1. Briefly describe embedded systems based on the classification of generation.

When classifying embedded systems based on the performance of microcontrollers,

embedded systems are divided into three categories: Small-scale embedded
systems. Medium-scale embedded systems. Sophisticated embedded systems.

2. What is an actuator? Give a brief description of the working principle of the Microphone.
How it can convert sound energy to electrical energy?
An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and
signals going into the system. The motion it produces can be either rotary or
linear. An electric linear actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting
energy and signals going into the system.
The dynamic microphone is constructed with a small magnet that oscillates inside
a coil attached to the diaphragm. When a sound wave causes the diaphragm of
the microphone to vibrate, the relative motion of the magnet and coil creates
an electrical signal by magnetic induction.

3. Explain the steps in building an embedded control system.

Here are some of the basic steps of an

embedded system design process:
 

1. Ideation and purpose of product

The possible need for the embedded product may come from the
manufacturer, or even customers, in how they think the larger product should
work. Engineers will want to brainstorm how the embedded product could
work and the benefits it would bring. They will also want to get a sense of the
price customers or manufacturers will pay for the embedded product.
2. Determine overall requirements

Engineers will determine everything the product needs to work as intended.

Questions they’ll ask include: What functions does it need to complete? What
are size, weight, and cost limits? They will also need to decide the specific
hardware the product will use.
3. Document detailed technical specifications

Engineers should create a document detailing the technical specifications for

the product. Those will include functions the product must complete,
environmental conditions and manufacturing requirements, among other
things.
4. Decide if the product needs a user display

Some embedded products require simple displays to give users information

about it's operation. As part of assessing a product's specifications, engineers
will want to determine whether the product needs a user display. If required,
you'll need to design a graphical user interface.
 5. Develop a prototype

At this point, it’s useful to build a basic prototype to assess the hardware, identify
necessary components, and how they might work together.

6. Design system architecture

During this step, engineers design the overall architecture on which the product will
work. Questions they’ll address include:

 How will power be supplied to the system? 

 How will the product be connected to the internet? 
 Will the operating system need to be embedded?

7. Select the operating system (OS)

Engineers decide if the product needs a real-time operating system, meaning a
system that processes input on a set time constraint, often extremely fast. If so, they
will choose the best real-time OS for the product. If not, they can select the best non-
real-time OS. 

4. What are the challenges or risks associated with embedded systems?

According to Apriorit, there are three common types of cyber-attacks targeting

embedded systems: Software-based: Malware, brute-forcing access, memory
buffer overflow, web service exploits. Network-based: MITM (man in the middle),
DNS poisoning, DDoS, session hijacking, signal jamming.

5. Discuss Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products in embedded-based systems.

 A software and/or hardware product that is commercially ready-made and
available for sale, lease, or license to the general public. Software and hardware
that already exists and is available from commercial sources.

6. Classify different embedded systems.

Based on Performance and Functional Requirements it is divided into 4 types

as follows :
 Real-Time Embedded Systems : ...
 Stand Alone Embedded Systems : ...
 Networked Embedded Systems : ...
 Mobile Embedded Systems :

7. Briefly describe with examples small-scale, medium scale and large-scale embedded
systems

8. Small Scale Embedded Systems :

Small Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 8-bit or 16-bit
micro-controller. They can be powered by a battery. The processor
uses very less/limited resources of memory and processing speed.
Mainly these systems does not act as an independent system they act
 as any component of computer system but they did not compute and
dedicated for a specific task.

9. Medium Scale Embedded Systems :

Medium Scale Embedded Systems are designed using an 16-bit or 32-
bit micro-controller. These medium Scale Embedded Systems are
faster than that of small Scale Embedded Systems. Integration of
hardware and software is complex in these systems. Java, C, C++ are
the programming languages are used to develop medium scale
embedded systems. Different type of software tools like compiler,
debugger, simulator etc are used to develop these type of systems.

10. Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems :

Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems are designed using
multiple 32-bit or 64-bit micro-controller. These systems are developed
to perform large scale complex functions. These systems have high
hardware and software complexities. We use both hardware and
software components to design final systems or hardware products.

8. Describe the different steps involved in designing an embedded

control system.
 They are requirements gathering, specification formulation, architecture
design, building of components, and system integration.

9. What are the characteristics of an embedded system?

Characteristics of an Embedded System
 Sophisticated Functionality. ...
 Real-Time Operation. ...
 Low Manufacturing Cost. ...
 Processor and Memory. ...
 Tight Design Constraint. ...
 Based on Performance and Functional Requirements. ...
 Based on the Performance of the Microcontroller.

10. Describe the various hardware units of a typical

embedded system.

The Embedded system hardware includes elements like user interface, Input/Output
interfaces, display and memory, etc. Generally, an embedded system comprises power
supply, processor, memory, timers, serial communication ports and system
application specific circuits.

11. Within the domain of an embedded system, they have many

functionalities. Explain with
 examples.
Embedded systems are computing devices performing specific, dedicated tasks
with no direct or continued user interaction. Due to the variety of markets and
technologies, these objects have different shapes and sizes, but often all have a
small size and a limited amount of resources.
An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software designed
for a specific function. Embedded systems may also function within a larger
system. The systems can be programmable or have a fixed functionality.

12. What are the different data communication methods used in embedded
systems?
Briefly describe.

The majority of embedded communication systems can be classified as either point-

to-point networks (data links) or shared media networks (data highways). It is
important to understand the trade-off between these two types of systems. In point-
to-point networks, each node of the system is connected to every other node.

13. Explain the current trends and challenges in the field of

embedded systems.
The various trends in embedded systems design and development include greater
system integration at both chip and board level, more connected devices, and
a 'virtual' revolution.
The challenges in design of embedded software have always been in the same
limiting requirements for decades: Small form factor; Low energy; Long-term
stable performance without maintenance.

16 . With a neat diagram explain the architecture of 8051.

 17. 3. Write short notes on (any two)
a) Dual slope method of ADC- The dual slope ADC mainly consists of 5 blocks:
Integrator, Comparator, Clock signal generator, Control logic and Counter. The
control logic resets the counter and enables the clock signal generator in order to
send the clock pulses to the counter, when it is received the start commanding
signal.
b) CCD devices- A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated
circuit that captures images by converting photons to electrons. A CCD sensor
breaks the image elements into pixels. Each pixel is converted into an electrical
charge whose intensity is related to the intensity of light captured by that pixel.
c) Cache memory and Cache controller- Cache memory is a chip-based computer
component that makes retrieving data from the computer's memory more
efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that the computer's processor can
retrieve data from easily. The cache controller is a hardware block responsible for
managing the cache memory, in a way that is largely invisible to the program. It
automatically writes code or data from main memory into the cache.

d) FPGA- Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are semiconductor devices that

are based around a matrix of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) connected via
programmable interconnects. FPGAs can be reprogrammed to desired application
or functionality requirements after manufacturing.

e)UART- By definition, UART is a hardware communication protocol that uses

asynchronous serial communication with configurable speed. Asynchronous
means there is no clock signal to synchronize the output bits from the transmitting
device going to the receiving end.

f) JTAG- JTAG stands for Joint Test Action Group (the group who defined the JTAG
standard) and was designed as a way to test boards. JTAG allows the user to talk
to the bits and pieces of the microcontroller. In many cases, this involves giving
them a set of instructions or programming the board.

18. What are the types of Embedded Systems?

 Real-time embedded systems.

 Standalone embedded systems.
 Network embedded systems.
 Mobile embedded systems.

20.Write short notes on RFID and RTC.

 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) refers to a wireless system comprised of
two components: tags and readers. The reader is a device that has one or more
antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag.
A real-time clock (RTC) is a battery-powered clock that is included in a
microchip in a computer motherboard. This microchip is usually separate from the
 microprocessor and other chips and is often referred to simply as "the CMOS"
(complementary metal-oxide semiconductor).

