): Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi, pp. 18
xxxiv
http://www.preservearticles.com/2011101915811/what-was-the-impact-of-1824-famine-
over-the-life-of-the-people-of-south-india.html
xxxv
Dr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyengar (1941) Ancient India and South Indian History and Culture, Vol
2, Poona Oriental Press, Poona, India.
xxxvi
Ed. K. K. Dutta, V. A. Narain (1985) A comprehensive History of India, Vol. 11,The
consolidation of British Rule in India (1818 – 1858), The Indian National Congress, pp. 663-665
xxxvii
Wheeler, J Talboys (1886) India under British Rule from the Foundation of the East India
Company, Macmillan & Co, London.
xxxviii
Karter Lalvani (2016) The Making of India: The Untold Story of British Enterprise:
Bloomsbury Continuum, London, pp 119
xxxix
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D162a07J9mg
xl
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loSGZF5Dbck
xli
http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/prakasam-barragereopened-to-
traffic/article18418189.ece

21