21. How does DSP differ from a general processor?

DSP processors are designed specifically to perform a large number of complex
arithmetic calculations as quickly as possible. As compared to general
processors, the DSP processor is more efficient at performing basic arithmetic
operations, especially multiplications.

22. How does a watchdog timer different from a normal timer?

A watchdog timer is a specialized timer module that helps a microprocessor to

recover from malfunctions. If a watchdog timer reaches the end of its counting
period, it resets the entire processor system. In order to prevent this, a processor
must perform some type of specific action that resets the watchdog.

23. Define embedded systems.

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software
designed for a specific function. Embedded systems may also function within a
larger system. The systems can be programmable or have a fixed functionality.

24. Compare Von-Neumann and Harvard architecture of the processor-based system.

VON NEUMANN
ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

It is ancient computer architecture It is modern computer architecture

based on stored program computer based on Harvard Mark I relay based
concept. model.

Same physical memory address is Separate physical memory address is

used for instructions and data. used for instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and Separate buses are used for
instruction transfer. transferring data and instruction.

Two clock cycles are required to An instruction is executed in a single

execute single instruction. cycle.

It is costly than Von Neumann

It is cheaper in cost. Architecture.
 VON NEUMANN
ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

CPU can not access instructions and CPU can access instructions and
read/write at the same time. read/write at the same time.

It is used in personal computers and It is used in micro controllers and

small computers. signal processing.

25. Explain FPGA architecture with a proper diagram.

Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit that consists of
internal hardware blocks with user-programmable interconnects to customize
operation for a specific application.

26. Write short notes on USB and Flash memory.

A USB flash drive (also called a thumb drive)[1][note 1] is a data storage device that
includes flash memory with an integrated USB interface. It is typically removable,
rewritable and much smaller than an optical disc.
Flash memory is an electronic non-volatile computer memory storage medium that can
be electrically erased and reprogrammed. The two main types of flash memory, NOR
flash and NAND flash, are named for the NOR and NAND logic gates. Both use the
same cell design, consisting of floating gate MOSFETs. 

27. Explain the functionalities of RS232 and RS485 standard serial interfaces.
RS232 is more than able to perform for a short distance and low data speed
requirements. RS232 has a transmission speed of 1Mb/s up to 15M. However,
RS485 has a data transmission speed of up to 10Mb/s for a distance of 15M. At
the maximum of 1200M, RS485 transmits at 100Kb/s.
 28. Explain sensors and actuators with examples.

Sensors and actuators often work in tandem, but they are essentially opposite
devices. A sensor monitors conditions and signals when changes occur. An
actuator receives a signal and performs an action, often in the form of
movement in a mechanical machine. Another key difference is their location within
the system.

29. Write short notes on USB and SOC ( System on chip).

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for
cables, connectors and protocols for connection, communication and power supply
(interfacing) between computers, peripherals and other computers.[2] A broad variety
of USB hardware exists, including 14 different connector types, of which USB-C is the
most recent and the only one not currently deprecated.
A system on a chip (SoC) combines the required electronic circuits of
various computer components onto a single, integrated chip (IC). SoC is a
complete electronic substrate system that may contain analog, digital,
mixed-signal or radio frequency functions. Its components usually include
a graphical processing unit (GPU), a central processing unit (CPU) that
may be multi-core, and system memory (RAM).

30. Write short notes on Bluetooth and RFID.

RFID or Radio Frequency Identification is an automatic identification
method that uses wireless non-contact radio frequency waves in which
data is digitally encoded in RFID tags or smart labels which can be
read by reader through radio waves. The transfer of data takes place
between a reader and a movable thing that can be identified & track.
RFID can be considered similar to barcodes as data read from tags
are stored in database or you can say device which captures label’s
data, stores data in a database.
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for
exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and
building personal area networks (PANs). 

13. How does a microprocessor differ from a microcontroller?

Microprocessor Microcontroller
Heart of the system. Heart of the embedded system.
Externally connected with input-output
input-output components are embedde
components.
The circuit may be large depending upon usage. The circuit is very small.
Not cost-effective. Cost-effective.
The total consumption of power is high. Total consumption of power is less.
Power saving mode is not generally available. Power saving mode is generally offere
Used in MP3 players, washing machin
Used in PC.
etc.
Memories like RAM and ROM are absent. Carries RAM, ROM, etc.
Runs at a very high speed. Runs at a relatively lower speed.
It is complex and costly. Simple and cheap.

Write short notes on JTAG and Flash memory.

JTAG (named after the Joint Test Action Group which codified it) is an industry
standard for verifying designs and testing printed circuit boards after
manufacture. JTAG implements standards for on-chip instrumentation in electronic
design automation (EDA) as a complementary tool to digital simulation.
Flash memory is a long-life and non-volatile storage chip that is widely used in
embedded systems. It can keep stored data and information even when the power
is off. It can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Flash memory was developed
from EEPROM (electronically erasable programmable read-only memory).

15.Compare CISC and RISC.

CISC RISC

Very few instructions are present. The

A large number of instructions are number of instructions is generally less
present in the architecture. than 100.

Some instructions with long execution
times. These include instructions that
copy an entire block from one part of
memory to another and others that
copy multiple registers to and from
memory.
No instruction with a long execution time
due to a very simple instruction set. Some
early RISC machines did not even have
an integer multiply instruction, requiring
compilers to implement multiplication as a
sequence of additions.

Variable-length encodings of the Fixed-length encodings of the instructions

instructions.  are used. 
Example: IA32 instruction size can Example: In IA32, generally all
range from 1 to 15 bytes. instructions are encoded as 4 bytes.

Multiple formats are supported for

specifying operands. A memory operand
specifier can have many different
combinations of displacement, base, and Simple addressing formats are supported. Only
index register. base and displacement addressing is allowed.

CISC supports array. RISC does not support an array.

Arithmetic and logical operations can be Arithmetic and logical operations only use
applied to both memory and register register operands. Memory referencing is only
operands. allowed by loading and storing instructions,
 CISC RISC

i.e. reading from memory into a register and

writing from a register to memory
respectively.

Implementation programs are hidden from

machine-level programs. The ISA Implementation programs exposed to machine-
provides a clean abstraction between level programs. Few RISC machines do not
programs and how they get executed. allow specific instruction sequences.

Condition codes are used. No condition codes are used.

Registers are being used for procedure

The stack is being used for procedure arguments and return addresses. Memory
arguments and returns addresses. references can be avoided by some procedures.

What do you mean by pipeline processing

Pipeline processing refers to overlapping operations by moving data or instructions into
a conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe performing simultaneously. For example,
while one instruction is being executed, the computer is decoding the next.

Write short notes on IDE tools and the CCD sensor.

An integrated development environment (IDE) is a software suite that consolidates basic
tools required to write and test software. Developers use numerous tools throughout
software code creation, building and testing. Development tools often include text editors,
code libraries, compilers and test platforms.
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated circuit that captures
images by converting photons to electrons. A CCD sensor breaks the image elements
into pixels. Each pixel is converted into an electrical charge whose intensity is related to the
intensity of light captured by that pixel.

Why embedded systems are termed real-time systems? Explain the concept with the
help of examples.
Real-time embedded systems are those that incorporate a real-time operating
system, ensuring that the device can respond to sensory inputs within the time
constraints specified by the embedded software. Real-time embedded systems are
further classified based on the type of real-time response they provide.
Real-time embedded systems are designed and installed to carry out specific tasks
within a pre-defined time limit. They are further divided into two different types: Soft Real-
Time Embedded Systems: For these systems, the completion of the task is of paramount
importance, while the deadline is not a priority.

State the main function of RTOS.

RTOSes are designed to handle multiple processes at one time, ensuring that these
processes respond to events within a predictable time limit. Processing in an RTOS
occurs within defined time constraints and monitors the priority of tasks. An RTOS is also
able to make changes to task priority.
20. Discuss different characteristics of DSP Processor.
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) are microprocessors with the following characteristics:
a) Real-time digital signal processing capabilities. DSPs typically have to process data in
real time, i.e., the correctness of the operation depends heavily on the time when the data
processing is completed. b) High throughput.

20. What is the watchdog timer?

A Watchdog Timer is designed to rescue your device should an unexpected problem
prevent code from running. This could be the device locking or or freezing due to a bug in
code, accessing a shared resource incorrectly, corrupting memory, and other causes.

21. What are the advantages offered by an FPGA for designing an embedded system?
The main advantage of an FPGA, over the equivalent discrete circuit or an Application
Specific IC (ASIC) is the ability to easily change its functionality after a product has
been designed. In addition FPGA require a smaller board space and can be more energy
efficient than the equivalent discrete circuit.

22. What do you mean by SoC?

Android System-on-Chip Today's SoCs are amazing. Debuting in 2019, this Snapdragon
855 chip contains all the processing components in a modern smartphone. See ISP, GPU
and neural processing unit. The Rest of It Each block is a separate chip. The radios (Wi-Fi,
cellular, etc.)

23. How will the definition of embedded system change with SoC?
An SoC in an embedded system is a chip that includes all the components that allow the
chip to perform a specific function or action for the embedded system. Many embedded
systems use SoCs to do their computing work.

24. Real time video processing needs sophisticated embedded systems with hard real time
constraints. Why? Explain.

25. I 2 C bus stands for?

I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit. It is a bus interface connection protocol incorporated into
devices for serial communication. It was originally designed by Philips Semiconductor in 1982.
Recently, it is a widely used protocol for short-distance communication. It is also known as Two
Wired Interface(TWI)

26. Cache is made of which type of memory?

A memory cache (sometimes called a cache store, a memory buffer, or a RAM cache) is a
portion of memory made up of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and
cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM). Memory caching is effective because most programs access the
same instructions over and over.

27. UART stands for what?

UART, or universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter, is one of the most used device-to-
device communication protocols. This article shows how to use UART as a hardware
communication protocol by following the standard procedure.
28. Does a microphone diaphragm behave like an inductive or a capacitive device?
The diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and audio vibrations produce changes in the
distance between the plates.
 29. How an embedded system communicates with the outside world?
The system communicates with the outside world through peripherals.

30. Why embedded system is useful?

Embedded systems are used for safety-critical systems in aerospace and defense
industries. Unless connected to wired or wireless networks via on-chip 3G cellular or other
methods for IoT monitoring and control purposes, these systems can be isolated from
hacking and thus be more secure.

31. Explain what are real-time embedded systems.

Real-time systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an
external environment. This environment is connected to the computer system through
sensors, actuators, and other input-output interfaces

32.What is a RISC architecture?

A Reduced Instruction Set Computer is a type of microprocessor architecture that utilizes a
small, highly-optimized set of instructions rather than the highly-specialized set of
instructions typically found in other architectures.

33. What are some real-time applications of embedded processors?

Applications of Real Time Embedded Systems

Vehicle control systems for automobiles, ships, railways, airplanes etc. Telephones,

radio and satellite communications. Medical systems for radiation therapy, heart treatments,
patient monitoring etc. Military operations such as firing of missiles, military control bases etc

There are different types of memory storage devices like EEPROM, Flash memory,
SRAM, and DRAM. Which memory storage is widely used in PCs and Embedded Systems?

DRAM
Which memory storage is widely used in PCs and Embedded Systems? Explanation: DRAM is
used in PCs and Embedded systems because of its low cost. SRAM, flash memory and
EEPROM are more costly than DRAM. 2.

38. List two live examples of embedded systems use.

Examples of standalone embedded systems include:
 Digital cameras.
 Digital wristwatches.
 MP3 players.
 Appliances, such as refrigerators, washing machines, and microwave ovens.
 Temperature measurement systems.
 Calculators
List two Embedded Systems which Includes Medical Equipment.
Examples of applications of embedded systems in the medical field include imaging systems
such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT), defibrillators,
 blood pressure monitoring devices, digital flow sensors, foetal heart monitoring machines,
and wearable devices.

43. Mention what are buses used for communication in embedded system.
A field bus is a part of a system which provides the communication between several
components in that system (for example an actuator or a sensor). A bus is a cable with an
interface on the two ends .

45. Explain what is the need for an infinite loop in embedded systems.
The infinite loop is necessary because the embedded software's job is never done. It is
intended to be run until either the world comes to an end or the board is reset, whichever
happens first. In addition, most embedded systems have just one piece of software running
on them.

47. What are the major components of an embedded system?

The Embedded system hardware includes elements like user interface, Input/Output
interfaces, display and memory, etc. Generally, an embedded system comprises power
supply, processor, memory, timers, serial communication ports and system application
specific circuits.

48. Discuss some options for wireless communication between embedded devices.
 Satellite Communication. Satellite communication is a crucial form of wireless
communication. ...
 Infrared Communication. ...
 Broadcast Radio. ...
 Microwave Communication. ...
 Wi-Fi. ...
 Mobile Communication Systems. ...
 Bluetooth Technology.

49. What is a digital signal controller?

A Digital Signal Controller (DSC) is a single-chip, embedded controller that seamlessly
integrates the control attributes of a Microcontroller (MCU) with the computation and
throughput capabilities of a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) in a single core.

What is a thread?
 A thread is a single sequential flow of control within a program. The real excitement
surrounding threads is not about a single sequential thread. Rather, it's about the use of
multiple threads running at the same time and performing different tasks in a single program.

51. Define critical section of a task.

The critical section is a code segment where the shared variables can be accessed. An
atomic action is required in a critical section i.e. only one process can execute in its critical
section at a time. All the other processes have to wait to execute in their critical sections.
What is an exception?

An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program, that
disrupts the normal flow of the program's instructions. When an error occurs within a
method, the method creates an object and hands it off to the runtime system.

53. What is meant by a pipe?

A pipe is simply a set of storage locations, each big enough to hold a single data item
of user-defined byte length, access to which is controlled so that it may be safely
utilized by multiple tasks. Tasks can write to a pipe repeatedly until all the locations are
full.

58. How does a pipe differ from a queue?

S.NOPipes Message Queues
Pipe is a form of Unix IPC that Message queues is a form of
provides flow of data in one system VIPC that store a linked list
1. direction. of messages

Creating a pipe using pipe()

function, returns two file Creating a message queues using
descriptors, one for reading msgget() function returns a
2. another for writing. message queue identifier.

Pipes and FIFOs are Message queues are bidirectional

unidirectional, i.e., the data i.e., the data can flow in both
3. can flow in one direction only. directions.

With message queues the

With Pipes and FIFOs, the messages can be read in any order
data must be fetched in first in that is consistent with the values
4. first out order. associ ated with the message types.

Priorities can assigned to the

Priorities can’t be assigned to messages by associ ating a priority
5. the messages. to a type or range of types.

With Pipes and FIFOs, there

must be some process waiting
for a message to be written
over the pipes and FIFOs i.e.,
both a reader process and a
6. writer must exist.
With message queues a process
can write the messages to a queue
then exit, so that the messages can
be read by another process at a
later time.

Pipes are completely deleted
from the system, when the last
process having reference to it
7. terminates.
Message queue and its contents
remain in the system on process
termination until they are specifically
read or deleted by some process
calling mcgregor magento, by
executing the ipcrm(1) command or
by rebooting the system.

59. What is the importance of device management in an OS for an embedded system?

Device Management in the Operating system manages all the hardware or virtual devices of
a computer or PC. The device management system allocates input/output devices to the
process based on priority and deallocated as well either temporarily or permanently
depending upon the conditions.

60. When is a message used and when does a system call for seeking access to system
resources?